Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, September, 2018; Vol.

14(3):381-390
Copyright © Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

DRINKABLE WATER STORED IN HOT CLIMATES: INTERACTIONS AMONG

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

F. J. Ogbozige, F. B. Ibrahim and D. B. Adie

Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria-Nigeria
Corresponding author’s e-mail address: engr.ogbozige@gmail.com

Abstract
The lack of water mostly in the arid regions of the world has triggered water users to store water in
different container materials. The situation is more pronounced in countries having epileptic power supply
since pumping of groundwater whenever needed could not be guaranteed due to poor power supply.
However, most water users bothered not about the quality of the water during storage. Hence, this paper
investigated the chemistry of stored water especially in the arid regions which are usually known to have
high solar heating during the dry season. In order to achieve this aim, two sources of potable water (tap
and borehole water) were stored in twelve water storage containers (six for each water source) for a period
of six weeks. The containers include black plastic tank, blue plastic tank, green plastic tank, coated steel
metal tank, uncoated steel metal tank and clay pot. However, the water quality parameters examined were
temperature, colour, total solids, dissolved oxygen (DO), chlorine content, pH, total hardness, and total
heterotrophic bacteria (THB) which were all analyzed at a sampling frequency of seven days interval.
Results showed that the colour of both water sources stored in uncoated steel metal tanks stretched from 5
TCU – 20 TCU, which indicates that the colour of water stored in these tanks were above the limit set by
WHO (15 TCU) during certain period of storage. Similarly, values/concentrations of pH and THB in all
the storage containers were found to exceed the limits set by WHO standard during certain periods (weeks)
of retention for both water sources. This is because the pH value ranged from 5.8 - 8.7 while THB
concentration ranged from 2.0×102 CFU/100ml - 1.56×104 CFU/100ml which are contrary to their
allowable permissible limits (6.5 - 8.5 and 0.00 CFU/100ml - 1.0×104 CFU/100ml respectively).
Nevertheless, the remaining water quality parameters were within the WHO permissible limits in all the
storage vessels during the retention period. Hence, it was concluded that most water quality parameters of
potable water stored in hygienic condition remain fresh during the first week of storage thereafter, the
quality cannot be guaranteed.

Keywords: Drinkable, Water, Hot, Climate, Physicochemical.

1. Introduction
Water, air, food and shelter are the essential items for any living being. It is possible to survive
without food and shelter for some days, but without water, it is not possible to survive much of
the time. Without air, one cannot live for a few minutes. Next to air is water which is of
paramount importance to all organisms. Nala and Jagals (2013) as well as Booker (2012) reported
that water is readily available all over the world but only a very few proportion of it is potable or
fit for human consumption. Hence, there is need of storing potable water in containers in order to
ensure continuity in supply during interruption or disaster. However, during storage the quality
parameters of water never remain constant as there are numerous reactions taking place in the
stored water due to changes in the surrounding environment as well as impacts from the material
of construction used as storage containers (Agbede and Morakinyo, 2010; Maggy et al., 2013;
Akubuenyi et al., 2013).
Several researchers such as Oloruntoba (2013), Akubuenyi et al. (2013) and Musa et al. (2011)
have investigated the quality of water obtained from boreholes, hand dug wells, water treatment
plants as well as rain. However, the dynamics of the water quality during storage has not been

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investigated. In many Nigerian communities, it is a common practice to pump groundwater into

