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Grounding of
Industrial Power Systems

Editorially Revised
r, 1 9 6 0

A Report of the
Industrial Power Systems Committee

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 IEEE
NUMBER
142
Oct. 1956

Grounding of
Industrial Power Systems

Editorially Revised
September, 1 9 6 0

A Report of the
Industrial Power Systems Committee

Published by
INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS
345 East 47 Street, New York, N. Y. 10017

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 PREFACE

T h e subjects c o v e r e d b y this report are divided into four parts c o r r e s p o n d i n g to

the four chapters.

Chapter I c o v e r s the p r o b l e m s of system g r o u n d i n g ; that is, c o n n e c t i o n o f the

neutral, the corner-of-the-delta or mid-tap of one phase to ground. T h i s chapter dis-
cusses the pros and c o n s of grounded versus u n g r o u n d e d systems. If it is decided to
ground, information is given on h o w to g r o u n d the system, where the system should
be grounded and h o w to select equipment for the g r o u n d i n g of the neutral circuits.

Chapter I I deals with the p r o b l e m s of connecting the frames and enclosures of

electric apparatus such as m o t o r s , switchgear, transformers, buses, cables, conduits,
building frames, portable, equipment, etc., to a g r o u n d system. It also outlines the
fundamentals of m a k i n g the interconnection or g r o u n d c o n d u c t o r system between
electric equipments and the g r o u n d rods, water pipes, etc.

Chapter I I I deals with the p r o b l e m s of static — h o w it is generated, what p r o c -

esses m a y p r o d u c e static, h o w it is measured, and what should be d o n e to prevent
its generation o r to drain the static charges to earth to prevent sparking. It also c o v e r s
the methods of protecting structures against the effects of lightning. It is not a treatise
on the application of lightning arresters but, because the system for protecting struc-
tures against lightning consists entirely of c o n d u c t o r s to earth, it is considered within
the scope of this report to discuss the general aspects of the p r o b l e m .

Chapter I V deals with the p r o b l e m s of obtaining a l o w resistance c o n n e c t i o n to

the earth. T h e use of g r o u n d rods, connections to water pipes, etc., are discussed.

L o o k i n g at the p r o b l e m from an overall standpoint, the g r o u n d i n g of the system

would in m o s t cases be d o n e b y making a metallic connection direct o r through an
impedance between transformer or generator neutrals and the building g r o u n d i n g sys-
tem which is described in Chapter I I . T h e grounding system described in Chapter I I
in turn is connected to earth through the system of ground rods and water pipes
described in Chapter I V .

T h e protective systems discussed for static and lightning protection in Chapter I I I

w o u l d likewise be c o n n e c t e d to the g r o u n d rods and water pipe system as outlined
in Chapter I V .

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 CONTENTS

Page Page

Chapter I — S y s t e m Grounding 5 M e t h o d s o f T e s t i n g for Static 27

Definitions 5 H a z a r d s o f V a r i o u s T y p e s o f Industries— 28
Factors Influencing C h o i c e of G r o u n d e d M e t h o d s of Static Control—
or Ungrounded System 6 G r o u n d i n g and B o n d i n g 29
M e t h o d s o f System G r o u n d i n g 9 L i g h t n i n g P r o t e c t i o n Grounding 31
Selection and D e s i g n of System Nature of L i g h t n i n g 31
Grounding Arrangements 11
T h e N e e d for P r o t e c t i o n . 31
Bibliography 17
E q u i p m e n t and Structures T h a t Should
B e Considered for Protection 32
Chapter I I — E q u i p m e n t G r o u n d i n g 19
Requirements for G o o d Protection 32
General R e a s o n s for G r o u n d i n g 19
P r o t e c t i o n of P o w e r Stations
Grounding o f Structures 19
G r o u n d i n g of O u t d o o r Stations 20 and Substations 32

G r o u n d i n g o f L a r g e Generators and T a n k s and T a n k Farms 33

Motor Rooms 21 Chimneys and Stacks 33
G r o u n d i n g o f C o n d u c t o r Enclosures 22 M e t h o d s of P r o t e c t i o n - 33
G r o u n d i n g o f Miscellaneous L a r g e M o t o r s 24 Bibliography 33
Portable Electric Equipment 24
Bibliography - - 25 Chapter I V — C o n n e c t i o n t o E a r t h 35
Resistance to Earth 35
Chapter I I I — S t a t i c and L i g h t n i n g P r o t e c t i o n Ground Electrodes 37
Grounding 26 M e t h o d s and T e c h n i q u e s o f Construction 38
Static G r o u n d i n g 26 Measurement of Resistance to Earth 39
P u r p o s e o f Static G r o u n d i n g 26 Cathodic P r o t e c t i o n 40
Fundamental Causes o f Static 26 Bibliography 40

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

T h e Institute wishes to a c k n o w l e d g e its indebtedness to those w h o have s o freely

given o f their time and k n o w l e d g e to prepare its m a n y publications.

T h i s publication was prepared b y the Industrial Grounding Subcommittee of the

AIEE C o m m i t t e e o n Industrial P o w e r Systems. The members of the Subcommittee
were:

D. L . BEEMAN, Chairman F . R. LONGLEY

General Electric Co. Western Massachusetts Elec. C o .
Schenectady, N . Y . Springfield, Mass.

D. M . ALLISON C. C. SAUNDERS
Westinghouse Elec. Corp. Chairman, Working Group, Chapter III
Tulsa, Oklahoma E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.
Wilmington, Delaware
H . H . ANGEL
Chairman, Working Group, Chapter 11 J. M . SCHMIDT
Bethlehem Steel C o . General Electric Co.
Bethlehem, Pa. Schenectady. N . Y .

J. E. ARBERRY H. E. SPRINGER
Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. Rayonier, Inc.
Pittsburgh, Pa. Port Angeles, Wash.

K . M . BAUSCH H. M . STEWART
Bechtel Corporation Humble Oil & Refining Co.
San Francisco, Calif. Baytown, Texas

A . J. BISSON T . O . S WE ATT
Consolidated Edison Co. of N . Y . Wearn, Vreeland, Carlson & Sweatt, In<.
New York, N. Y . New York, N . Y .

L . J. CARPENTER H. B. T H A C K E R
General Electric Co. Chairman, Working Group, Chapter I
Schenectady, N . Y . Westinghouse Electric Corp.
East Pittsburgh, Pa.
M . A . LELAND
Chairman, Working Group, Chapter IV B. F . T H O M A S , JR.
Burndy Engineering Co., Inc. N . A . Lougee & Co.
Norwalk, Conn. New Y o r k , N . Y .

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 CHAPTER I
SYSTEM GROUNDING

T h e question o f whether o r not to g r o u n d a p o w e r Figures 1.1 ( b ) and 1.1 ( c ) s h o w t w o points at

system is o n e w h i c h mu9t be faced s o m e t i m e b y m o s t
engineers charged with planning industrial distribu-
tion. A decision in favor of a g r o u n d e d system leads
then to the question of h o w to g r o u n d .
It is the intent of this chapter to assist the planning
engineer to answer these and other m o r e detailed
questions o n the subject, b y presenting basic reasons
for grounding o r not g r o u n d i n g and b y reviewing
general practices and m e t h o d s of system grounding.
Practices of the g r o u n d i n g of s y n c h r o n o u s genera-
tors, and for the g r o u n d i n g of transmission s y s t e m s ,
1 2
which a system may be grounded; and the correspond-
ing v o l t a g e relationships.
T h e term "solidly g r o u n d e d " , though c o m m o n l y
used, is s o m e w h a t confusing since a transformer m a y
have its neutral " s o l i d l y " c o n n e c t e d to g r o u n d and
yet be s o small in capacity as to furnish o n l y a very
high impedance g r o u n d to the system to which it
is c o n n e c t e d . In o r d e r to m o r e positively and logically
define g r o u n d i n g as to degree, the term "effectively
g r o u n d e d " has c o m e into use. T h e term solidly
g r o u n d e d will therefore be used in this report only

with reference to a solid metallic connection from

particularly those operated at 23 kilovolts and higher, system neutral to g r o u n d , i.e. with n o impedance
have been summarized in other g u i d e s . T h e practices
3

intentionally added in the g r o u n d i n g circuit.

set forth in those guides are applicable to industrial
p o w e r systems in various degrees, depending o n the Section 32-1.05 of A I E E Standard N o . 32, M a y
type and extent o f the industrial system under c o n - 1947, defines effective g r o u n d i n g as f o l l o w s : " A sys-
4

sideration, and o n the character of service required tem o r portion o f a s y s t e m m a y be said t o b e effec-
at the points of p o w e r consumption. tively g r o u n d e d w h e n for all points o n the system or
specified portion thereof the ratio o f zero-sequence
W h e r e an industrial p o w e r system consists of p o w e r reactance to positive-sequence reactance is n o t greater
generating equipment, transmission circuits, and dis- than three and the ratio of zero-sequence resistance
tribution circuits, the reasons for g r o u n d i n g these to positive-sequence reactance is not greater than
c o m p o n e n t s are often the same as for g r o u n d i n g one for any condition of operation and for any amount
similar c o m p o n e n t s of public utility systems and other of c o n n e c t e d generator capacity."
large p o w e r systems, and the m e t h o d s o f g r o u n d i n g
SYSTEM NEUTRAL
would generally be similar under like conditions o f
service. But in s o m e cases the reasons for g r o u n d i n g
and the m e t h o d s o f g r o u n d i n g certain c o m p o n e n t s o f
an industrial p o w e r system m a y differ a c c o r d i n g to
the requirements of manufacturing o r p r o c e s s opera-
tions.
DEFINITIONS

U n g r o u n d e d system means a system without an ( o ) UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

intentional connection t o g r o u n d e x c e p t through p o -
tential indicating o r measuring devices. T h e neutral
of an u n g r o u n d e d system under reasonably balanced
load conditions will usually be close t o g r o u n d poten-
tial, being held there b y the balanced electrostatic
capacitance b e t w e e n each phase c o n d u c t o r and ground.

Figure 1.1 ( a ) s h o w s an u n g r o u n d e d s y s t e m with (b) GROUNDED - WYE SYSTEM

voltage relations for balanced phase-to-ground ca-

pacitances.

A g r o u n d e d system is o n e in w h i c h at least o n e
c o n d u c t o r o r point (usually the neutral point of
transformer o r generator w i n d i n g s ) is intentionally
grounded, either solidly o r through a current-limiting
device. V a r i o u s degrees o f g r o u n d i n g are used from
"solid" o r "effective" to the high-reactance g r o u n d i n g
obtained from a small g r o u n d i n g transformer used <c) G R O U N D E D - D E L T A S Y S T E M
only to secure e n o u g h g r o u n d current for relaying.
Figure 1.1
Diagram showing voltages to ground under steady-state conditions
1
Numbers refer to numbered references in bibliography at end of for (a) ungrounded system, (b) grounded-wye system,
this chapter. (c) grounded delta system.

