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The International Journal of Management Education 16 (2018) 309–320

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The International Journal of


Management Education
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijme

Human resource professionals' competencies for pluralistic


T
workplaces
Stuart Allena,∗, Peter Williamsb, Danielle Allenc
a
Department of Organizational Leadership, Robert Morris University, USA
b
School of Educational Leadership, Abilene Christian University Dallas, USA
c
School of Geography, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

ABS TRA CT

The United States has concurrently experienced changing religious demographics, an increase in
religious discrimination charges, and a growing interest by scholars in the role of spirituality and
faith in the workplace. Yet there is little empirical research to inform management educators
about the competencies HR professionals (HRPs) need to work in religiously and spiritually di-
verse organizations. HRPs are likely be at the frontline of organizations’ attempts to respond and
adapt to these trends. In this exploratory study, a panel identified future scenarios relevant to
HRPs working in religiously and spiritually diverse US workplaces as well as the competencies
needed to address the scenarios. Three rounds of qualitative data from an expert panel and an
iterative analysis process yielded: 1) likely scenarios and challenges HRPs will face related to
spiritual and religious diversity and expression in the workplace; and 2) competencies needed by
HRPs in response to these challenges. The results provide guidance to management educators on
curricular choices. In addition, approaches to including these competencies in management
education courses and programs are presented.

1. Introduction

The United States has become more religiously diverse over recent decades (Pew Research Center, 2015). Lipka and Geceqicz
(2017) report a decreasing number of Christians and increases in the religiously unaffiliated, including those who consider them-
selves spiritual but not religious. Tension among religious groups is heightened by reports of religiously-motivated terrorist attacks as
well as antagonism to other religions by fundamentalists in the US and around the world (Hicks, 2009). In this potentially tense
environment, human resource professionals (HRPs) are responsible for creating healthy and productive workplaces for people of
many religious and non-religious affiliations. Stone and Deadrick (2015) discuss several forces that contribute to the challenges HRPs
face, including the multicultural international context of many organizations and “growing domestic diversity” (p. 142). These trends
towards greater religious diversity result in increased encounters with religiously different others in the workplace. In this context, it
is not surprising that the US experienced a two-fold surge in religious discrimination charges against employers between 1997 and
2016 (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2016), with a marked increase following the events of 9/11 (Durrani, 2012).
Evidence also suggests that education of managers and leaders in the US only nominally addresses religious diversity (Society for
Human Resource Management, SHRM, 2008; Williams & Allen, 2014).
Several management scholars have noted workers' desire to experience spirituality at work, which is expressed through finding


Corresponding author. Department of Organizational Leadership, 6001 University Boulevard, Pittsburgh, PA 15108, USA.
E-mail address: allens@rmu.edu (S. Allen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2018.04.001
Received 21 December 2017; Received in revised form 24 March 2018; Accepted 5 April 2018
Available online 03 May 2018
1472-8117/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Allen et al. The International Journal of Management Education 16 (2018) 309–320

meaning or purpose, transcendence of oneself and one's circumstances, appreciation of one's inner life, and experience of social
membership or community at work (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Benefiel, Fry, & Geigle, 2014; Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Kolodinsky,
Giacalone, and Jurkiewicz (2008) suggest “workers' need for connectedness, meaning, purpose, altruism, virtue, nurturance, and
hope in one's work and at one's workplace likely is also at an all-time high” (p. 465). Religion and spirituality are separate but related
concepts (Fry, 2003), and interest in both religion and spirituality in the workplace have been more greatly recognized in the last two
decades (Benefiel et al., 2014; Karakas, 2010; Miller, 2006). Mitroff and Denton's (1999) workplace survey, described in their
influential book A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America, was one of the first empirical studies to report this rising interest: “most people
felt somewhat strongly that spirituality was relevant as a topic in the workplace” (p. 87). More recently Allen and Williams (2015)
report that 78.7% of a sample of US graduate management students considered themselves spiritual and 63.3% thought that spiritual
topics should be included in their coursework.
In reviewing workplace spirituality literature, Benefiel et al. (2014) and Karakas (2010) report on a growing interest among North
American management practitioners and scholars in spirituality at work, with Karakas describing this interest as a paradigm shift.
Especially notable are the growth of the Management Spirituality and Religion interest group at the Academy of Management, along
with the emergence of the Journal of Management, Religion, and Spirituality (Tourish & Tourish, 2010). Several scholars attribute
renewed interest in spirituality to the turmoil of modern business and social life, imbalances between materialism and life's spiritual
aspects, a growing social consciousness (e.g., sustainability, corporate social responsibility), rejection of outdated bureaucratic
paradigms, and American interest in Eastern philosophies (Chen & Sheng, 2013; Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013; Giacalone & Jurkiewiez,
2003). Similarly, Jacobsen and Jacobsen (2012) report a growth of interest in spirituality and religion in American higher education.
An organization's ability to respond to employees' religious diversity and interest in spirituality at work depends on its HRPs'
competence in recognizing and addressing socio-cultural issues that are important to employees and stakeholders (Ulrich, Brockbank,
Johnson, Sandholtz, & Younger, 2008). HRPs include leaders, managers, and professionals inside and outside of formal HR de-
partments who exercise HRM policies and practices (Luthans, 1988; Ulrich et al., 2008). Some organizations have implemented
organizational development initiatives such as quality of work-life programs and HRM programs to attract candidates seeking re-
sonance between personal spiritual or religious values and their employer's values and mission (Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013; Karakas,
2010; Lund Dean & Safranski, 2008; Miller & Ewest, 2015).
A pertinent research question follows: What knowledge and skills must management educators develop in human resource
professionals (HRPs) to effectively respond to religious diversity and interest in spirituality at work? While many efforts to develop
competency models focus on past or present descriptions of performance, Athey and Orth (1999) encourage future-oriented com-
petency development to address emerging workplace needs. In this paper we describe a qualitative study completed with a panel of
HRM experts to examine the challenges that future HRPs may face as a result of changes in religious diversity and increased re-
cognition of employees’ interest in spirituality at work. The study resulted in a list of competencies needed to address these chal-
lenges. Our goal in addressing this question was to provide insights for the ongoing development of HRP and management education
program curricula.