overhead storage tanks made from steel metal or plastic (polyethylene) usually installed outdoor.
This outdoor location of the water tanks exposes them to solar radiation which generates heat in
the enclosure. On the other hand, Clay pots and other small capacity storage vessels such as
buckets and basins (made from either plastic or steel metal) are usually kept indoor when used in
storing potable water. Hence, it is important to understand the chemistry of potable water during
storage as it will bring out or suggest the best conditions favorable for storing potable water in
different water storage container materials and colours.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Water Sampling
In order to determine the interactions among water quality parameters during storage, tap water
was collected from the water treatment plant of Ahmadu Bello University Water Works, Zaria
and stored in disinfected tap-fitted tanks. The tanks were made from steel metal (coated and
uncoated), plastic (black, green and blue colours) as well as clay. Another set of these tanks were
used in storing borehole water fetched at No. 1 Basawa road, Zaria. These sources of tap and
borehole water are located at 11° 8'17.43"N, 7°39'29.43"E and 11° 9'34.96"N, 7°38'59.86"E
respectively (GPS). The justification for choosing these water sampling points was due to their
close proximity to the laboratory used for the analyses. In Nigeria and most developing countries,
clay pots used in storing potable water are usually kept indoor while GP tanks (made from plastic)
and water storage tanks made from galvanized or coated steel metal are usually installed outdoor
(Ogbozige et al., 2018). Hence, water stored in clay pots were kept indoor while all other storage
vessels containing water were installed outdoor. The stored water (tap and borehole water) were
retained for a period of six weeks (42 days) however, samples of the stored water were collected
through the taps fitted in the tanks into well labeled disinfected sample bottles at a frequency of 7
days interval.

2.2 Laboratory Analysis

All parameters were analyzed by following the methods recommended by APHA (2012). The
temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water samples were determined in situ (i.e. on site)
using a digital thermometer (model H198501) made by HANNA LTD, England and a portable
DO meter (model DO STARTER300D, ) made by OHAUS Corporation, USA respectively.
The pH of water samples were determined through the use of a pocket-sized pH meter (model
pHep01®, ) made by HANNA LTD, England. On the other hand, the concentration of total
solids in water samples were examined via a weighing balance (FA/JA series) made by HANNA
LTD, England as well as steam bath (model GA942-041) made by Gallenkamp Group of
Companies, Canada. However, colour of water samples were analyzed by a lovibond comparator
(model S1000) made by Tinton LTD, England. Standard titrimetric method was employed in
knowing the concentrations of total hardness in water samples while an autoclaving machine
(model GA445-902) made by Gallenkamp Group of Companies, Canada was used in sterilizing
all equipment used for bacteriological count.

3. Results and Discussion

The laboratory results of the water samples collected from the storage vessels during the retention
period are presented in Figures 1 to 8. However, the acronyms used in the Figures are explained
as follows;

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ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng

BKPt = tap water stored in black plastic tank, USMt = tap water stored in uncoated steel metal
tank, GRPt = tap water stored in green plastic tank, CSMt = tap water stored in coated steel metal
tank, BLPt = tap water stored in blue plastic tank and CLPt = tap water stored in clay pot.
Similarly, BKPb, USMb, GRPb, CSMb, BLPb and CLPb represent borehole water stored in their
corresponding storage tanks and pot.

3.1 Temperature
Temperature measurements were taken at about 12 noon on each day of analysis. The
temperatures of both water sources were found to be the same (25oC) on the first day of the
research (week 0) as shown in Figure 1.
35
BKPt
30
USMt
Temperature (oC)

25 GRPt
CSMt
20 BLPt
CLPt
15 BKPb
USMb
10 GRPb
5 CSMb
BLPb
0 CLPb
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 1: Variation patterns of temperature in stored water during research period

It could be inferred from Figure 1 that the sources of water (tap and borehole water) had no effect
on the water temperature during storage. Rather, the water temperature depends on the type and
colour of storage container as well as the ambient temperature. This is because Figure 1 revealed
that irrespective of the water source, similar container materials as well as colours overlapped
each other. In addition, Figure 1 exposed that there was a remarkable decrease in temperature of
water stored in clay pots (CLPt and CLPb), from 25°C at week 0 (temperature of water before
storage) to 20°C at the third and fourth week. This could be attributed to the cooling effect caused
by evaporation. Nevertheless, there was a slight rise in the temperature of water stored in clay
pots in between the fourth and sixth week (20°C and 21°C). This is because, the continuous
withdrawal of water from the pots created a large space above the water surface which in turns
might have created vapor pressure (heat) in the containers.
All the reservoirs stored exteriorly recorded water temperatures higher than those of the initial
sources throughout the research period. Among these, uncoated steel metal (USM) tanks and
coated Steel Metal (CSM) tanks for both water sources were having the highest recorded
temperatures with a maximum value of 30.5°C on the second week. This could be linked to the
fact that metals are good conductors of heat. Nevertheless, there was a drop in temperatures of
water in USM and CSM for both water sources on the fourth and fifth week. This might be as a
result of the fact that, the surrounding environment on such days were cloudy (highly humid)
hence, heat were rather lost to the surrounding from these tanks. In other words, as metals are