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 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF
GROUNDED OR UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
Service Continuity
F o r many years m o s t industrial plant distribution
systems have been operated u n g r o u n d e d at one or
m o r e voltage levels. In m o s t cases this has been d o n e
with the thought o f gaining an additional degree of
service continuity. T h e fact that any contact o c c u r r i n g
between one phase o f the system and g r o u n d is un-
likely to cause an immediate outage to any load, m a y
represent an advantage in m a n y plants, varying in
its importance a c c o r d i n g to the type of plant.
Grounded systems, in m o s t cases, are set up s o that
circuit protective devices will r e m o v e a faulty circuit
from the system regardless of the type of fault. A
phase-to-ground fault results in the immediate isola-
tion of the faulted circuit with the attendant outage
of the loads o n that circuit. H o w e v e r , experience has
s h o w n , in a number of systems, that greater service
6
continuity is obtained with g r o u n d e d neutral than
with ungrounded neutral systems.
Multiple Faults t o G r o u n d
W h i l e a g r o u n d fault o n o n e phase of an un-
grounded system generally d o e s not cause a service
interruption, the o c c u r r e n c e of a s e c o n d g r o u n d fault
on a different phase before the first fault is cleared
does result in an outage. If both faults are o n the
same feeder, that feeder will be d r o p p e d . If the s e c o n d
fault is o n a different feeder, both feeders will be
dropped.
T h e longer a g r o u n d is a l l o w e d to remain o n an
ungrounded system, the greater is the likelihood of
a s e c o n d g r o u n d o c c u r r i n g o n another phase resulting
in an outage. T h e advantage an u n g r o u n d e d system,
in not immediately d r o p p i n g load u p o n the o c c u r r e n c e
of a ground fault, m a y be largely d e s t r o y e d b y the
practice of ignoring a g r o u n d until a s e c o n d o n e
occurs and repairs are required to restore service.
W i t h an ungrounded system it is e x t r e m e l y important
that an organized maintenance p r o g r a m be p r o v i d e d
such that g r o u n d s are located and r e m o v e d as s o o n
as possible after their detection. A n adequate detec-
tion system, possibly in c o n j u n c t i o n with an audible
alarm, is considered essential for best operation o f
the ungrounded system.
Experience s h o w s that multiple g r o u n d faults are
rarely, if ever, experienced o n grounded-neutral
systems.
Location of Faults
O n an u n g r o u n d e d system a g r o u n d fault d o e s not
open the circuit. S o m e means o f detecting the presence
of a g r o u n d o n the system should be installed. L a m p s
connected to indicate the potential from each phase
to ground will s h o w the presence o f a g r o u n d fault
and which phase is i n v o l v e d , but will not s h o w o n
which feeder the fault has o c c u r r e d . L o c a t i n g a
ground fault o n o n e o f the several feeders m a y re-
quire the removal f r o m service o f o n e feeder at a
time until the g r o u n d d e t e c t o r indicates the faulted
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feeder has been r e m o v e d f r o m the system. Should
it happen that the same phase of t w o different feeders
b e c o m e faulted to g r o u n d at the same time, the faulted
feeders cannot be located b y r e m o v i n g them from
the system o n e at a time. It m a y be necessary to
r e m o v e all feeders and restore them to service one
at a time c h e c k i n g the g r o u n d detector as each
feeder is restored.
T h e location of a g r o u n d e d feeder o n an un-
g r o u n d e d s y s t e m m a y be facilitated b y use o f various
types o f locating apparatus. F o r example, an inter-
6
rupted direct v o l t a g e o r superimposed audio signals
m a y b e applied t o the feeder bus and the tracing
current detected in the g r o u n d e d feeders. S o m e opera-
tors have reported success with locating apparatus
used without de-energizing system feeders. T h i s , of
course, has the advantage of permitting location of
g r o u n d s without waiting for light load periods o n the
system.
A n accidental g r o u n d o n a g r o u n d e d system is both
indicated and at least partially located b y an inter-
ruption of the accidentally g r o u n d e d circuit o r piece
of equipment.
Safety
M a n y o f the hazards to personnel and property
existing in s o m e industrial electric systems are the
result o f p o o r o r non-existent g r o u n d i n g o f electric
equipment and metallic structures. W h i l e the subject
of E q u i p m e n t G r o u n d i n g is treated in Chapter I I , it
is important to n o t e here that regardless o f whether
o r not the s y s t e m is g r o u n d e d , safety considerations
require t h o r o u g h g r o u n d i n g o f equipment and struc-
tures.
Effectively g r o u n d i n g a l o w - v o l t a g e (600 volts or
less) distribution s y s t e m m a y result in less likelihood
of accidents t o personnel than leaving the system
s u p p o s e d l y u n g r o u n d e d . If all circuits w e r e treated
with the same caution there m i g h t be slightly less
hazard o f s h o c k o n the u n g r o u n d e d system in s o m e
cases. H o w e v e r , the impression that o n e phase of
an u n g r o u n d e d system can be safely contacted m a y
lead t o carelessness in handling the circuit when
energized. T h e s u b c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e that a circuit
is g r o u n d e d generally will result in greater care on
the part o f the w o r k m a n .
D u r i n g the period a g r o u n d fault remains o n one
phase o f an u n g r o u n d e d system, personnel contacting
o n e o f the other phases and g r o u n d are subjected to
full line-to-line v o l t a g e instead o f the line-to-neutral
v o l t a g e that w o u l d b e experienced at any time on
the g r o u n d e d system.
O t h e r hazards o f s h o c k and fire m a y result from
inadequate g r o u n d i n g o f equipment in either g r o u n d e d
o r u n g r o u n d e d s y s t e m s . A c c i d e n t a l g r o u n d s are in-
evitable. T h e current path t o g r o u n d for a w i n d i n g -
to-frame insulation b r e a k d o w n in a m o t o r m a y in-
clude g r e a s y shavings o r other materials that w o u l d
be ignited b y sparks o r l o c a l i z e d heating. Such a
high-impedance g r o u n d circuit m a y n o t permit enough
current flow to operate protective devices, with the
result that a potential fire and safety hazard m a y
exist for s o m e time. T h e r e is hazard of s h o c k to
personnel from such a condition should they bridge
all o r part of the high impedance g r o u n d path, for
example, contacting the frame of the faulty machine.
This hazard is particularly bad because there are m o r e
possible victims than in the case of persons familiar
with electric systems w o r k i n g on a circuit.
Abnormal Voltage Hazards
T h e possible o v e r v o l t a g e s on the u n g r o u n d e d sys-
tem m a y cause m o r e frequent failure of equipment
than if the system w e r e g r o u n d e d . In s o m e cases
these o v e r v o l t a g e s have caused failures on m o r e than
o n e unit o f equipment at the same time. T h e s e m u l -
tiple failures are not necessarily confined to o n e
feeder but m a y involve equipment on several different
feeders.
A fault o n o n e phase of an u n g r o u n d e d system
places a sustained o v e r v o l t a g e on the insulation of
ungrounded phases in a three-phase system. T h i s
overvoltage is 1.73 times the voltage n o r m a l l y on
the insulation. T h i s o r other sustained o v e r v o l t a g e s
or the transient o v e r v o l t a g e s on the u n g r o u n d e d sys-
tem m a y not immediately cause failure o f insulation,
but tend to reduce the life of the insulation.
T h e reduced o v e r v o l t a g e s experienced o n the
g r o u n d e d system are less likely to d a m a g e equipment
o r insulation.
P o w e r System Overvoltages 7
S o m e o f the m o r e c o m m o n sources of o v e r v o l t a g e
on a p o w e r system are: ( a ) lightning, ( b ) switching
surges, ( c ) static, ( d ) contact with higher-voltage
system, ( e ) Hne-to-ground faults, ( f ) resonant c o n -
ditions, ( g ) restriking g r o u n d faults.
Lightning 8
( S e e Chapter I I I )
M o s t industrial systems are effectively shielded
against direct lightning strokes. M a n y circuits are
either underground in ducts o r are within g r o u n d e d
metal conduits o r raceways. E v e n open-wire circuits
are often shielded b y adjacent metallic structures
and buildings. L i g h t n i n g arresters applied at the in-
c o m i n g service limit the surge voltages within the
plant resulting from strokes to the e x p o s e d service
lines. O t h e r arrester applications m a y be necessary
within the plant t o protect l o w impulse strength d e -
vices such as rotating machines. W h e r e a plant is
supplied from a substation stepping d o w n from s o m e
higher voltage, lightning arresters may be required
on the l o w side of the transformer to protect plant
equipment from surges passed b y the high-side arrest-
ers and reflected through the transformer.
S w i t c h i n g Surges
N o r m a l switching operations in the system can