2. Review

The following sections review foundational concepts related to spirituality and religion at work, the HRP's role in addressing
religious and spiritual issues, the inclusion of spirituality and religion in management curricula, and competency concepts and
research as they apply to HRPs.

2.1. Spirituality at work and workplace spirituality

Mitroff and Denton's (1999) study is frequently acknowledged as a milestone in spirituality at work research, documenting the
interest in spirituality in the American workplace, although numerous authors were already writing about the topic (e.g., Bolman &
Deal, 1995; Fairholm, 1996; Lee & Zemke, 1993; McCormick, 1994; Neck & Milliman, 1994). Tanyi (2002) defines spirituality as, “A
personal search for meaning and purpose in life, which may or may not be related to religion. It entails connection to self-chosen and
or religious beliefs, values, and practices that give meaning to life” (p. 506). The spirituality at work movement has emphasized the
importance of the employees' inner or spiritual lives, given the many hours spent in the workplace. Spiritual well-being, manifested in
experiences such as joy, hope, and transcendence, are described as outcomes of the experience of spirituality at work (Fry &
Nisiewicz, 2013). Hicks (2003) and Miller (2006) argue that for many people, spirituality and religion are intertwined. For this study,
we applied a both-and approach (Marx, Neal, Manz, & Manz, 2008) to be inclusive of religious and spiritual diversity challenges and
needs that HRPs may encounter.
Workplace spirituality, as a collective experience of spirituality in the workplace, is defined by Giacalone and Jurkiewiez (2003)
as, “a framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’ experience of transcendence through the
work process, facilitating their sense of being connected to others in a way that provides feelings of completeness and joy” (p. 13).
Research has provided evidence of positive relationships between workplace spirituality and performance at the unit level, reductions
in turnover and absenteeism, and increased satisfaction, productivity, and organizational commitment (Duchon & Plowman, 2005;
Fry & Cohen, 2009; Fry, Vitucci, & Cedillo, 2005; Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003; Saks, 2011; Shankar Pawar, 2009). While
many North American management authors have embraced the potential of workplace spirituality (Karakas, 2010), Tourish and
Tourish (2010) provide a post-structuralist critique suggesting that the spirituality at work agenda may allow management to gain
more control and to extract more from workers by tapping into their values and beliefs.

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2.2. Religion and faith in the workplace

Increased religious discrimination complaints and changing US religious demographics suggest the need for educational inter-
ventions to prepare current and future managers, leaders, and HRPs. Religious discrimination complaints in the workplace stem, in
part, from a lack of intercultural awareness or competence in the general workforce and among managers (Nahavandi, 2016).
Cultural intelligence includes the ability to attain and understand cultural knowledge, be motivated and confident in engaging
intercultural situations, and adapt behaviours to such contexts (Soon, Van Dyne, & Rockstuhl, 2015). But cultural competence alone
does not suffice. The legal protection against religious discrimination in the US, enshrined in the First Amendment to the Con-
stitution, is based on the supposition that religious beliefs are part of a person's core identity and a person should not have to abandon
those beliefs to get or maintain employment (Hicks, 2003). The sensitive navigation of religious and spiritual diversity in the
workplace requires not only a basic awareness, tolerance, and understanding of others, but a readiness to encounter belief systems in
the workplace that conflict with one's own core beliefs. Although culture is more often associated with language and nationality
differences, the existence of many religions and spiritualities within a single culture means that one does not need to cross any
obvious cultural boundaries to encounter marked religious differences. As such, the religious and spiritual diversity that already
exists in many workplaces and classrooms provides an opportunity for developing the necessary competencies. It is not surprising
then that Stevenson (2014) argues for more discussion of religious differences in higher education in the United Kingdom to better
equip students for intercultural encounters, while other authors (e.g., Adams, 2016) suggest it is equally needed in the US.
Beyond general cultural competence, HRPs need skills and knowledge specifically related to religious difference (e.g., knowledge
of discrimination law, skills in interfaith dialogue) to be a positive influence in the pluralistic workplace. As Eck (2006) highlights,
pluralism is not just the presence of diverse religions and spiritualities - it is the energetic engagement with this diversity where
encountered. True inclusiveness moves beyond mere tolerance or assurance of basic freedoms. For example, Miller and Ewest (2015)
differentiate between workplaces that are faith-safe (tolerate multiple religions) and faith-friendly (support all religions). In faith-
friendly organizations all employees are likely to experience “organizational commitment, productivity, job satisfaction and job
retention” (p. 308) through the integration of faith and work, whereas with faith-safe, faith-based, or faith-avoiding organizations,
fewer or only select groups of employees might experience these benefits.
Growing recognition of employees’ interest in workplace spirituality challenges assumptions of a largely secularized American
workplace (Ewest, 2015) where religion and spirituality are avoided. Responding to the evolving context of religious and spiritual
pluralism will require a different approach by management educators who may have assumed they are preparing students for mono-
religious, culturally homogenous, or secularized organizations. By becoming culturally responsive in their approach to teaching
(Cochrane, Chhabra, Jones, & Spragg, 2017), educators can better prepare a greater number of students for working in pluralistic
contexts, while respecting individual faith preferences or heritage. An assumption that most students and workplaces are sub-
stantially or nominally Christian furthers American Christian hegemony (Adams, 2016; Schaeffer & Mattis, 2012) and limits op-
portunities for meaningful dialogue about religious differences and tensions. While Lund Dean, Safranski, and Lee (2014) address
religious identity threats and problematic workplace behaviors in their analysis of religious workplace legal disputes between 2000
and 2011, we found little systematic empirical research identifying the management competencies to reduce religious workplace
disputes or adapt to increasing religious diversity in the workplace.