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good conductors of heat from an environment having a higher temperature, they are as well good
emitters of heat to an environment with lower temperature (Michael and Philip, 2003).
Water stored in black plastic (BKP) tanks for both water sources had slightly higher temperatures
than those stored in blue plastic (BLP) and green plastic (GRP) tanks. This observation was
earlier noted by Eniola (2013). The reason why water stored in black plastic tanks recorded
temperatures higher than those stored in blue and green plastic tanks is because black body is a
good absorbers of heat since its emissivity is one (1).

3.2 Colour
Both water sources (tap and borehole water) had same colour (5 TCU) before storage which is
well acceptable by World Health Organization (WHO) Standard. Figure 2 showed that the water
colour in all the containers increased on the first week of the research and thereafter, remains
constant throughout the retention period.
25
BKPt
20 USMt
GRPt
Colour (TCU)

CSMt
15 BLPt
CLPt
10 BKPb
USMb
GRPb
5 CSMb
BLPb
0 CLPb
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 2: Variation patterns of colour in stored water during research period

It can be deduced from Figure 2 that all the storage tanks and pots apart from the uncoated steel
metals, had a uniform colour variation during the period of experiment. Also, the maximum value
recorded in these tanks and pots was 10 TCU, which is much less than the maximum permissible
limit set by WHO standard (15 TCU), indicating that the water stored in these vessels are
satisfactory in terms of colour. The variation pattern in the colour of water stored in uncoated
steel metal tanks for both tap and borehole waters were also the same throughout the six weeks of
storage. However, the water stored in these tanks were highly coloured to about 20 TCU which is
above the WHO permissible limit. Jawas et al. (2014) also recorded high deterioration in colour
(more than permissible limit) of water stored in metal tanks and credited it to improper coating of
the tanks. All the same, the high colour of water (20 TCU) recorded in uncoated steel metal tanks
could be attributed to rusting which might have resulted from the reaction between the iron in the
tanks and the oxygen present in the stored water.

3.3 Total Solids

The total solids for both sampling points (tap and borehole water) were 1.071 mg/l and 1.051 mg/l
respectively thus, indicating that the two sampling points met the requirement set by WHO in

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terms of total solids (500 mg/l). Figure 3 revealed that there were improvements in total solid
concentration with respect to time in water stored in each of the storage vessels except those
stored in uncoated steel metal tanks (USMt and USMb), which is in line with the report of Ekiolu
et al. (2012). It was also observed that the reduction in total solids with respect to time had no
relationship with the type of vessel (material and colour) used in storage. This is because the
concentrations of the parameter in question (total solids) in all the storage tanks for a given water
source overlapped at any time.
1.2 BKPt
USMt
1.15 GRPt
Total solids (mg/l)

CSMt
1.1 BLPt
CLPt
1.05
BKPb
USMb
1
GRPb
0.95 CSMb
BLPb
0.9 CLPb
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 3: Variation patterns of total solids in stored water during research period

The reduction in total solids is due to the fact that, upon storage, big suspended or flocculated
particles as well as other impurities bigger than the water molecules settled down at the bottom of
the tanks and pots thus, reducing the total solids. On the contrary, the tap and borehole water
stored in uncoated steel metal tanks (USMt and USMb) recorded higher concentrations of total
solids in the first two weeks of the research when compared to their initial concentrations before
storage. Notwithstanding, the concentrations of total solids in these tanks (USMt and USMb) later
dropped gradually during the last four weeks of retention. The initial increase in total solids
recorded in these tanks (uncoated steel metals) was as a result of the rusting of the container
materials which might have dissolved in to the stored water and consequently increase the total
solids.