cause o v e r v o l t a g e s . T h e s e are generally not m o r e
than three times normal v o l t a g e and of short dura-
tion. O v e r c u r r e n t devices such as circuit breakers
or fuses, in general, interrupt a circuit at a normal
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current z e r o at w h i c h time the stored energy in the
inductance o f the circuit is z e r o . T h e overvoltages
thus d e v e l o p e d result f r o m transient oscillation in the
circuit capacitance and inductance, there being stored
e n e r g y in the circuit capacitance at the time o f cur-
rent interruption. M o r e serious overvoltages can be
p r o d u c e d b y devices w h i c h interrupt b y forcing cur-
rent z e r o . Such devices as current-limiting fuses
must b e carefully applied because of this o v e r v o l t a g e
problem.
Neutral g r o u n d i n g is not likely to reduce the total
magnitude o f o v e r v o l t a g e p r o d u c e d b y lightning or
switching surges. It can, h o w e v e r , distribute the volt-
age b e t w e e n phases, reducing the possibility of ex-
cessive v o l t a g e stress o n the phase-to-ground insula-
tion o f a particular phase.
Static (See Chapter III)
Build-up o f o v e r v o l t a g e on p o w e r system c o n d u c -
tors due t o static c h a r g e is not usually a p r o b l e m
in m o d e r n plants with metal-enclosed circuits and
equipment. Static c h a r g e o n m o v i n g belts can build
up voltages w h i c h can be transmitted to the p o w e r
system unless m o t o r frames are p r o p e r l y grounded.
O v e r h e a d o p e n - w i r e lines m a y be subject to static
o v e r v o l t a g e s resulting f r o m certain atmospheric c o n -
ditions. A system g r o u n d connection, even of rela-
tively high resistance, can effectively prevent static
v o l t a g e build-up.
Contact with Higher-Voltage System
Contact with a higher-voltage system m a y be caused
b y a b r o k e n high-voltage c o n d u c t o r falling o n a
l o w e r - v o l t a g e c o n d u c t o r w h e r e b o t h lines cross or
are carried o n the s a m e poles, o r b y b r e a k d o w n b e -
tween the high- and l o w - v o l t a g e w i n d i n g s of a trans-
former. If the l o w - v o l t a g e system is ungrounded the
high v o l t a g e will remain o n the l o w - v o l t a g e system
causing b r e a k d o w n o f insulation possibly at several
points. A n effectively-grounded l o w - v o l t a g e system,
though resulting in high values o f fault current for
this condition, will h o l d the system neutral close to
g r o u n d potential and greatly reduce the overvoltages
t o g r o u n d o n the l o w - v o l t a g e system.
L i n e - t o - G r o u n d Faults
A c o m m o n s o u r c e o f sustained o v e r v o l t a g e on an
u n g r o u n d e d s y s t e m is caused b y o n e phase of a
three-phase s y s t e m b e c o m i n g g r o u n d e d . In this case
the insulation o f the other phases is subjected to
73 percent a b o v e n o r m a l voltage. A grounded-neutral
system would not have this overvoltage. The cumulative
effect of higher than normal voltage stresses may some-
what reduce insulation life.
Resonant Conditions
U n g r o u n d e d systems m a y be subjected to resonant
o v e r v o l t a g e s . W i t h the high phase-to-ground capaci-
tance of larger systems there m a y be a condition o f
approximate circuit resonance during a line-to-ground
fault through an inductance such as a faulty coil
in a m o t o r starter. T h e voltage to ground of the
 unfaulted phases will then b e considerably in excess ing these systems. The cost of grounding resistor or
of line-to-line voltage. A n o v e r v o l t a g e due to resonant impedance, however, does represent an extra cost of
or near resonant conditions can be encountered where the grounded neutral system.
tuned inductive-capacitive circuits are used such as for op- Grounding existing systems m a y be v e r y expensive
eration of welders. For example, if the welder is equip- because it m a y be necessary to add g r o u n d i n g trans-
ped with a series capacitor for power factor improvement, formers and their protective equipment, grounding
the voltage across the capacitor and across the trans- impedance if required, and a third current transformer
former winding are each many times the supply line-to- in all circuits to obtain ground-fault relaying o n all
line voltage. A ground fault on the connecting lead be- three phases.
tween the capacitor and the welder transformer imposes T h e r e should b e three overcurrent elements in the
this high voltage on the line-to-ground insulation of protective devices in a g r o u n d e d neutral system. This
every piece of electric equipment connected to these m a y require m o r e expensive m o t o r c o n t r o l devices in
lines. A grounded neutral system would prevent this over- rare cases, but the present practice is t o provide three
voltage by holding the phases to their approximate normal overcurrent elements in all l o w - v o l t a g e air circuit
voltage to ground. breakers. Usually it is not necessary to carry the
neutral wire a l o n g with the three-phase circuits un-
less the circuits supply single-phase loads connected
Restriking G r o u n d Faults from line-to-neutral as in 208Y/120-volt circuits
Field experience and theoretical studies have s h o w n supplying 120-volt lighting load. Therefore, there
is n o additional circuit c o s t t o charge against the
that arcing, restriking o r vibrating g r o u n d faults on
grounded-neutral arrangement. T h e additional costs
ungrounded systems can, under certain conditions,
of grounded-neutral transformers and controls with
produce surge voltages as high as six times normal
three overcurrent elements m a y s e e m significant when
line-to-line voltage. T h e conditions necessary for p r o -
c o m p a r e d with the cost of the devices, but w h e n addi-
ducing these overvoltages require that the dielectric
tional costs are considered as a fraction of the total
strength of the arc path build up at a higher rate
system cost they are generally v e r y small.
after each extinction of the arc than it did after the
preceding extinction or be the result of an intermittent
contact between line and ground. This phenomenon is un- T r e n d s in A p p l i c a t i o n o f S y s t e m G r o u n d i n g
likely to take place in open air between stationary con-
T h e basic reasons for system g r o u n d i n g are three-
tacts because such an arc path is not likely to develop
fold: First, to limit the difference o f electric potential
sufficient dielectric recovery strength. It may occur in
between all uninsulated c o n d u c t i n g o b j e c t s in a local
confined arcs where the pressure m a y increase after
area; second, to p r o v i d e for isolation o f faulty equip-
each conduction period. Neutral g r o u n d i n g is effec- ment and circuits w h e n a fault o c c u r s ; and third, to
tive in reducing transient voltage build-up from such limit overvoltages appearing on the system under
intermittent g r o u n d faults b y reducing neutral dis- various conditions.
placement from g r o u n d potential and reducing de-
structive effectiveness o f any high-frequency v o l t a g e T h e basic reasons for the selection o f ungrounded-
neutral systems is that such systems, particularly at
oscillations following each arc initiation or restrike.
480 and 2400 v o l t s , are slightly less expensive and
m a n y operators feel that the u n g r o u n d e d neutral sys-
Cost tem possesses a service continuity advantage because
the first g r o u n d fault m a y n o t cause a trip-out o f a
Grounded neutral systems may cost at most only a few circuit o r m o t o r . It will be noted that there is today
percent more than ungrounded neutral systems, depend- a divided opinion a m o n g operators as t o the relative
ing upon system voltage and whether it is an existing service continuity of g r o u n d e d and ungrounded-
or new system that is to be grounded. Equipment for neutral systems. M a n y operators feel that a grounded
208Y/120-volt systems almost universally provides for system gives them better overall service continuity
system neutral grounding and, therefore, does not in- than they have obtained f r o m an u n g r o u n d e d system.
volve any extra cost. Wye-connected unit substations
T h e r e has been an increasing trend t o w a r d g r o u n d -
for grounding 480-volt systems are standard but cost
ing industrial systems in o r d e r to o v e r c o m e s o m e of
from nothing more to about six percent more than delta-
the disadvantages attributed to u n g r o u n d e d operation.
connected substations. 2400-volt wye-connected trans-
In recent years a substantial percentage of n e w in-
formers for system neutral grounding of these systems dustrial substation transformers have been purchased
can be obtained at a slight cost premium over 2400-volt with w y e - c o n n e c t e d l o w - v o l t a g e windings suitable for
delta transformers. In addition there is the c o s t of neutral grounding.
the resistor or other g r o u n d i n g impedance if used.
In new installations these transformers offer the ad-
For system voltage of 4.16 and 13.8 kilovolts, wye- vantage that they can be operated ungrounded if desired
connected transformers are standard and, therefore, but possess an available neutral for easy addition of a
there is no price penalty, transformer-wise, for ground- grounding circuit at a later date.