2.3. Spirituality, religion, and human resource professionals

Spirituality and religion are not new topics in HRM. Although not explicitly labelled as spiritual or religious, many HRM teaching
texts cover related topics such as self-development, stress management, work-life balance, career management, diversity and in-
clusion, and cross-cultural management. Interest in the connection between spirituality, religion, and HRM extends back many
decades. In 1993 Lee and Zemke raised questions about the role of spirituality in organizations in a cover story for Training Magazine
which included discussion of workplace spirituality training. Phillips (1999) wrote Spirituality in the Workplace: Ten Things the HR
Professional Needs to Know, highlighting an emerging awareness of workplace spirituality's importance to HRPs in the late 1990s.
Mitroff and Denton (1999) underscored the connection between HRPs and spirituality in describing their study's sample, “HR
managers were chosen because … their function is specifically charged with handling a broad range of human problems and emotions
in the workplace … they are the ones more likely to be sensitive to such issues as spirituality” (p. 35). In the same year, Cash and Gray
(2000) wrote A Framework for Accommodating Religion and Spirituality in the Workplace, addressing various legal and practical aspects
of religious accommodation, as well as growing interest in spiritual (e.g., “meditation, visioning, or spirituality contemplation”, p.
124) and religious expression in the workplace. In 1997, 2001, and 2008, the SHRM (2008) conducted surveys of HRPs on their
organization's efforts to accommodate religion. Outside of these examples, there is little empirical research on HRP's work in fostering
workplace spirituality or on their response to religious diversity, but clearly there is interest in understanding the impact of faith and
spirituality on workers and the workplace.
Some organizations provide facilities (e.g., prayer rooms), opportunities (e.g., community service), and training (e.g., meditation)
that supports or enhances spiritual development, spiritual or religious expression at work, or work-life balance (Fry & Nisiewicz,
2013; Miller & Ewest, 2015). Many of these initiatives are initiated or coordinated by HRPs for the organization and employees’
benefit. Similarly, HRPs are often at the forefront of preventing and responding to legal charges of religious discrimination. These
responsibilities suggest the need for HRPs to understand the spirituality at work movement and gain insight on religious diversity
during their pre-professional or later workplace professional education and training.

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2.4. Spirituality and religion in the higher education curriculum

2.4.1. Teaching curriculum and practice


In HRM and management literature, discussion of intercultural competence typically focuses on expatriates, international
management, and multi-national organizations (Brewster & Mayrhofer, 2008; Storti, 2009). Religion is often subsumed under culture
within a focus on comparing national cultures rather than developing the specific competencies needed for the challenges of
workplace pluralism. The context of moving to another country and experiencing a new culture is qualitatively different from
encountering workplace pluralism within your own country or workplace. With the focus on internationalizing the US higher
education curriculum (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Harder, 2010), it is reasonable to expect that recent graduates of HRM and man-
agement programs have a foundation in “essential multicultural skills and multicultural sensitivity” (Henderson & Provo, 2006, p.
275). However, as Nahavandi (2016) notes, when culture is addressed in the management curriculum, coverage may be disjointed
and result in surface knowledge. While many university mission statements emphasize campus diversity, the goals are often structural
diversity (demographic composition) more than development of students' cross-cultural skills and knowledge (Burkhardt & Bennett,
2015), creating a potential void in students’ preparation for the pluralistic workplace.
Early proponents of including spirituality and religion in management courses (Barnett, Krell, & Sendry, 2000; Delbecq, 2000;
Marcic, 2000) opened the door to including spiritual and religious topics in the curriculum. Much of this literature is practice-based,
describing how authors teach about these topics (e.g., Delbecq, 2000, 2005; Trott, 2012), with little evidence of systematic research
guiding the selection of the competencies to be taught. The basic competencies for managing religious and spiritual diversity are
likely to be included in many management programs. However, such generic approaches to diversity education often rely on broad
values and practices of multiculturalism (Bell, 2016), focusing on the general importance and benefits of inclusive management
practices. All categories of diversity are largely treated the same and learners may not benefit from exploring deeper personal
attitudes to specific categories of diversity or the unique challenges that diverse individuals face in the workplace. This allows
implicit biases and the false self-perception of being blind to people's differences (e.g., color-blind) to persist (Catalano & Griffin,
2016). Including specific competencies related to religion and spirituality in the curriculum can enhance the measurement of learning
achievement, deter religious indoctrination by opening up discussion to the intentional exploration of multiple perspectives
(McCormick, 2006; Trott, 2012), and encourage the identification of appropriately skilled faculty to teach these specific topics.
Degrees in religion are not essential to addressing this topic in the classroom as academic theological programs do not typically
address the workplace context (Miller, 2006). Most examples in the literature (e.g., Trott, 2012) of including religion and spirituality
in management education focus on teaching about religion in the workplace and in leadership, rather than teaching the religion itself.
Questions remain as to whether these topics should be taught through intellectual (objective knowledge), convictional (personal,
positional knowledge), or experiential (practice-oriented and immersive) approaches (Strange & Rogers, 2003). For example, Delbecq
(2000; 2005) and Trott (2012) both engaged all three levels of teaching, requiring greater skill and specialization. However, the
intellectual approach seems attainable goal for most faculty.
Both the SHRM's curriculum guide (Cohen, 2015; SHRM, 2013) and the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business's
(2017) general skills and knowledge areas address broad competencies related to diversity and cross-cultural effectiveness, touching
on critical skills and knowledge areas needed for pluralistic workplaces (e.g., diversity, interpersonal relations, and self-reflection).
Neither of these standards appear to encourage a deep understanding of the “value differences … of the new diverse workforce”
(Stone & Deadrick, 2015, p. 142). Many texts used in HRM-related courses provide guidance on the legal challenges of religion in the
workplace (e.g., Bennett-Alexander & Hartman, 2015) or review religion as it relates to diversity and inclusion in the workplace (e.g.,
Harvey & Allard, 2015; Mor Barak, 2017). However, there is a noticeable lack of focus on spirituality or religious diversity. The
promotion of employee well-being through spirituality (and religion) is addressed in a separate body of leadership and management
literature (e.g., Fairholm, 1996; Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013; Fry, 2003; Miller & Ewest, 2015).