3.4 Dissolved Oxygen

Prior to storage, dissolved oxygen content in the tap water (1.5 mg/l) was higher than the borehole
water (1.3 mg/l). This was probably because the tap water undergone unit operation processes
such as aeration which might have increased the dissolved oxygen (DO) content. Oxygen been a
respiratory gas makes DO an important water quality parameter. Hence, the World Health
Organization (WHO) set a minimum permissible limit of 5.0 mg/l for DO in potable water. In
other words, the sampling points for the tap and borehole water did not meet the requirement of
WHO standard in terms of DO. Oloruntoba (2013) also recorded DO content less than WHO
permissible limit (5.0 mg/l) for tap and borehole water samples. There was a uniform drop in the
concentration of DO in the second week as shown in Figure 4. This depletion in DO concentration
might be as a result of the rise in water temperature recorded in the storage tanks and pots during
the said period, since a rise in temperature, reduces DO concentration in water and vice versa.

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3 BKPt
USMt
2.5 GRPt
CSMt
2 BLPt
DO (mg/l)

CLPt
1.5 BKPb
USMb
1
GRPb
CSMb
0.5
BLPb
CLPb
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 4: Variation patterns of DO in stored water during research period

3.5 Chlorine Content

The chlorine content of tap water from the source was 0.05 mg/l and it dropped at a constant rate
to 0.01 mg/l on the second week and thereafter remained constant for all the storage vessels
(Figure 5). On the other hand, the concentration of chlorine in the borehole water was 0.01mg/l all
through the research period. The high chlorine content recorded in tap water compared to
borehole water was because, chlorine is usually added to tap water for the purpose of disinfecting
bacteria that may contaminate water along the transit (distribution pipes) before reaching
consumers.

BKPt
0.06
USMt
Chlorine content (mg/l)

0.05 GRPt
CSMt
0.04 BLPt
CLPt
0.03 BKPb
USMb
0.02 GRPb
CSMb
0.01
BLPb
0 CLPb

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 5: Variation patterns of chlorine (residual) in stored water during research period

Figure 5 shows that the concentration of chlorine in the storage vessels at any time was not a
function of the material of construction used nor colour but rather, a function of time (since the
legends in Figure 5 overlapped each other at any time). This drop in chlorine content with time is
because chlorine is a gas hence, the residual drops subsequently. Furthermore, Figure 5 tells that
the threshold value of chlorine in both water sources is 0.01 mg/l.

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3.6 pH
The pH values for both water sources before storage were 6.6 and 7.0 for tap and borehole water
respectively which is acceptable by WHO standard. This negate the assertion of Musa et al.
(2011) that the boreholes along Basawa road in Samaru-Zaria are highly acidic. Nevertheless,
during the storage period, there were instances in which the pH values recorded were outside the
range of WHO permissible limits (6.5-8.5) as shown in Figure 6. This deviation in pH from the
permissible limits were more noticeable in water stored in uncoated steel metal tanks (USM t and
USMb).
10 BKPt
9 USMt
GRPt
8
CSMt
7
BLPt
6 CLPt
pH

5 BKPb
4 USMb
3 GRPb
2 CSMb
1 BLPb
0 CLPb

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 6: Variation patterns of pH in stored water during research period

Figure 6 also revealed that there was a serious drop in the pH during the fifth and sixth week. This
could be attributed to the high secretion of acid by death bacteria during the death phase which
might have occurred during this period (5th - 6th week).