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 METHODS OF SYSTEM GROUNDING
G r o u n d i n g the S y s t e m Neutral
M o s t g r o u n d e d systems e m p l o y s o m e m e t h o d o f
grounding the system neutral at o n e o r m o r e points.
T h e s e m e t h o d s are referred to as ( 1 ) solid g r o u n d -
ing, ( 2 ) resistance grounding, ( 3 ) reactance g r o u n d -
ing, and ( 4 ) ground-fault neutralizer g r o u n d i n g . E a c h
method, as named, refers t o the nature o f the external
circuit from system neutral to g r o u n d rather than t o
the degree o f g r o u n d i n g . In each case the impedance
of the generator o r transformer, w h o s e neutral is
grounded, is in series with the external circuit. T h u s ,
a s o l i d l y - g r o u n d e d generator o r transformer m a y o r
may not furnish "effective g r o u n d i n g " to the system,
depending o n its impedance.
CIRCUIT EQUIVALANT
I. UNGROUNDED
2 SOLIOLV GROUNDED
3 RESISTANCE GROUNDED
4. REACTANCE GROUNDED
5. GROUND FAULT
NEUTRALIZER
- REACTANCE OF GENERATOR OR TRANSFORMER USED FOR GROUNDING
X - R E A C T A N C E OF GROUNDING REACTOR
N
R - R E S I S T A N C E OF GROUNDING RESISTOR
N
Figure 1.2
System neutral circuit and equivalent diagrams for ungrounded
and various types of grounded neutral systems.
Solid G r o u n d i n g
Solid g r o u n d i n g refers t o the c o n n e c t i o n o f the
neutral of a generator, p o w e r transformer o r g r o u n d -
ing transformer directly t o the station g r o u n d o r
to the earth. Because o f the reactance o f the
grounded generator o r transformer in series with
the neutral circuit, a solid g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n cannot
be considered as p r o v i d i n g a z e r o i m p e d a n c e neutral
circuit.
If the reactance o f the generator o r transformer is
too great, the o b j e c t i v e s s o u g h t in g r o u n d i n g , prin-
cipally f r e e d o m f r o m transient o v e r v o l t a g e s , m a y n o t
be achieved. T h u s , it is necessary to determine the
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degree of g r o u n d i n g p r o v i d e d in the system. A g o o d
guide in answering this question is the magnitude of
ground-fault current as c o m p a r e d to the system three-
phase fault current. T h e higher the ground-fault cur-
rent in relation to the three-phase fault current, the
greater the d e g r e e o f g r o u n d i n g in the system. In
terms of resistance and reactance, "effective g r o u n d -
ing" of a system is defined o n page 5.
In m o s t generators, solid g r o u n d i n g , i.e., without
external i m p e d a n c e , m a y permit the m a x i m u m ground-
fault current f r o m the generator t o exceed the m a x i -
m u m three-phase fault current w h i c h the generator
can deliver, and for w h i c h its windings are braced.
Consequently, in cases w h e r e effective g r o u n d i n g of
a system is indicated, m o s t generators should b e
g r o u n d e d through a reactor having a l o w o h m i c value,
w h i c h will limit generator phase-current during single
line-to-ground faults to a value n o greater than three-
phase fault current. In the case o f three-phase, four-
wire systems, limitation o f ground-fault currents to
100 percent o f the three-phase fault current is usually
practical w i t h o u t interfering with normal four-wire
operation.
Lightning arresters for grounded-neutral service (rated
near but not less than 80 percent of line-to-line voltage)
require that the system be effectively grounded. This
will carry with it a line-to-ground short-circuit current
of at least 60 percent of the three-phase short-circuit
value.
Resistance Grounding
In resistance g r o u n d i n g , the neutral is connected
to g r o u n d through o n e o r m o r e resistors. In this
m e t h o d , with resistor o h m i c values normally used
and e x c e p t i n g for transient o v e r v o l t a g e s , the line-to-
g r o u n d v o l t a g e s w h i c h exist during a line-to-ground
fault are nearly the same as for an u n g r o u n d e d system.
A system p r o p e r l y g r o u n d e d b y resistance is not
subject to destructive transient o v e r v o l t a g e s . F o r re-
sistance-grounded systems at 15 kilovolts and b e l o w ,
such o v e r v o l t a g e s will n o t ordinarily be of a serious
nature, unless the resistance is so high as to limit
the ground-fault current t o a small fraction of one
percent o f the s y s t e m three-phase fault current (less
than the system c h a r g i n g c u r r e n t ) . T h i s m u c h ground
current (usually well b e l o w 50 amperes) is far less
than is n o r m a l l y used with resistance grounding.
S y s t e m s g r o u n d e d through resistors generally re-
quire lighting arresters suitable for use o n un-
grounded-neutral circuits, i.e., with a voltage rating at
least equal to line-to-line voltage.
T h e reasons for limiting the current b y resistance
g r o u n d i n g are as f o l l o w s :
(1) T o r e d u c e burning and melting effects in
faulted electric equipment such as switchgear,
transformers, cables, and rotating machines.
(2) T o reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and
apparatus carrying fault currents.
 ( 3 ) T o reduce electric s h o c k hazards to personnel,
caused by stray ground-fault currents in the
ground return path.
( 4 ) T o reduce the m o m e n t a r y line v o l t a g e dip
occasioned b y o c c u r r e n c e and clearing of a
g r o u n d fault.
Reactance Grounding
T h e term "reactance g r o u n d i n g " describes the case
in which a reactor is c o n n e c t e d b e t w e e n the system
neutral and ground. Since the ground-fault current
which m a y flow in a reactance-grounded system is a
function o f the neutral reactance, the magnitude of
ground-fault current is often used as a criterion for
describing the degree o f g r o u n d i n g . In a reactance-
g r o u n d e d system, the available ground-fault current
should be at least 25 percent of the three-phase fault
current t o prevent serious transient o v e r v o l t a g e s .
This is considerably higher than the m i n i m u m fault
current desirable in a resistance-grounded system and,
therefore, reactance g r o u n d i n g is usually not c o n -
sidered an alternative of resistance g r o u n d i n g .
In practice, reactance g r o u n d i n g is generally used
only in the case cited under " S o l i d G r o u n d i n g " , in
which a generator neutral is t o b e c o n n e c t e d directly
to ground. In this event, it m a y b e necessary t o add
a l o w value reactor to limit the available ground-fault
current through the generator t o a value n o greater
than the three-phase fault current contributed b y
the generator.
Ground-Fault Neutralizer 9
A ground-fault neutralizer is a reactor c o n n e c t e d
between the neutral o f a s y s t e m and g r o u n d , and
having a specially selected, relatively high value of
reactance.
A line-to-ground fault causes line-to-neutral v o l t a g e
to b e impressed across the neutralizer, w h i c h passes
an inductive current. T h i s current is 180 degrees out
of phase and is a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal in magnitude
( w h e n the neutralizer is tuned to the s y s t e m ) to the
resultant o f the system c h a r g i n g current of the t w o
unfaulted phases. T h e inductive and capacitive c o m -
ponents o f current neutralize each other and the o n l y
remaining current in the fault is due to resistance,
insulator leakage and c o r o n a . T h i s current is relatively
small, and, as it is in phase with the line-to-neutral
voltage, the current and v o l t a g e pass through a z e r o
value at the same instant. In addition, the rate-of-rise
of r e c o v e r y v o l t a g e o n the faulted phase is v e r y l o w .
H e n c e , the arc is extinguished without restriking and
flashovers in the presence of self-healing dielectrics like
air, are quenched without removing the faulted line sec-
tion from service.
O n systems for w h i c h faults in air are relatively
frequent, ground-fault neutralizers m a y b e v e r y useful
b y reducing the n u m b e r o f circuit breaker operations
required t o r e m o v e faults, thus i m p r o v i n g service
continuity. T h e y have been used primarily o n systems
above 15 kilovolts, consisting largely o f o v e r h e a d trans-
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mission lines. T h i s m e t h o d is a s e c o n d choice t o re-
sistor g r o u n d i n g , w h i c h p r o v i d e s g r o u n d relaying to
disconnect the faulted circuit. It should b e noted that
failures in solid insulations, such as paper, varnished
c a m b r i c and rubber, are not self-healing as insulator
flashovers are, and are not extinguished b y the use of
the ground-fault neutralizer.
In s o m e cases, w h e r e it has not been d e e m e d de-
sirable b y the plant operators to trip a circuit o n the
o c c u r r e n c e of a g r o u n d fault, special arrangements
have been used to limit the d a m a g e due to the flow
of charging current, and yet be able to easily locate
the faulty feeder. O n e s c h e m e is to use a ground-fault
neutralizer in the neutral to limit the ground-fault cur-
rent and to reduce switching surges to safe values. A
resistor is arranged to b e c o n n e c t e d in parallel with
the neutralizer w h e n it is desired to pass enough
ground-fault current to cause relays to give a signal
o r trip the breaker o f the faulty feeder. Because of
the current to be switched, a p o w e r circuit breaker
should b e used for switching the resistor. T h e resistor
and relay are selected as if the resistor o n l y were
used. Such a s c h e m e is expensive and is o n l y used
in v e r y special cases.
Care should be taken to keep the ground-fault neu-
tralizer tuned to the system capacitance to minimize the
development of transient overvoltages. Thus, when sec-
tions of the system are switched on or off, it may be
necessary to readjust the neutral reactance by changing
the neutralizer tap.
G r o u n d i n g at P o i n t s O t h e r T h a n S y s t e m Neutral
In s o m e cases l o w - v o l t a g e systems, (600 volts and
b e l o w ) , are g r o u n d e d at s o m e point other than the
system neutral. T h i s has been d o n e to obtain a
g r o u n d e d system at a m i n i m u m expense w h e r e exist-
ing delta transformer connections do not provide
access t o the system neutral.
Corner-of-the-Delta G r o u n d i n g
In l o w - v o l t a g e systems w h i c h , in the past, have
nearly all been supplied f r o m transformers with delta-
c o n n e c t e d secondaries, g r o u n d i n g of o n e phase o r one
<x
corner-of-the-delta" has s o m e t i m e s been d o n e as a
means o f obtaining a g r o u n d e d system. A d v a n t a g e s
are: ( 1 ) may be less costly for existing delta systems;
( 2 ) possibility o f slightly better protection with t w o -
element m o t o r starters w h e n located in the t w o un-
g r o u n d e d phases. W i t h p r o p e r l y c o n n e c t e d control
circuits, g r o u n d s in the c o n t r o l circuit will n o t start
the m o t o r and will not prevent stopping the m o t o r
b y pushing the pushbutton. Disadvantages are: ( 1 ) in-
ability t o supply dual v o l t a g e service for lighting and
p o w e r l o a d : ( 2 ) necessity o f positive identification of
g r o u n d e d phase t h r o u g h o u t the s y s t e m to avoid c o n -
necting meters, instruments and relays in the g r o u n d e d
phase; ( 3 ) line-to-ground v o l t a g e is higher than in
neutral-grounded system. B e c a u s e o f its limitations
this type o f g r o u n d i n g has n o t been w i d e l y used in
industrial systems.
 One Phase of A Delta System Grounded of the g r o u n d i n g transformer. T h e m e t h o d o f wind-
at the M i d - P o i n t ing is seen from Figure 1.3 to be such that w h e n these
three equal currents flow, the current in o n e section
W h e r e existing systems at 600 volts and b e l o w are
of the w i n d i n g of each leg of the c o r e is in a direction
supplied b y three single-phase transformers with m i d -
opposite to that in the other section o f the winding
taps available, it is possible to gain s o m e of the ad-
on that leg. T h i s tends to force the ground-fault cur-
vantages of neutral g r o u n d i n g b y g r o u n d i n g the m i d -
rent to have equal division in the three lines and
tap of one phase. The distribution of voltage stress
accounts for the l o w i m p e d a n c e o f the transformer
among the phases remains somewhat unbalanced (50 per-
to g r o u n d currents.
cent overvoltage to ground on one phase conductor).
The system is frequently found in electric utility service A w y e - d e l t a c o n n e c t e d transformer can also be
at 240 volts to supply 240/120 volts single-phase three- utilized as a g r o u n d i n g transformer. T h e delta c o n -
wire, and 240 volts three-phase three-wire simultaneously. nection must b e c l o s e d to p r o v i d e a path for the
zero-sequence current, but the delta can b e designed
SELECTION A N D DESIGN OF for any convenient v o l t a g e level. It m a y o r m a y not
SYSTEM GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS be used to serve other loads. T h e w y e w i n d i n g must
Obtaining the S y s t e m Neutral be o f the same v o l t a g e rating as the circuit which
is to b e g r o u n d e d . Caution should be exercised in
T h e best w a y to obtain the system neutral for applying single-phase transformer units o f a rating
grounding purposes is to use source transformers o r such that the transformer v o l t a g e rating w h e n ap-
generators with w y e - c o n n e c t e d windings. T h e neutral plied line-to-neutral is not equal to or greater than the
is then readily available. Such transformers are avail- system line-to-line v o l t a g e . T h e reason for this is
able for practically all v o l t a g e s e x c e p t 240 volts. O n that transformer reactance varies inversely as the
new systems, 2 0 8 Y / 1 2 0 o r 4 8 0 Y / 2 7 7 - v o l t transformers square o f the v o l t a g e applied. T h e c o n n e c t i o n s o f the
may be used to g o o d advantage instead o f 240 volts. transformer are s h o w n in Figure 1.4.
For 2400-volt or 4800-volt systems, special 2400 w y e -
or 4800 w y e - c o n n e c t e d source transformers m a y b e
purchased or g r o u n d i n g transformers used.
^
^
Grounding Transformers
•+—
System neutrals m a y not be available, particularly
in m a n y old systems 600 volts o r less and m a n y
existing 2400-, 4800- and 6900-volt systems. W h e n J"
it is desired to g r o u n d existing delta c o n n e c t e d
systems, g r o u n d i n g transformers m a y b e used to
obtain the neutral. G r o u n d i n g transformers m a y b e
either of the z i g - z a g o r w y e - d e l t a type. T h e type o f
g r o u n d i n g transformer m o s t c o m m o n l y used is a
three-phase, z i g z a g transformer with n o s e c o n d a r y
winding. T h e internal c o n n e c t i o n o f this transformer
is illustrated in F i g u r e 1.3. T h e impedance o f the
transformer to three-phase currents is high s o that,
when there is n o fault o n the systems, o n l y a small
magnetizing current flows in the transformer winding.
T h e transformer i m p e d a n c e t o g r o u n d current, h o w -
\
>
Figure 1.4
ever, is l o w so that it allows high g r o u n d current to Vectors representing flow of current in wye-delta transformer used
as grounding transformer. Line-to-ground fault shown.
flow. T h e transformer divides the g r o u n d current
into three equal c o m p o n e n t s ; these currents are in
phase with each other and flow in the three w i n d i n g s T h e short-time k v a rating o f a g r o u n d i n g trans-
former is equal t o rated line-to-neutral voltage times
LINE LEADS rated neutral current. A g r o u n d i n g transformer, is
designed to carry its rated current for a limited time
o n l y such as 10 s e c o n d s o r o n e minute. H e n c e , it is
m u c h smaller in size than an ordinary three-phase
transformer o f the same rated kva.