2.4.2. Management education research


King (2008) points to various reasons why management research overlooks religion, including challenges with measurement,
definition, and the potentially divisive nature of the topic. However, some advances have been made in recent studies.
In a quasi-experimental study of the effectiveness of an undergraduate class facilitating business students' identification of their
own moral values and awareness of the moral values of culturally (religiously) different others, Herzog, Beadle, Harris, Hood, and
Venugopal (2016) found that the course (designed to prepare students for the religiously plural workplace) resulted in students being
clearer about their own beliefs even while increasingly appreciating the beliefs of others. Allen and Williams (2015) surveyed
graduate business students in leadership and management programs and found the majority were interested in including spiritual
topics in their formal academic programs; however, some feared negative classroom interactions due to potentially aggressive or
proselytizing peers, or instructors who are unable to facilitate sensitive dialogue. As part of his reflective teaching practice, Delbecq
(2000; 2005) reported a broadly positive response to his executive management courses focused on religion and spirituality. He
discussed how the course's design was shaped through his teaching experience and students' feedback. In a qualitative study, Trott
(2012) provided a metalogue of his teaching experiences demonstrating the central role of creating open spaces and dialogue in the
classroom when teaching about spirituality and work.
(Removed for blind review) study of faculty's views on including spirituality topics in the curriculum pointed to perceived benefits
of “teaching [students] how to work in a diverse and global workplace including sensitivity, humility, [and] respect for other
cultures, worldviews, [and] religious and non-religious viewpoints” (p. 298). However, few faculty indicated that spirituality and
religion were part of their formal curriculum. Lack of space in a tightly packed curriculum and the lack of faculty competence in

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teaching such topics were identified as barriers to further inclusion. Crossman (2015) conducted a study with 40 managers and
professionals in Australia, examining rationales for including or excluding spirituality from the management curriculum, and found
that knowledge about workplace spirituality might be more relevant to HRM than other management specialties.
Collectively the literature reflects a growing awareness of the potential re-entry of spiritual and religious issues into the higher
education curriculum, but as stated by Jacobsen and Jacobsen (2012), such a focus is qualitatively different and more plural when
compared to the role religion and spirituality played in 19th and early 20th century US higher education, when many schools were
sectarian and included predominantly Christian religious teaching. Despite 25 years of growing interest in religion and spirituality in
organizations, Grzeda and Assogbavi (2011) state that evidence does not suggest a “large-scale transformation in management
education” (p. 240), suggesting that the full integration of this topic may take many more years. A need exists to systematically
examine the competencies students need as they exit HRP and management education programs.

2.5. Competencies and learning outcomes

Athey and Orth (1999) define competence as “a set of observable performance dimensions, including individual knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and behaviors, as well as collective team, process, and organizational capabilities, that are linked to high performance, and
provide the organization with sustainable competitive advantage” (p. 216). In a similar way Capaldo, Iandoli, and Zollo (2006)
emphasize context over psychological factors in stating that individual competencies together with organizational and environmental
resources allow an effective response to workplace challenges. This suggests that HRP's competence, together with their organiza-
tion's competencies and resources, are needed for a truly effective response to the challenge of workplace pluralism. Competencies
are expressed in higher education through learning outcomes, a concept with its origins in instructional design that is usually expressed
through knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Gagne, 1985). A learning outcome is, “A very specific statement that describes exactly what
a student will be able to do in some measurable way” (p. 69), where course syllabi might include multiple learning outcomes relating
to a single underlying competency.
Dries (2013) notes that organizational decision makers either see talent as innate and purchased (e.g., recruitment) or take an
acquired perspective believing that talent can be developed (e.g., through instruction and experience). Students entering organi-
zations operating in diverse or global contexts who have already acquired preparation for the pluralistic workplace may, therefore,
have an advantage. The trends in religious discrimination and interest in spirituality in the workplace are evidence that evolving
knowledge and expertise are required from HRPs. O'Keefe and Hamer (2011) and Sitlington and Coetzer (2015) discuss the need for
curriculum revision to retain the relevance of students' learning, especially to the functional aspects of their future roles.
Lo, Macky, and Pio (2015) provide an overview of HRP competency research, including the five-yearly HRP competency studies
by Ulrich and associates (see Ulrich et al., 2008). They suggest competencies tend to be either universalist (general competencies that
apply across industries) or situationalist (competencies that are highly context dependent) (Capaldo et al., 2006; Ulrich et al., 2008).
Lo et al. note two further types of competencies, functional and strategic, with strategic being increasingly emphasized for HRPs as
they are expected to make a strategic contribution to organizations through enhancing organizational profitability, rather than just
focusing on personnel administration and legal compliance (Ho, Lo, & Teo, 2013; Ulrich et al., 2008). The present study focused on
both universalist and strategic competencies.
HRPs' competence in responding to religious and spiritual diversity is important for their own performance but also enables them
to develop this competence in others through training, coaching, and workforce development initiatives. Workplace spirituality
shows potential to improve engagement and performance from employees and organizations. Competency development for the
spiritually and religiously diverse workforce seems to be a relevant aspect of HRP's education. Development of such competencies
may help organizations avoid losses in the form of decreasing workplace morale and unnecessary discrimination claims, as well as
leveraging the positive benefits of an inclusive and spiritual workplaces (Miller & Ewest, 2015).