3.7 Total Hardness

The total hardness (carbonate and non-carbonate hardness) level of the tap and borehole water
before storage were 102.14 mg/l (slightly hard) and 396.30 mg/l (very hard) respectively. The
high level of hardness in the borehole water compared to the tap water as shown in Figure 7 is due
to the fact that the technology involved in obtaining the former did not require unit operation
processes unlike the later in which the hardness level was controlled. The high concentration of
total hardness in the borehole water could also be attributed to the geology of the aquifer
surrounding the well. Jubril (2011) also recorded the hardness level of tap water drawn from the
Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) water treatment plant to fall within the range of slightly hard
(100 – 150 mg/l) based on the ranking scale of Twort et al. (2009).
Figure 7 suggests that storage of water does not guaranty the improvement or deterioration of it
total hardness quality irrespective of the water source and container material. This is because the
variations (increase or decrease) in the concentrations of this parameter in all the storage tanks
during the retention period did not follow a regular pattern.

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BKPt
700
USMt
600
Total hardness (mg/l)
GRPt
CSMt
500
BLPt
400 CLPt
BKPb
300 USMb
200 GRPb
CSMb
100 BLPb
0 CLPb
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 7: Variation patterns of total hardness in stored water during research period

3.8 Total Heterotrophic Bacteria

Both water sources (tap and borehole water) used for the research were not completely free from
total heterotrophic bacteria (THB) before the storage, as they were respectively containing 2 and 6
CFU/ml. This signifies that the sources were these water samples were drawn met the requirement
set by WHO standard in terms of THB (≤ 100 CFU/ml or 104 CFU/100ml) as at the time the water
samples were drawn. The growth of bacteria in the storage tanks as informed by Figure 8 suggests
that either; the few bacteria present in the water samples prior to storage were spore-forming
bacteria that shielded themselves against the unconducive environment caused by residual
chlorine, or bacteria from the surrounding environment might have entered into the stored water
in the vessels.
The information displayed in Figure 8 indicates that total bacteria growth rate was higher in water
stored in uncoated steel metal tanks (USMt and USMb) than water stored in other storage vessels.
This higher growth rate of bacteria in water stored in uncoated steel tanks suggests that the high
concentration of irons in these tanks might have nourished some iron bacteria present in these
vessels (Ogbozige et al., 2018). Also, among the plastic tank, total bacteria recorded in water
stored in coloured tanks were less than those recorded in black tanks which affirm the reports of
Momba and Notshe (2015) as well as Nala and Jagals (2013). The less bacteria count recorded in
water stored in the coloured plastic tanks compared to black plastic tanks is due to the fact that the
penetration of ultra-violet rays through the coloured plastic tanks might have destroyed some of
the bacteria especially at the surface of the water in these tanks. In contrast, the high level of
bacterial contamination recorded in water stored in clay pots could be associated to the fact that
the clay pots were stored indoor. Hence, the pots were not exposed to the direct effect of the ultra-
violet rays which would have destroyed some of the bacteria at the surface of the water stored in
them. It can as well be attributed to contamination from the surrounding environment since the
covering of the clay pots were not air tight (Just as in real situation).

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BKPt
200
USMt
THB (×102CFU/100ml)
180 GRPt
160 CSMt
140 BLPt
120 CLPt
100 BKPb
80 USMb
60 GRPb
40 CSMb
20 BLPb

0 CLPb
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention time (week)
Figure 8: Variation patterns of THB in stored water during research period

The decline in total bacteria concentration (death phase) during the sixth week of retention might
be as a result of the depletion or exhaustion of nutrient in the stored water which eventually led to
the death of some of the bacteria. Consequently, these death bacteria which are toxic made the
surviving bacteria to dye at a fast rate.

4. Conclusion
Based on the results obtained in this research, the following conclusions can be drawn:
i. Provided potable water is stored in a hygienic condition, most physicochemical
parameters improve (water remain fresh) during the first week of retention thereafter, the
quality cannot be assured.

ii. Bacteria proliferation in stored water is less pronounced in coloured plastic tanks than
black plastic tanks; which is accredited to the penetration of ultra-violet rays through
coloured plastic tanks that consequently destroys bacteria at the surfaces of the tanks.

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