A g r o u n d i n g transformer should be c o n n e c t e d to
the system in such a manner that the system will
always b e g r o u n d e d . F i g u r e 1.5(a) s h o w s a ground-
ing transformer with an individual line breaker for
c o n n e c t i o n directly t o the main bus of the system.
NEUTRAL LEAD
Figure 1.5(b) s h o w s a m e a n s o f connecting a ground-
ing transformer to a s y s t e m without an individual
[Q) WINDING SHOWN O N CORE <b) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
OF C O N N E C T I O N S
line breaker. I n this case, the g r o u n d i n g transformer
Figure 1.3 is c o n n e c t e d b e t w e e n the main transformer bank and
Diagram showing windings of core and schematic diagram
of connections of a 3-phase zigzag grounding transformer. its breaker. If g r o u n d i n g transformers are connected

11

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Figure 1.5
Methods of connecting grounding transformers to a delta-connected
or ungrounded power system to form a neutral
for system grounding
as s h o w n in Figure 1 . 5 ( b ) , there should b e o n e
grounding transformer for each delta-connected bank
supplying p o w e r to the s y s t e m ; o r e n o u g h t o assure
at least o n e g r o u n d i n g transformer o n the s y s t e m
at all times. W h e n the g r o u n d i n g transformer is s o
connected it is included in the protective system o f
the main transformer.
Suggested Grounding Methods
Low-Voltage Systems (600 volts and below)
L o w - v o l t a g e systems are practically always effec-
tively grounded. O n e reason for this is that n o e x -
pense is necessary for reactors. A n o t h e r reason is that
l o w - v o l t a g e switchgear a l m o s t universally uses direct
series trip devices. Such devices d e m a n d high current
magnitudes. F o r these reasons, effective g r o u n d i n g
is used o n systems rated 600 v o l t s and b e l o w . F o r
such systems, it is especially important to p r o v i d e
low-resistance return paths for ground-fault currents
in the plant equipment g r o u n d system. D a m a g e from
high fault current magnitude is m i n i m i z e d because
l o w - v o l t a g e circuit breakers are e x t r e m e l y fast in
operation.
Medium-Voltage Systems (2.4 kv to 15 kv)
M e d i u m - v o l t a g e systems are usually resistance
grounded. In this range of system v o l t a g e s , limiting
ground-fault current is h i g h l y desirable in the usual
industrial p o w e r system. C o n n e c t i o n of rotating ma-
chines directly at thetc v o l t a g e s is c o m m o n , h e n c e
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resistance grounding is used to reduce the damage
which m a y result due t o a g r o u n d fault in the ma-
chine windings.
In the case o f small s y s t e m s supplied b y genera-
tors, reactance g r o u n d i n g ( t o p r o d u c e n o t less than
25 percent o f three-phase fault currents) m a y b e used
in the interest o f e c o n o m y and because ground-fault
currents are n o t t o o large. If the s y s t e m is small and
supplied b y transformers, they m a y have their neu-
trals g r o u n d e d solidly for the same reason.
In m e d i u m - v o l t a g e systems, w h e n ground-fault p r o -
tection is desired, it is p r o v i d e d b y using standard
overcurrent relays. Positive tripping can b e a c c o m -
plished with l o w magnitudes o f fault current. F o r
this reason resistance g r o u n d i n g is used e x c e p t for
those cases w h e r e the size o f the s y s t e m is s o small
that the m a x i m u m available fault current is n o t t o o
high t o b e o b j e c t i o n a b l e .
A t the present time, it is m o s t c o m m o n practice to
operate 2.4-kilovolt s y s t e m s w i t h o u t the system neu-
tral g r o u n d e d . M o r e and m o r e o p e r a t o r s h o w e v e r
are a p p l y i n g s y s t e m neutral g r o u n d i n g to 2.4-kilovolt
systems. T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d is to p r o v i d e suf-
ficient ground-fault current t o enable selective relay-
ing through the application o f residual o r g r o u n d
relays.
S o m e operators feel that it is desirable t o g r o u n d
the 2.4-kilovolt s y s t e m neutral b u t that the g r o u n d -
fault current should b e o f a v e r y small magnitude,
just e n o u g h t o stabilize the neutral t o prevent severe
transient o v e r v o l t a g e s u p o n the o c c u r r e n c e o f re-
striking g r o u n d s . T h i s d o e s n o t cause a l o a d s h u t d o w n
due t o a g r o u n d fault w h i l e , at the same time, elim-
inating the same types o f transient o v e r v o l t a g e haz-
ard. It h o w e v e r d o e s n o t eliminate all types o f o v e r -
voltages. T h e specific value o f ground-fault current
that should b e permitted t o flow has n o t been well
established but s o m e industrial experience indicates
that this value should b e greater than the line charg-
ing current. T h e high-resistance g r o u n d i n g practice
could b e e m p l o y e d with the circuits as s h o w n in
Figure 1.5. T h e o n l y difference in the various meth-
o d s o f resistance g r o u n d i n g is the a m o u n t o f g r o u n d -
fault current that flows. W h e r e selective g r o u n d re-
laying is required, c o n s i d e r a b l y higher values o f
ground-fault current are required.
High-Voltage Systems ( a b o v e 15 k i l o v o l t s )
S y s t e m s a b o v e 15 k i l o v o l t s are nearly always ef-
fectively g r o u n d e d , b e c a u s e these are usually trans-
mission circuits with o p e n lines in w h i c h , in m o s t
cases, grounded-neutral service lightning arresters are
desirable for better o v e r v o l t a g e protection and l o w e r
cost. In addition, rotating equipment is s e l d o m c o n -
nected directly to these s y s t e m s ; hence, limiting
ground-fault currents, to prevent burning o f lamina-
tions, is a less important factor than in m e d i u m
v o l t a g e systems. In addition, v o l t a g e s a b o v e 15 kilo-
volts are n o t usually carried inside buildings, hence
personnel hazards due t o h i g h fault currents are not
a factor. Finally, the c o s t o f resistors f o r resistance
g r o u n d i n g at these v o l t a g e s is high.
 Criteria for L i m i t i n g T r a n s i e n t O v e r v o l t a g e s
Transient o v e r v o l t a g e s can be limited effectively to
safe values, if the f o l l o w i n g criteria are o b s e r v e d :
1. In resistance-grounded systems, the in-phase com-
ponent of ground-fault current should be at least
equal to, but preferably greater than, the charging
current of the system.
2. In reactance-grounded systems the ratio of
should be 10 or less, where X is the zero-sequence
0
reactance of the system, including that of the neutral
reactance and Xi is the positive-sequence reactance
of the system.
3. W h e r e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d i n g transformer
and neutral-grounding resistor is used, the
g r o u n d i n g transformer i m p e d a n c e should be l o w
relative to the neutral resistance. T h e ratio o f
Ro/Xo should be equal to or greater than 2, where
Ro is the zero-sequence resistance of the circuit,
including the neutral resistor, and Xo is the zero-
sequence reactance of the circuit, including that of
the transformer.
Selection of System Grounding Points
G r o u n d at E a c h V o l t a g e L e v e l
It is necessary to g r o u n d at each v o l t a g e level to
achieve the advantages o f neutral g r o u n d i n g in all
parts o f the system. E a c h v o l t a g e level m a y be
g r o u n d e d at the neutral lead o f a generator, p o w e r
transformer bank, o r g r o u n d i n g transformer. A n y g e n -
erator o r transformer used for g r o u n d i n g should, as
far as possible, be o n e w h i c h is a l w a y s c o n n e c t e d t o
the system. Alternatively, a sufficient n u m b e r o f g e n -
erators o r transformers should be g r o u n d e d to insure
at least o n e g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n o n the s y s t e m at all
times.
G r o u n d at the P o w e r S o u r c e and n o t at the L o a d
W h e n a p o w e r s y s t e m is g r o u n d e d at the neutral
of w y e - c o n n e c t e d m o t o r s , o r at the primaries o f
wye-delta s t e p - d o w n transformers, it is necessary to
g r o u n d a number o f these points simultaneously to
insure that the system will remain g r o u n d e d w h e n
one o r m o r e o f these loads are o u t o f service. C o n -
sequently, ground-fault current m a y be e x c e s s i v e l y
high w h e n all g r o u n d e d points are in service. Since
p o w e r sources are fewer in n u m b e r than loads and
are less likely to b e disconnected, they are pre-
ferred as g r o u n d i n g points. O t h e r disadvantages o f
g r o u n d i n g at the l o a d are:
( 1 ) Standard l o w - v o l t a g e unit substations have
delta-connected primaries, therefore, special
transformers are required, if the primaries are
to be used as g r o u n d i n g points.
( 2 ) Since the ground-fault current is dependent o n
the n u m b e r o f feeders o r g r o u n d i n g points in
operation, it m a y v a r y w i d e l y d e p e n d i n g o n
system operating conditions. T h i s makes se-
lective relaying m o r e difficult and m a y require
additional directional g r o u n d relaying to avoid
false tripping o f healthy feeder circuits.
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1 0
G r o u n d E a c h M a j o r S o u r c e B u s Section
W h e n there are t w o o r m o r e m a j o r s o u r c e bus sec-
tions, each section should have at least o n e g r o u n d e d
neutral point, since the b u s tie circuit m a y b e open.
If there are t w o o r m o r e p o w e r s o u r c e s per bus sec-
tion, there should b e p r o v i s i o n for g r o u n d i n g at least
t w o s o u r c e s o n each section.
Xo/Xi N e u t r a l Circuit A r r a n g e m e n t s
W h e n the m e t h o d o f g r o u n d i n g and the g r o u n d i n g
point have been selected f o r a particular p o w e r s y s -
tem, the next question to c o n s i d e r is h o w m a n y g e n -
erator o r transformer neutrals will b e used for
g r o u n d i n g and w h e t h e r ( 1 ) each neutral will b e c o n -
nected independently to g r o u n d , o r ( 2 ) a neutral bus
with single g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n will b e established.
Single P o w e r Source
W h e n a p o w e r s y s t e m has o n l y o n e s o u r c e o f p o w e r
(generator or transformer), grounding may be accom-
plished b y c o n n e c t i n g the s o u r c e neutral to earth
either directly o r t h r o u g h a neutral impedance. P r o -
vision o f a switch o r circuit b r e a k e r t o o p e n the
neutral circuit is not necessary because neutral cir-
cuits have practically z e r o potential with respect to
g r o u n d e x c e p t during the short interval o f a fault,
hence b r e a k d o w n s are n o t likely. A l s o , it is n o t de-
sirable to operate the s y s t e m u n g r o u n d e d b y having
the g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n o p e n w h i l e the generator o r
transformer is in service. In addition, the neutral
switching e q u i p m e n t greatly increases the c o s t o f
grounding.
In the event that s o m e m e a n s o f disconnecting the
g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n is required in a particular case, a
metal-clad circuit breaker s h o u l d b e used rather than
an o p e n d i s c o n n e c t s w i t c h f o r i n d o o r installations.
T h e latter is h a z a r d o u s t o personnel if a g r o u n d fault
should o c c u r at the time the switch is o p e n e d o r closed.
Multiple P o w e r Sources
W h e n there are o n l y a f e w generators or p o w e r
transformer banks at a station, individual neutral
impedances are frequently used. W i t h this arrange-
ment, the neutral o f each generator o r main trans-
f o r m e r bank is c o n n e c t e d directly t o its neutral i m -
pedance w i t h o u t intervening switching equipment. N o
special operating instructions are required since each
i m p e d a n c e is automatically c o n n e c t e d w h e n e v e r the
c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o w e r s o u r c e is in use, and is d e -
energized w h e n e v e r this s o u r c e is disconnected.
W h e n o n l y t w o s o u r c e s are i n v o l v e d , this arrange-
ment is preferable t o the use o f a neutral bus. W h e n
several s o u r c e s are i n v o l v e d , h o w e v e r , the g r o u n d
current is increased each time a s o u r c e is added, and
m a y be raised t o levels w h i c h are undesirably high.
In the case o f resistance g r o u n d i n g , each resistor
must be rated for sufficient current to assure satis-
factory relaying w h e n operating independently. C o n -
sequently, the g r o u n d current w i t h several resistors
will be several times the m i n i m u m required for ef-
fective relaying.
13
 W h e n individual resistors are used, circulation of Calculation of Ground-Fault Currents
third harmonic currents b e t w e e n paralleled genera-
tors is not a p r o b l e m since the resistance limits the T h e magnitude of current w h i c h will flow in the

circulating current to negligible values. event of a line-to-ground fault o n a g r o u n d e d system