3. Methodology

Competencies are typically identified through analysis of jobs or tasks, or through “expert panels, the critical incident method,
and behavioral event interviewing” (Russ-Eft, 1995, p. 332). Educators also rely on accrediting and industry bodies, boards of
visitors, teaching and research texts, and analyses of peer institutions' curricula to identify outcomes. In this study, we structured the
data collection using the Delphi technique, a common approach for developing forecasts of future scenarios (Chermack, 2005) using a
panel of experts' written input through multiple rounds of data collection and controlled feedback (Stewart, Shamdasani, & Rook,
2006). Participation was anonymous and facilitated through online surveys. Coetzer and Sitlington (2014) applied a similar approach
in revising and updating a strategic HRM curriculum. Later, Sitlington and Coetzer (2015) identified good practices for using Delphi
panels in curriculum revision, surveying their panelists' reflections on their participation in an initial panel identifying strategic HRM
competencies. Delphi panels provide benefits in gathering expert opinions such as ensuring that individuals do not dominate the
interaction, being a time efficient and practical way to gather data, and encouraging reflection on participants’ daily professional
practice. Sitlington and Coetzer (2015) also point out that the process can be limited by reliance on reductionist statements of what
HR practice should include and subjective understanding of the statements generated by the panel.
Delphi studies may rely on qualitative or quantitative data, or a combination (Keeney, Hasson, & McKenna, 2011; Skulmoski,
Hartman, & Kahn, 2007). The Delphi technique typically uses two to four rounds of structured questionnaires where round one
invites participants to openly share their ideas, while additional rounds provide the panel with feedback based on the content analysis
of the whole panel's previous input. Further input is then invited for clarification or validation of the round one data, often

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Table 1
Delphi expert panel demographics.
Experience in Years None 1-4 years 5-9 years > 10 years

HR Experience – 1 – 13
(7.1%) (92.9%)
Teaching HR or related courses in a higher education institution 2 7 – 5
(14.3%) (50%) (35.7%)
Consulting to HRPs or with HR function 1 3 3 7
(7.1%) (21.4%) (21.4%) (50%)

HR Experience None Staff Management Senior Management

Level 1 – 1 12
(7.1%) (7.1%) (85.7%)

Publications None 1–4 5–9 10 or more

Academic or scholarly journal articles 6 3 1 4


(42.9%) (21.4%) (7.1%) (28.9%)
Books (author, editor, co-author) 10 1 3 –
(71.4%) (7.1%) (21.4%)

culminating in the numerically ranking ideas in the final round or rounds (Keeney, McKenna, & Hasson, 2011). Sitlington and Coetzer
(2015) provide a more detailed example and analysis of using the technique for revising and updating curricula. The present study
was qualitative due to the exploratory nature of the study which emphasized identifying and describing relevant scenarios HRPs
might face in the future workplace regarding religious diversity and interest in spirituality in the workplace (round one), identifying
the competencies HRPs would need to effectively respond to the round one scenarios (round two), and validating the lists produced
from rounds one and two (round 3).

3.1. Sample

The validity of a Delphi study's results depends largely on the panelists' expertise (Powell, 2003). We used publicly available
information to identify and contact highly experienced professionals in HR practice, research, and teaching. This purposive sampling
approach (Tongco, 2007) continued until 16 experts agreed to participate. Okoli and Pawlowski (2004) and Keeney et al. (2011) note
that most Delphi studies use between 10 and 18 panel participants. Following Delbecq, Van de Ven, and Gustafson's (1975) sug-
gestion that heterogeneous Delphi panels contribute to higher quality panel outcomes, we included accomplished HR educators,
practitioners, researchers, consultants, and well-known HRM authors, using the criteria of at least five years of experience in a senior
HR role or HR consulting, at least five years of full-time HRM teaching experience, or at least five academic or leading practitioner-
oriented publications in HRM. Table 1 shows the participants' levels of experience. Most participations had experience in multiple
roles. As with many Delphi studies (Keeney et al., 2011), not all participants continued in the study or responded in each round. Three
rounds resulted in 14, 14, and 12 responses. Participants were from eight US states and nine participants (64%) were female.

3.2. Data collection

The first online questionnaire requested participants to identify scenarios that might emerge in the next 10–20 years because of
increased religious diversity and greater interest in spirituality in the workplace. The results of round one were summarized by the
researchers and presented to the participants for comment and validation during round two, including their suggestions on the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes (competencies) needed by HRPs to respond to the round one scenarios. In round three, participants
reviewed, commented on, and validated the final list of 11 scenarios and 12 competencies in an open-ended question format.