is usually determined b y the reactance o f the grounded
W h e n there are m o r e than t w o or three generators apparatus, the reactance o f the lines o r cables lead-
or p o w e r supply transformer banks at o n e station, it ing to the fault, and the resistance and reactance of
is c o m m o n l y desirable to use o n l y o n e resistor. E a c h the ground return path including any intentional
p o w e r source is then c o n n e c t e d to the resistor through g r o u n d i n g resistance o r reactance. F o r interconnected
a neutral bus and neutral switching equipment. T h i s systems, calculation o f the current may be rather
arrangement keeps the ground-fault current to a prac- complicated. F o r simpler cases, an approximation of
tical minimum, since the ground current from the the available fault current m a y b e obtained.
station is never greater than can b e supplied through
a single resistor. It also assures the same value o f
Resistance Grounding
ground current regardless o f the n u m b e r o f genera-
tors or transformers in use and simplifies ground When a single line-to-ground fault o c c u r s on a
relaying. resistance-grounded s y s t e m , a v o l t a g e appears across
T h e primary purpose of the neutral breakers is to the resistor ( o r resistors), nearly equal to the normal
isolate the generator o r transformer neutrals from line-to-neutral v o l t a g e o f the system.
the neutral bus w h e n the source is taken out o f serv- T h e resistor current is equal to the current in the
ice, because the neutral bus is energized during fault. T h u s , the current is practically equal t o line-
ground faults. to-neutral v o l t a g e divided b y the n u m b e r of o h m s of
Circuit breakers are preferred to disconnecting resistance used. Resistors have a v o l t a g e rating equal
switches for indoor installations to assure safety to to line-to-neutral v o l t a g e and an ampere rating equal
personnel. If disconnecting switches are used, as in to the current w h i c h flows w h e n this v o l t a g e is ap-
s o m e o u t d o o r installations, they should b e elevated o r plied to the resistor. T h u s , for e x a m p l e , a m a x i m u m
metal-enclosed and interlocked in such a manner as ground-fault current o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,000 amperes
to prevent their operation except when the trans- will be obtained o n a s y s t e m w h e n using a 2,000-
former primary and s e c o n d a r y switches o r generator ampere resistor. T h i s v e r y simple m e t h o d o f calculat-
main and field breakers are open. ing the ground-fault current is o n l y suitable when
the ground-fault current is small c o m p a r e d to the
It is sometimes desirable to operate with o n l y o n e three-phase fault current.
generator neutral breaker c l o s e d at a time to elimi-
nate any circulating h a r m o n i c o r z e r o - s e q u e n c e cur- T h e m e t h o d just outlined applied to faults o n lines
rents. W h e n the generator w h o s e neutral is g r o u n d e d or buses, or at the terminals of machines or trans-
is to be shut d o w n , another generator is g r o u n d e d , b y formers. If the fault is internal to a rotating machine
means of its neutral breaker b e f o r e the main and or transformer, the ground-fault current will b e less.
neutral breakers of the first o n e are o p e n e d . H o w e v e r , T h e reduction in current is primarily due to the in-
with similar generators and reasonably equal load ternal v o l t a g e o f the apparatus. In the case o f w y e -
division, circulating currents are negligible, and it is c o n n e c t e d equipment, this internal v o l t a g e is at full
often found practical to operate with neutral break- value at the terminals and is z e r o at the neutral. If
ers of t w o o r more generators closed. This sim- the fault o c c u r s at the neutral of any apparatus, no
plifies operating p r o c e d u r e and increases assurance voltage will appear across the s y s t e m g r o u n d i n g re-
that the system will be g r o u n d e d at all times. sistor, s o the fault current will b e z e r o . A t inter-
mediate points in the w i n d i n g b e t w e e n the neutral
In the case of multiple transformers, all neutral and a terminal, the fault current will b e intermediate
breakers m a y b e n o r m a l l y c l o s e d b e c a u s e the pres- b e t w e e n z e r o and the current t o a terminal fault.
ence of delta-connected w i n d i n g s ( w h i c h are nearly F o r example, at a point 10 percent o f the winding
always present o n at least o n e side o f each trans- length from neutral, the ground-fault current will be
former) minimizes circulation of harmonic current a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 percent o f the value for a terminal
between transformers. fault. F o r a fault a n y w h e r e b e t w e e n this point and

W h e n total ground-fault currents with several in- a terminal, the current will b e m o r e than 10 percent

dividual resistors w o u l d e x c e e d about 4,000 amperes, of the a m o u n t for a terminal fault.

it is suggested that neutral switchgear and a single
resistor be considered for resistance g r o u n d e d systems.
W h e n o n l y o n e source is i n v o l v e d , but others are
to be added to the station in the future, it is sug-
gested that space be a l l o w e d s o that neutral switch-
gear can be added w h e n this b e c o m e s necessary.
In the case of delta-connected machines the inter-
nal v o l t a g e t o neutral m a y be c o n s i d e r e d to be 100
percent at the terminals and 50 percent at the mid-
point o f the w i n d i n g s . T h e mid-points have the l o w -
est potential with respect to the electric neutral of
any part o f the winding. T h e r e f o r e , a g r o u n d fault at

14

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any point In the w i n d i n g will p r o d u c e a g r o u n d fault to w h i c h it is c o n n e c t e d . W h e n a resistor is used
current o f 50 percent o r m o r e o f the resistor current between neutral and g r o u n d , the current rating o f the
rating. g r o u n d i n g transformer is based o n the resistor rated
current. In either case, the transformer is rated to
carry the required current for rated time without ex-
Reactance G r o u n d i n g ceeding its rated temperature limits. Many system
grounding devices are short-time rated. Care must be
In a reactance-grounded s y s t e m with a single line-
exercised in their application to insure that current will
to-ground fault, the ground-fault current m a y be
be automatically interrupted before the thermal limits of
computed from the f o r m u l a :
components are exceeded.
Ig = 3E (Resistance may
Xi + X% -|- Xo -\- 3X n usually be neglected)
Resistor Ratings
(U)
Xi = System positive-sequence reactance (ohms per T h e determination of the resistor o h m i c value, thus
phase) the magnitude o f ground-fault current, is based o n
X 2 = System negative-sequence reactance (ohms per ( 1 ) p r o v i d i n g sufficient current for satisfactory per-
phase) formance of the s y s t e m relaying scheme, and ( 2 ) lim-
Xo = System zero-sequence reactance (ohms per phase) iting ground-fault current to a value which will p r o -
duce minimum d a m a g e at the point o f fault. In m o s t
X n = Reactance of neutral grounding reactor (ohms)
cases, the ground-fault current is limited b y the neu-
E = Line-to-neutral voltage (volts)
tral resistor to a small fraction of that which would
Ig z= Ground-fault current (amperes) flow for a three-phase fault. T o determine the mini-
mum ground-fault current required, a diagram of the
system must be available, giving ratings of current
Solid G r o u n d i n g
transformers and types of relays for each circuit. This
In a system with solid neutral c o n n e c t i o n to g r o u n d , diagram should include consideration of future changes.
the ground-fault current for a single-line-to-ground
fault, m a y be c o m p u t e d from the formula:
T a b l e 1.1
Ig = 3E (1.2)
Xi -f- X% -f- Xo Selection o f G r o u n d i n g R e s i s t o r

Note: ( V a l u e s given are m i n i m u m r e c o m m e n d e d

Selection o f G r o u n d i n g E q u i p m e n t R a t i n g s 4
ground-fault currents in percent o f rated
primary current o f current transformers)
Grounding resistors, reactors and g r o u n d i n g trans-
formers are n o r m a l l y rated to carry current for a Equipment Protected Type of Relaying
limited time only. T h e standard time interval rating Ground Differ-
usually applicable for industrial systems, with relays Overcurrent ential Other
arranged to protect the g r o u n d i n g equipment, is 10
seconds. Wye-connected genera- 100% 100% 1

tors, m o t o r s and trans-

T h e v o l t a g e rating o f a g r o u n d i n g resistor should formers
be the line-to-neutral v o l t a g e rating of the system.
D e l t a - c o n n e c t e d genera- 40% 40%
T h e insulation class o f a reactor is determined b y tors, m o t o r s and trans-
the system line-to-neutral v o l t a g e . T h e v o l t a g e rating formers
may be less than line-to-neutral voltage, it being cal-
culated b y multiplying the rated current b y the i m - Lines and cables 20% 2 , 3
Pilot wire-
pedance o f the reactor. 100%
Current
T h e v o l t a g e rating o f a g r o u n d i n g transformer balance-
should be system line-to-line v o l t a g e . 100%
Grounding resistors are rated in terms o f the ini- Buses 50%*
tial current w h i c h will flow through the resistor, with
rated resistor v o l t a g e applied.
Notes for Table 1.1:
T h e rated current o f a g r o u n d i n g reactor is the
1. If ground differential is added to the generator, the ground-
thermal current rating. It is the root-mean-square neu- fault current may be limited to lower values (if other sys-
tem requirements permit).
tral current in amperes w h i c h the reactor will carry
for its rated time without e x c e e d i n g standard tem- 2. Where ground-overcurrent relays for lines and cables also
serve for back-up protection for machines or transformers,
perature- limitations. this value should be 100 percent.

3. When phase relays must be set to wait for other breakers

If a g r o u n d i n g transformer neutral is solidly c o n -
nected to g r o u n d , the current w h i c h will flow during
a g r o u n d fault is primarily determined b y the react-
4.
ance of the g r o u n d i n g transformer and o f the system
to clear any through phase-to-phase fault, required ground
current may have to be as high as 50 percent of the current
transformer rating to avoid false tripping.
Based on current differential. If voltage differential is pro-
vided, ground-fault current may be limited to lower values.

15

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 T h e magnitude o f ground-fault current must b e
sufficient for operation o f all relays. In general, if the
current is high e n o u g h t o operate the relays o n the
larger circuits, it will be adequate for the smaller cir-
cuits. T h e g r o u n d currents required for satisfactory
operation of various types o f relays, expressed in
terms of current transformer rating, are given in
T a b l e 1.1. N o t e that the ground-fault current under
all system operating conditions must equal o r exceed
the minimum required f o r relaying each circuit c o n -
nected to the system. T h i s value is established b y
selecting the highest o f those currents w h i c h m e e t the
requirements o f the several conditions set forth in
T a b l e 1.1.
A n exception to this rule will be found in high-resis-
tance grounding in which the ground current will be
limited to a very low value approximately equal to the
fundamental frequency system-to-ground capacitive charg-
ing current. This will usually be but a few amperes,
insufficient to afford selective ground-current relaying.
Reactor Ratings
T h e reactance of a neutral g r o u n d i n g reactor should
be chosen to limit the g r o u n d current and the current
in the faulted phase t o the desired value. In o r d e r to
minimize transient overvoltages, the ground-fault cur-
rent must not be less than 25 percent o f three-phase
fault current. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a ratio o f Xo/Xi = transient o v e r v o l t a g e s in a s y s t e m is that the ratio
10. F o r reactance g r o u n d i n g o f generators, the cur-
rent in any w i n d i n g must n o t e x c e e d the three-phase
fault current. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a ratio o f XoJX% =
1. T h i s establishes the criteria for m a x i m u m and
minimum value o f neutral reactance. If the neutral
reactance is selected in a c c o r d a n c e with the f o l l o w i n g
relationship, the current in the w i n d i n g o f the faulted
phase will not exceed the three-phase fault current o f
the machine regardless o f system reactance:
y _ Xi -Xo
Xn 3 actance is a function of the initial symmetrical system
where X n = Reactance o f neutral reactor
Xi = Generator positive-sequence subtransient
reactance
Xo = Generator z e r o - s e q u e n c e reactance
H o w e v e r , the current w h i c h flows through the g e n -
erator neutral reactor itself is not independent o f
system constants, and m a y often e x c e e d the three-
phase fault current of the machine. T h e current rat-
ing of a neutral reactor is determined b y the n u m b e r
and characteristics o f system sources and whether
they are grounded o r u n g r o u n d e d .
T h i s rating (the thermal current r a t i n g ) , can be
calculated b y the following f o r m u l a :
3£
I a =
9
Xx + X , + 3Xn)
where:
*Xi = System positive-sequence reactance
**X* = System negative-sequence reactance
Xo = System zero-sequence reactance
X n = Reactance of neutral-grounding reactor
E = Line-to-neutral voltage
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Ig = Current through reactor for line-to-ground
fault
• F o r Xx of generators use transient reactance.
**X a for turbine generator is same as sub-transient
reactance.
T h e neutral-grounding reactor should b e selected
to carry the available current under all practical oper-
ating conditions. W i t h any g i v e n condition o f c o n -
nected grounded-neutral sources, the addition of un-
g r o u n d e d neutral s o u r c e s and loads will increase the
current flow through the g r o u n d e d neutral c o n n e c t i o n s .
Grounding Transformer Ratings
T h e electrical specifications o f a g r o u n d i n g trans-
former are:
Voltage — t h e line-to-line v o l t a g e o f the system.
Current — t h e m a x i m u m neutral current.
Time — u s u a l l y designed t o carry rated cur-
rent for a short time, such as 10 sec-
o n d s o r 60 s e c o n d s .
Reactance — this quantity is a function of the ini-
tial s y m m e t r i c a l system three-phase
short-circuit kva.
Determination o f grounding-transformer reactance
is based o n the f o l l o w i n g : T h e criterion for limiting
Xo/Xi should be equal to or less than 10 (if used in
series with a grounding resistor it is necessary only that
the ratio Ro/Xo be 2 or greater. The criterion for using
grounded-neutral type lightning arresters is that Xo/Xi
should be equal to or less than 3. In a system having a
grounding transformer, its reactance is the principal part
of Xo in the above criterion. A l s o , the positive-sequence
reactance, Xt, is equal to the reactance of the system to
initial symmetrical root-mean-square three-phase, short-
(1.3) circuit current. Thus, the grounding transformer re-
three-phase short-circuit kva.
O n a system otherwise u n g r o u n d e d , the g r o u n d i n g -
transformer reactance, Xgt in o h m s per phase, re-
quired to p r o v i d e any specified X /Xi ratio is given
0
b y the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a :
x Xo/Xr X kv2 X 1000
System symmetrical 3-phase short-circuit kva
(1.9)
W h e n lightning arresters for grounded-neutral service
are to be applied, the grounding-transformer neutral
should be solidly g r o u n d e d and its reactance m a y be
determined b y :
x = 3000 X kyg
System initial symmetrical 3-phase short-circuit kva
(1.4) (1.10)
Special Problems
The Influence of Grounding Methods on Control
Circuit Safety in Systems 600 Volts and Below
Frequently, the safety o f a c o n t r o l circuit is offered
as a reason for a particular m e t h o d of grounding.
In all cases, w h e n m o t o r starter c o n t r o l circuits are
set up without c o n t r o l p o w e r transformers, it b e c o m e s
16
 evident that there are p r o b l e m s with regard t o circuit because of the limited system and the absence of
arrangement w h i c h must be considered in order to switching devices, is satisfactory from the standpoint
minimize operating difficulties and personnel hazards. of transient o v e r v o l t a g e s . Since n o p r o b l e m of relay
Accidental m o t o r starting due to faulty c o n t r o l cir- coordination is involved, the relaying problem is
cuits m a y b e associated with u n g r o u n d e d systems as simple.
well as m o s t types of g r o u n d e d systems.
Three-Phase, F o u r - W i r e Systems

Autotransformers In these systems, single-phase loads are connected

P o w e r autotransformers are quite frequently used between phase c o n d u c t o r s and the neutral conductor.
in electric utility p o w e r transmission and distribution T h e neutral c o n d u c t o r is insulated o v e r its entire
systems. Their use in industrial p o w e r systems as a length, except w h e r e it is g r o u n d e d at its source o f
part o f the p o w e r distribution system is relatively in- supply. The neutrals of such systems should be
frequent. Autotransformers are quite c o m m o n , h o w - g r o u n d e d such that, during a g r o u n d fault, the v o l t -
ever, in control and utilization equipment. Systems age between any phase c o n d u c t o r and ground does
using autotransformers m a y be subject to dangerous not appreciably e x c e e d normal line-to-ground v o l t -
fundamental-frequency overvoltage during system age. Four-wire systems should thus be effectively
faults, or from high-frequency or steep-wave-front grounded in such a manner that the ground-fault
transient overvoltages on the lines, originating from currents are a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal to three-phase fault
lightning or switching surges. In some cases, solidly currents. T h i s is usually accomplished b y direct c o n -
grounding the neutral o f the autotransformer is a nection of transformer bank neutrals to ground with-
satisfactory means of eliminating o v e r v o l t a g e s . T h e out any intentional neutral impedance.
disadvantage of solid-neutral grounding is that third
harmonic currents and telephone interference may BIBLIOGRAPHY
b e c o m e excessive in certain cases. T h e s e harmonic
*1. Application Guide for Grounding of Synchronous
problems can usually b e eliminated b y the use o f a
Generator Systems—AIEE Committee Report, A I E E
tertiary delta on the autotransformer.
Transactions, Apparatus and Systems, June 1953,
pages 517-26.

S y s t e m s with Utility Supply *2. Application Guide on Methods of Neutral Ground-

S o m e industrial systems are directly connected at
their operating v o l t a g e to utility systems. W h e n such
is the case, the s c h e m e o f g r o u n d i n g the industrial
system should be p r o p e r l y coordinated with that for
the utility system.
ing of Transmission S y s t e m s — A I E E Transac-
tions, A u g u s t 1953, pp. 663-668.
*3. Present D a y Grounding Practices on Power Sys-
tems—Third A I E E R e p o r t o n S y s t e m Grounding,
A I E E Transactions. V o l . 66, 1947, p. 1525.

If t w o systems are interconnected b y means o f a 4. A I E E Standard N o . 32—Neutral Grounding D e -

transformer bank, at least o n e w i n d i n g o f the bank
will normally be c o n n e c t e d in delta, and this delta-
connected w i n d i n g will make each system independ-
ent from the standpoint o f grounding.
vices.
5. T h e U s e o f 600-Volt and 460-Volt P o w e r Systems
with G r o u n d e d Neutrals—James P. E . A r b e r r y ,
A I E E National P o w e r Conference Proceedings,
Pittsburgh, Pa., A p r i l 1950.

Generator-Transformer U n i t Installations 11 6. L o c a t i n g G r o u n d s o n 480-Volt, 3-Phase Delta

S y s t e m s — B . G. F o r b e s , P o w e r Generation, Sep-
Generator-transformer unit installations sometimes tember 1949, p p . 60-61.
use an arrangement consisting o f a distribution-type
7. Industrial P o w e r S y s t e m s H a n d b o o k , Chapter 5
transformer, loading resistor and relay in the g e n -
McGraw-Hill B o o k Co., N e w York, N. Y .
erator neutral. T h i s s c h e m e m a y be p r o v i d e d with a
5 or 10 minute rating t o permit time for transferring 8. Protection o f Industrial Plants Against Insula-
load off the affected machine before it is taken out tion B r e a k d o w n and Consequential D a m a g e —
of service. T h e distribution transformer will usually H . R . V a u g h a n , A I E E T e c h n i c a l Paper 46-122,
June 1946.
have a rating o f 25 kva to 50 kva, and the relay m a y
be connected to operate o n resistor current o r v o l t a g e 9. A p p l i c a t i o n o f G r o u n d - F a u l t Neutralizers—AJEE
depending o n the particular installation. C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t , Electrical Engineering, July
1953, p . 606.
T h i s system is used because the c o s t o f the resistor
and distribution-type transformer is often less than 10. Electrical T r a n s m i s s i o n and Distribution Refer-
the c o s t o f a high-voltage low-current resistor con- ence B o o k — W e s t i n g h o u s e Electric Corp., Fourth
nected directly between the neutral and g r o u n d . T h i s Edition, S e p t e m b e r 1950, Chapters 14 and 19.
results in an effective high-resistance g r o u n d w h i c h .
*Also printed as A I E E Grounding Guides, No. 954, October 1954.

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 11. Grounding Principles and Practice I I I — G e n e r a -
tor Neutral G r o u n d i n g D e v i c e s — A . A . Johnson,
Electrical Engineering, M a r c h 1945, pp. 92-99.
12. Grounding o f Industrial S y s t e m s — W . C. B l o o m -
quist, General Electric R e v i e w , A u g u s t 1951.
13. Neutral vs. Corner-of-the-Delta Grounding —
W . F. Strong, Electrical W o r l d , S e p t e m b e r 25,
1950.
14. Industrial P o w e r Systems H a n d b o o k , Chapters 5,
6 and 7, M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k C o . , N e w Y o r k , N . Y .
15. W h y Ground L o w - V o l t a g e Distribution S y s t e m s ?
— H . G. Barnett, Mill and F a c t o r y , M a y 1951 or
A I E E Transaction P a p e r N o . 55-689.
16. S y s t e m Neutral G r o u n d i n g in Industrial Plants—
D . L . Beeman, A I E E National P o w e r Conference
P r o c e e d i n g s , Pittsburgh, Pa., A p r i l 1950.
17. N e w s Bulletin of the International A s s o c i a t i o n of
Electrical Inspectors, Interim R e p o r t of A m e r i c a n
Research C o m m i t t e e o n G r o u n d i n g , M a r c h 1944.
18. G r o u n d e d vs U n g r o u n d e d L o w - V o l t a g e A - C Sys-
tems—H. B. Thacker, AISE Paper and Disc,
I r o n & Steel Engineer, A p r i l 1954, pp. 65-72.