3.3. Analysis

We applied Keeney et al.’s (2011) suggestion to use content analysis for round one data. One researcher divided the data into units
of meaning and coded them using verbatim labels incorporating the panelists' words (Saldaña, 2013). Similarly-coded excerpts were
categorized and scenario descriptions were constructed retaining the richness of the participants' own words. The other two re-
searchers independently reviewed the scenarios and compared them to the raw data. Iterations of comparison and revision resulted in
ten initial scenarios. This group analysis process modelled Saldaña's (2013) description of the “lone wolf coder”, with collaborators
“as rigorous examiners and auditors” (p. 35). The same process was used with the round two data resulting in a list of 12 compe-
tencies. Using participants' comments in round two, three scenarios were edited and an 11th was added. In round three, further
changes were made to the competencies. Finally, focused coding (Saldaña, 2013) was conducted to identify underlying themes and
conceptual similarities between the scenarios.

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4. Findings: scenarios and competencies

Eleven scenarios that HRPs might face in the future are presented below. With the focus on application in management education,
the scenarios may be useful to instructors in developing cases, assignments, activities, learning outcomes, or other teaching materials.

a) Encountering the Unfamiliar. Managers and employees encountering diverse religions, or religious or spiritual practices which
are unfamiliar to them or different from their preferences.
b) Contradictory Preferences. Contradictory preferences amongst employees for religion-free workplaces, workplaces that include
or privilege only specific religions, and workplaces that include all spiritual and religious groups.
c) Building Trust at Cultural Intersections. Global organizations that intersect multiple cultural and religious groups and territories in
the organization's workforce, structure, and markets, including employees and stakeholders that must build trusting relationships
through virtual work with others from different languages, cultures, religions, and worldviews.
d) Accommodation Requests. Multiple and varying requests and expectations from employees for accommodations based on diverse
religious and spiritual preferences and practices (such as holidays, personal time off, prolonged planned absences, unique work
schedules, work from home during festivals or specific seasons, physical spaces for prayer or spiritual practice, religious or
spiritual expression such as dress or keepsakes in the work area).
e) Staffing Requirements. The need to balance the organization's operational and staffing requirements, and employees' religious
accommodations and needs.
f) Challenging Established Definitions. New, non-traditional religious and spiritual beliefs and practices that challenge traditional
established definitions of religion and how they are accommodated.
g) Organizational Culture Development. Increased expectations on HRPs from multiple stakeholders to guide the development of an
organizational culture that values, celebrates, and includes the religious and spiritual diversity of all employees.
h) Attracting Talent. Employees choosing employers based upon their compatibility with the organization's spiritual and religious
philosophy and practices (including ethical practices, values, and sense of purpose and meaning).
i) Employees' Self Development. Employees being more interested in the spiritual and religious aspects of well-being and self-
development.
j) Increased Tensions. Increased tensions, conflicts, complaints, grievances, discrimination claims, and lawsuits due to a lack of
awareness and understanding between religious or spiritual groups.
k) Normalization of Workplace Spirituality. Spiritual and religious beliefs, conversations, and practices become more integrated into
norms of the organizational environment, rather than being seen as out-of-place.

In round two the scenarios from round one were shared with the panel, and participants were asked to identify the competencies
needed by HRPs to respond to these scenarios. The panel's responses were analyzed and 12 competencies emerged:

a) Cultural and Religious Literacy. Awareness of cultural and religious differences and norms, including foreign cultures and tra-
ditional, non-traditional, and minority religions and their spiritual and religious practices.
b) Legal Knowledge. Knowledge of federal (especially Title VII of Civil Rights Act and First Amendment to the US Constitution),
local, and foreign (if working for a multinational organization) laws relevant to religious freedom and discrimination.
c) Organizational and Operational Knowledge. Knowledge of own organization's needs (e.g., vision, values, strategic, and opera-
tional plans, workforce surveys), facilities (e.g., useable space), policies, and practices (e.g., work schedules) that may impact or
be impacted by religious expression and accommodation.
d) Developing Inclusive Organizational Cultures. Ability to contribute to the development of a culture that is inclusive and equitable,
and values all employees of diverse religious affiliations, including working with groups (such as affinity groups or similar) to
consult, plan, problem solve, and communicate.
e) Conflict Resolution. Ability to resolve conflict related to religious differences and mediate between employees, employee groups
(including unions), and between organizational levels (employees vs. management) when making decisions or resolving dis-
agreements, grievances, and problems.
f) Strategic Planning and Support. Ability to plan strategically and contribute to the creation and implementation of the organi-
zation's vision in a way that unites, includes, and appeals to employees of different religious groups and individuals, creating a
mutual sense of purpose and values.
g) Adaptation and Innovation. An attitude which supports adaptability, flexibility, learning, resourcefulness, and innovation in
working with different religions and creates an inclusive workplace (including continuous education on the law and best orga-
nizational practices).
h) Cross-Cultural Communication and Relationship-Building. Ability to communicate clearly, facilitate discussion, and build healthy
and constructive relationships with employees, managers, and teams (including fostering relationships within teams) when
working cross-culturally with religiously diverse employees (including globally and with remote or virtual employees and teams).
i) Interpersonal Demeanor. Developing and maintaining personal patience, courage, approachability, and empathy when inter-
acting with others around issues of religion, including demonstrating independence, and unbiased, non-ethnocentric attitudes and
behaviors.
j) Training, Coaching, and Education. Ability to create and deliver, or plan and source training, education, and coaching programs
for all employees and managers on diversity, inclusiveness, ethics, religious expression, and cross-cultural awareness and

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communication.
k) Policy Development and Implementation. Ability to research, communicate on, write, and implement policies and procedures
regarding religious issues (e.g., accommodations, work schedules, time off, personal items in workspace) that are equitable for
multiple religious groups and that balance employee and organizational needs.
l) Employee Well-Being. Create or maintain employee wellness and self-development programs, with direct or indirect spiritual
emphases (e.g., meaning, purpose, hope, transcendence, peace, mindfulness), that retain existing employees and attract new
employees.

The majority of these scenarios and competencies relate to religion more than to spirituality. This may be a result of religious
diversity being perceived as the greater or more salient challenge. Organizational and Operational Knowledge represents a competency
that HRPs would probably develop once in a job, rather than during their higher education.

5. Discussion: religious and spiritual themes

Five themes are presented below, developed through secondary analysis of the 11 round one scenarios. This review of the themes
includes discussion of both the individual scenarios and the five themes, along with implications for teaching practice.

5.1. New and unfamiliar groups and situations

Working within diverse and changing organizations and communities includes engaging new and unfamiliar situations and people
(Kennedy, 2008). A common theme underlying participants' scenario descriptions was encountering the other (Moyaert, 2014). HRPs
may interact with unfamiliar religions and spiritual practices as diverse people migrate into regions, as organizations expand into
new regions, or as religious demographics change (Jacobsen & Jacobsen, 2012). This theme represents the individual scenarios
Encountering the Unfamiliar and Challenging Established Definitions. The former focuses on religions or spiritualities that are well
established internationally but unfamiliar to regional organizations, whereas the latter focuses on religions and denominations that
are generally uncommon, new, or challenging to the organization's social milieu. Bennett-Alexander and Hartman (2015) provide
examples of a body-modification church and white supremacist Christian sect. This theme seems most related to the competencies
Cultural and Religious Literacy, Legal Knowledge, Adaptation and Innovation, and Cross-Cultural Communication and Relationship-Building.

5.2. Messy, complex, and evolving problems

Swamp and wicked problems (Rittel & Webber, 1973; Schall, 1995) are messy, recurring, or difficult-to-overcome problems in
organizations. HRPs encounter situations for which “there is no obvious or easily found solution” (Clarke & Stewart, 2003, p. 274).
For example, as suggested in Contradictory Preferences employees who would prefer a secular humanist workplace free of religion may
disagree with those wanting an inclusive workplace where different religions and spiritual expressions are accommodated (Hicks,
2003). In a pluralistic environment, HRPs may be challenged to create policies and procedures that minimize liability and are
economical to implement. For example, multiple Accommodation Requests might require complex shift management solutions during
religious holidays. Further complicating the situation, case law is evolving on religious accommodations and discrimination (Lund
Dean et al., 2014; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission V. Abercrombie and Fitch Stores, Inc., 2015). Cases, role plays, or
even community-based experiential activities with complex components might address competencies in areas such as Conflict Re-
solution, Adaptation and Innovation, and Interpersonal Demeanor.

5.3. Differences in needs between groups and individuals

Difference is at the heart of diversity, and many of the identified scenarios emerged in response to expectations of uniformity in
employees' behavior. Religions are often stereotyped (Adams, 2016; Smith, 1991) and labels such as Jewish, Muslim, or Christian
may lead HRPs to overlook individual beliefs or ways of practicing beliefs. This theme was most evident in Accommodation Requests,
Contradictory Preferences, and Increased Tensions. HRPs' awareness of and sensitivity to variations within a particular religion and
between religious groups will support effective HR practice in pluralistic workplaces. Nash and Scott (2009) point to examples of
bigotry on campuses, suggesting the need to increase awareness of religious differences prior to students entering the workplace.
Relevant HRP competencies include Conflict Resolution, Developing Inclusive Organizational Cultures, and Policy Development and Im-
plementation. Advising students to include courses on comparative religion and local and international culture as study program
electives might support students’ understanding of varying needs and cultures.

5.4. Creating attractive and inclusive organizational cultures

Scenarios such as Staffing Requirements, Attracting Talent, Organizational Culture Development, and Normalization of Workplace
Spirituality contributed to this theme. Much has been written about attracting talent from diverse groups to organizations (e.g., Dries,
2013; Kucherov & Zavyalova, 2012; Pless & Maak, 2004). In addition, workplace spirituality is becoming more accepted and ex-
pected, as employees seek work-life balance, meaning and purpose in their work, belonging to a community, and exhibit a personal
desire for spiritual growth through work (Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013). The Normalization of Workplace Spirituality scenario highlights this

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notion, reflecting a view by some participants that spiritual and religious expression in the workplace may become more accepted and
expected in future. For example, in seeking out talent, some employers have capitalized on attracting members of the LGBT com-
munity (Bennett-Alexander & Hartman, 2015), but to do this an organization must create an organizational culture that is accepting
of diverse religious beliefs and their views on sexual orientations and identities. Meeting Staffing Requirements has two challenges,
attracting new sources of talent from diverse groups and balancing diverse accommodation requests with business demands. In-
vesting in the recruitment, development, and retention of diverse talent while also creating a faith-friendly culture (Miller & Ewest,
2015) that is inclusive could contribute to organizational effectiveness. This theme relates to competencies such as Strategic Planning
and Support and Developing Inclusive Organizational Cultures.

5.5. Creating and sustaining dialogue

Overcoming the challenges in the first four themes is not possible without dialogue among HRPs, organizational leaders, em-
ployees, and other stakeholders. Solving new and existing problems, overcoming diversity-based discrimination, and working toward
inclusivity all rely on a foundation of communication (Kennedy, 2008). This theme is directly evident in Building Trust at Cultural
Intersections and Increased Tensions. The Normalization of Workplace Spirituality is also not possible without the normalization of
dialogue between employees or between employees and managers on spiritual and religious issues. Hicks's (2003) concept of re-
spectful pluralism is especially useful for the purpose of guiding interfaith dialogue and engagement in the classroom and workplace,
through its “presumption of inclusion” and the “limiting norms of noncoercion, nondegradation, and nonestablishment” (pp.
173–174). Classroom and experiential activities that allow students to appreciate the true nature of dialogue (see dialogical teaching,
Shor & Freire, 1987; Trott, 2012) create opportunities to foster these skills. This aligns with Ulrich, Younger, Brockbank, and Ulrich's
(2012) discussion of HRPs as credible activists who champion change and rely extensively on dialogue skills. Competencies related to
this theme include Cross-Cultural Communication and Relationship Building, and Interpersonal Demeanor.

6. Practical implications: including the scenarios and competencies in the curricula

A comprehensive lesson, course, or program might attempt to address some or all of the 12 competencies. Management education
programs are often challenged for space, and incorporating the competencies as a stand-alone course might be unrealistic in programs
that emphasize the “financial performance and competition paradigm” (Marx et al., 2008, p. 204) and place less emphasis on topics
like intercultural competence. While some educators have taught full and in-depth courses about religion and spirituality in the
workplace as electives (e.g., Delbecq, 2000; Trott, 2012), the notion of relegating these topics to an elective overlooks their im-
portance as a foundational dimension of organizational life (Hicks, 2003). The 12 competencies only require a basic, comparative
knowledge of religion and spirituality. For this reason, we have proposed that religion and spirituality be addressed as a foundational
skill and knowledge area in management education programs. Elective options that go more in-depth might be considered if there is
interest or demand.
Religion and spirituality, perhaps because of their reputation as taboo topics (Allen & Williams, 2015; Hicks, 2003), have not
enjoyed the same status as other diversity topics such as race or gender (Schaeffer & Mattis, 2012). Spirituality and religion intersect
with other forms of diversity (e.g., race) and are equally subject to oppression (Adams, 2016; Schaeffer & Mattis, 2012). Any as-
sumption that students will work in largely mono-religious, secular, or culturally homogenous organizations also limits management
students’ preparation for the pluralistic workplace. As a foundational skill and knowledge area, religion and spirituality can be
included in cases, learning activities, and assignments within existing courses. Such topics regularly appear in current news items,
creating openings for discussion and highlighting their relevance. However, these topics require intentional focus by faculty, case
writers, and instructional content developers to be embedded in courses and programs.
Faculty may avoid potentially controversial topics that are less familiar, may be a threat to promotion or status, are viewed as
illegitimate (Shahjahan, 2005), or seen to create classroom tensions (Allen & Williams, 2015; Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2010).
Measurable program-level outcomes will urge faculty to consider how religion and spirituality can be included in their courses along
with other workplace diversity topics. Normalizing classroom dialogue about religion and spirituality's role in the workplace, through
integrating this topic into the curriculum, brings it in from the margins of management education.
In our own teaching projects we have experimented with class formats in which religion and spirituality are addressed in one or
two short classes. This has included developing a 30 min instructional video (Allen, Williams, & DiLauro, 2015) which gives students
a quick three-part introduction to the topic allowing further discussion in class. Fry (2009) similarly states that a short slide pre-
sentation is sufficient for students to grasp concepts like workplace spirituality and spiritual leadership, providing a foundation for
further learning. Our approach has also included using one to two articles, sometimes in a flipped format where students read the
articles or chapters and watch the video before class and complete at least one assignment (e.g., written self-reflection, discussion
board, case study) after the class.
Some programs might allow for a more elaborate inclusion of the 12 competencies, such as the courses discussed by Herzog et al.
(2016) and Trott (2012) which engage additional aspects of Strange and Rogers’s (2003) intellectual, convictional, and experiential
teaching approaches. Education abroad programs or courses that require students to become immersed in a foreign culture, role plays
engaging interfaith conflicts (Marx et al., 2008), practicing meditation (Delbecq, 2000), or students interviewing workers about
spirituality in their workplace (Trott, 2012) are examples of experiential exercises. Reflective essays on the role of one's beliefs,
calling, or values in the workplace (Herzog et al., 2016) are examples of convictional learning activities. Even when limiting teaching
to the intellectual approach, students often spontaneously reflect on their own convictions and are encouraged by the

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acknowledgement that religion and spirituality are central to the identities of many leaders (Allen & Williams, 2017; Judge, 1999)
and form part of the leadership development process (Fry, 2009). Delbecq's (2000) class on the inner life of executives engaged
students in different forms of prayer and meditation, including exploration of various sacred texts. His approach is well suited to a
professional program aimed at executives seeking practical skills and understanding relevant to their busy lives. Herzog et al.’s (2016)
undergraduate course focused on self-awareness, authenticity, and career choices was more suited to those at the beginning of their
careers. Curriculum design for specific programs must always consider the triumvirate of teacher, student, and topic in their context
(Schwab, 1973).

7. Conclusion

The results of this study provide guidance on the future scenarios HRPs may face or the competencies they may need. The
competencies are more universalist than situationalist (Lo et al., 2015) and additional competencies may need to be considered to
address specific regions or industries. The panel was US based, so the results may not generalize to dissimilar contexts. Organizations
within culturally homogeneous geographical regions or serving less culturally diverse communities may not experience changes in
spiritual or religious diversity to the same extent, suggesting that the competencies will vary in their relevance. Further research is
needed to validate the competencies and explore how and to what degree HRM and management education programs address them.
We recommend that management educators consider the relevance of religion and spirituality to their HRP and management
education programs. While religious and spiritual diversity in the workplace is a narrow and specific content area, we have presented
evidence of the relevance of these issues to the future workplace. Given the emergence of trends related to religious diversity and
workplace spirituality, this topic seems relevant to HRPs' and managers’ education.

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