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 CHAPTER II

EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

GENERAL REASONS FOR GROUNDING path in the enclosure will result in arcing and heat-
ing at breaks and joints. If additional current capacity
T h e main purpose of equipment g r o u n d i n g is t o
is required in the return circuit it should be added
provide safety for operators, electricians, repairmen
b y means of c o n d u c t o r s inside the conduit or metallic
and the general public. T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y in-
enclosure, and not outside.
suring that in general all parts of steel structures,
m o t o r and generator frames, control equipment en-
Types of Equipment to be Grounded
closures, switchgear, cable armor, conduit, portable
electric equipment, and any metallic b o d y enclosing 1. Structures
or near an electric circuit w h i c h is accessible to per-
2. O u t d o o r Stations
sons, shall be at g r o u n d potential. T h i s is e m b o d i e d
in the rules o f the National Electrical C o d e and the 3. L a r g e Generators and M o t o r R o o m s
National Electrical Safety C o d e . 4. Conductor Enclosures

In the case o f accidental contact b e t w e e n the elec- 5. Miscellaneous M o t o r s

tric circuit and the metallic b o d y , the latter assumes a
potential a b o v e g r o u n d equal to that part o f the cir-
cuit with w h i c h it is in contact. Unless this b o d y is
intentionally g r o u n d e d , it is m o r e than likely to be
simply electrically isolated from g r o u n d . U n d e r this
condition, it w o u l d be c o n n e c t e d to earth through a
resistance of hundreds o r thousands of o h m s , instead
of a few o h m s if it w e r e g r o u n d e d , o r millions of
o h m s if it w e r e insulated. T h e r e f o r e , a flow o f current
w o u l d be permitted, and if the potential differences
between the electric circuit and g r o u n d are such as
are c o m m o n l y found in practice, not o n l y w o u l d the
conducting b o d y be at a potential a b o v e g r o u n d w h i c h
m a y in m a n y cases be dangerous to life, but there will
be a light flow of current to g r o u n d through the leak-
age path w h i c h m a y easily be the cause of fire through
heating o f flammable substances if there are any
present.
T h e actual g r o u n d i n g o f the c o n d u c t i n g b o d y al-
l o w s sufficient current flow in the event o f an acci-
dent to insulation to insure positive operation o f
ground-detecting devices and the operation o f fuses
and circuit breakers. It also tends to prevent the p o -
tential b e t w e e n a c o n d u c t i n g b o d y and g r o u n d from
rising to a dangerous value. It is essential therefore
that the impedance of the return path for g r o u n d -
fault currents be as l o w as possible and that the
grounding c o n d u c t o r s be large enough to carry the
m a x i m u m g r o u n d current for a reasonable time with-
out burning off.
T h e 60 c y c l e reactance of any g r o u n d return circuit
remote from the o u t g o i n g circuit c o n d u c t o r will be
high c o m p a r e d to its resistance, and will limit the
magnitude of g r o u n d return current w h i c h it will
carry. Recent tests " lead to the conclusion that w h e n
8 9
the circuit c o n d u c t o r s are enclosed in a metallic en-
closure such as conduit, bus enclosure o r armor, the
metallic enclosure will carry a major portion of the
return fault current. Failure to p r o v i d e a continuous
6. Portable Equipment
GROUNDING OF STRUCTURES
Reasons for L o w Resistance to Earth
G r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n s must be adequate for both nor-
mal and fault current. It is essential that the resistance
of structures to earth be extremely l o w in order to
hold the potential difference as low as possible. Refer-
ence 10 describes and defines this problem clearly. Refer
to Chapter I V for values of resistance to earth.
Ground Bus
T h i s bus, w h i c h m a y serve for g r o u n d i n g large
m o t o r s , generators, etc., should not b e smaller than
N o . 2 / 0 A W G c o n d u c t o r . It should be connected to
water mains and g r o u n d r o d s . Small installations may
require N o . 4 / 0 , while larger ones m a y use 500,000
or 750,000 circular mil capacity c o p p e r wire or copper
bar or any other suitable c o n d u c t o r . H o w e v e r , the
current-carrying capacity should never be less than 25
percent of the highest continuous current rating of
any piece of equipment. If materials other than copper
are used, the c o n d u c t i v i t y should be equivalent to
copper. S o m e consideration should be given t o catho-
dic protection w h e r e dissimilar metals are used.
Structure Ground Connections
T h e steel f r a m e w o r k o f buildings should be
g r o u n d e d at the base o f every corner c o l u m n and
intermediate c o l u m n s at distances not greater than
60 feet. T h e c o n n e c t i o n s from the g r o u n d bus o r grid
to the structure should not be less than 2/0 copper
and should be m a d e b y brazing, thermit welding,
equivalent p r o c e s s , or a suitable solderless terminal.
T h e metal structures for switchgear, lightning
arresters, d i s c o n n e c t switches, transformers, grillwork,
etc., should be individually c o n n e c t e d to the ground
bus, similar to the building framework.

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 In isolated-phase stations, where a ground-fault
relay protective scheme is used, it is necessary that
all of the stationary metallic parts of the switchgear
not at bus potential be c o n n e c t e d to a fault-current
bus, a section of the latter being p r o v i d e d for each
section of the main bus. In turn, each section of
fault-current bus is connected to the station ground
bus through a current transformer
Disconnecting switches directly bolted to a steel
structure need no further g r o u n d except that operat-
ing pipes of all gang-operated disconnecting switches
should be further grounded b y a N o . 1/0 A W G extra
flexible c o p p e r cable or equivalent c o n n e c t e d directly
above the operating handle and run to the nearest
part of the grounded supporting structure.
Inspection
T o obtain continuous and reliable service from
ground connections, g o o d mechanical construction
must be supplemented b y adequate inspection. It is
recommended that inspection of all c o n n e c t i o n s a b o v e
the ground surface be m a d e yearly.
GROUNDING OF OUTDOOR STATIONS
Establishment o f G r o u n d B u s o r G r i d
A n ideal grounding system consisting of a single
large conducting plate c o v e r i n g the entire area of
the station and connected t o earth at infinite points
is, of course, not practicable. Its effect, h o w e v e r , can
be approached b y installing a suitable g r o u n d grid
surrounding the area o f the o u t d o o r station consisting
of a continuous stranded c o p p e r cable, o r any other
suitable c o n d u c t o r , buried b e l o w the surface of the
ground and connected to driven g r o u n d rods. T h e
ideal size for the g r o u n d bus will depend o n the
magnitude of the available ground-fault currents and
operating time of protective equipment. V e r y often the
grounding system will consist of a mesh grid at or slight-
ly below ground level blanketing the substation area.
Distributed over the area would be a multiplicity of
earthing terminals connected into this grid. The size
of conductor used might range from perhaps 4 / 0 to 500
M C M copper.
In the case of extensive substations with widely spaced
apparatus items, individual local grids may be established
at the various equipment locations. These local grids
would then be interconnected to form a single over-all
grounding system. Another method is to run several
cables across the substation area interconnecting the sides
of the bus and forming a grid. Interconnecting c o n -
ductors should be not less than the size of the bus.
T h e ground bus should be c o n n e c t e d to any metallic
water pipe, metallic drain o r sewer pipe located in the
station area o r within reasonable distance. C o n n e c -
tion should be m a d e to t w o points on the pipe at
least 20 feet apart and should consist of a c o n d u c t o r
of not less than the size of the g r o u n d bus.
A small local ground grid or metallic grating is often
installed at the spot a man would stand in operating a
switch handle. Its purpose is to safeguard the operator
against a dangerous potential difference between the
switch handle and the ground surface on which he stands.
(See reference No, 1 0 ) .
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G r o u n d i n g o f O u t d o o r Structures
Refer to G R O U N D I N G O F S T R U C T U R E S in
this chapter.
G r o u n d i n g o f O u t d o o r Station F e n c e
A metal fence surrounding an o u t d o o r station should
be grounded. A ground c o n d u c t o r of not less than N o .
1/0 A W G should be installed around the fence, ap-
proximately 12 to 24 inches away from it and about
12 inches deep. This should be brazed or w e l d e d to
ground rods installed at 10 foot to 40 foot intervals.
All corner fence posts and posts adjacent to ground
rods should be c o n n e c t e d to the g r o u n d c o n d u c t o r s
being sure to connect to fence strands at these points.
T h e r e is a difference of opinion relative to connect-
ing the fence ground to the station g r o u n d bus. S o m e
of the basic facts w h i c h underlie this c o n t r o v e r s y
are as follows.
In the event of a heavy flow of current through
the connection to earth, due t o a g r o u n d fault o r a
lightning discharge, the station g r o u n d bus is elevated
above earth potential b y a value equal to the voltage
d r o p in the connection to earth. T h i s v o l t a g e drop
is equal to the p r o d u c t o f the current and the im-
pedance in the c o n n e c t i o n to earth. If the fence is
connected directly to the station g r o u n d bus, it will
also be elevated a b o v e earth potential b y the same
amount. Because the potential gradient in the earth
adjacent to the fence d r o p s v e r y abruptly within the
first three feet a w a y f r o m the fence posts o r other
connections to earth, there m a y be a serious hazard
to personnel standing o n the earth and in contact
with the fence.
O n the other hand, if the fence g r o u n d is isolated
from the station ground, the potential difference will
appear between the station equipment and the fence.
W h e n the fence is separated from the station equip-
ment or structure b y a considerable distance there
is little possibility of contacting both at the same time.
U n d e r this condition there is s o m e merit in isolating
the fence g r o u n d from the station g r o u n d .
W h e n the resistance o f the station g r o u n d c o n n e c -
tion to earth is extremely l o w the rise in potential
m a y be of no significance. If there is a possibility of
high-voltage lines falling on the fence, it is desirable
to provide the least possible impedance in the ground
return path. U n d e r such conditions it m a y b e desir-
able to interconnect the station g r o u n d and the fence
ground.
In s o m e cases the fence g r o u n d and the station
ground are c o n n e c t e d together, and the station ground
grid extended to s o m e distance outside the fence to
reduce the abrupt changes in potential gradient in
the earth. (See reference N o . 1 0 ) .
G r o u n d i n g o f Circuit Neutrals
W h e r e it is necessary to g r o u n d a neutral circuit
such as the w y e point of a transformer bank or
generator, such g r o u n d connection should be made
 Figure 2.1
Typical methods of connecting copper weld ground rod
to steel tower using welding method.

through a c o n d u c t o r of not less than 25 percent of

the conductivity of the largest phase c o n d u c t o r in
the circuit but not smaller than N o . 1/0 A W G . It is
desirable that this c o n n e c t i o n be made to t w o separate
points in the station g r o u n d bus.

General C o m m e n t s

(a) All ground bus and c o n n e c t i n g cable should be

run in such a manner as to be protected from m e -
chanical injury.

( b ) W h e r e g r o u n d cables are run under ground,

they should be laid with a reasonable amount of
slack to reduce the possibility of breakage.

( c ) All electrical conduits, metallic sheathed cable,

etc., in an o u t d o o r station, should be g r o u n d e d to the
station ground bus. Refer to G R O U N D I N G O F
C O N D U C T O R E N C L O S U R E S in this chapter.

Typical grounding c o n n e c t i o n s are s h o w n in Figures

2.1 and 2.2.

GROUNDING OF LARGE G E N E R A T O R
AND MOTOR ROOMS

In large stations, a ground bus of adequate size

should be run around the periphery of the building.
Conductor material should be soft drawn or m e d i u m
hard drawn c o p p e r wire, c o p p e r bar, or equivalent.
T h e g r o u n d bus should be c o n n e c t e d at t w o o r m o r e
points to g r o u n d i n g electrodes, the building structure Figure 2.2
Typical method of making a T connection of a ground wire
and to water mains, metallic drain and sewer pipes using welding method.

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 in order to keep the resistance of the g r o u n d bus t o
earth as l o w as possible. E a c h floor should have its
o w n ground bus.
F o r mechanical strength, the g r o u n d bus should not
be smaller than N o . 2 / 0 A W G c o n d u c t o r . Small sta-
tions m a y require N o . 4 / 0 , while large o n e s m a y use
500,000 o r 750,000 circular mil size. In extreme cases,
where extremely high ground-fault currents m a y be
expected, larger sizes m a y be required.
Connections to building c o l u m n s should be not less
than N o . 2 / 0 A W G and be m a d e b y brazing, w e l d i n g
or with suitable solderless terminals. G r o u n d c o n n e c -
tions from transformers, switchgear, m o t o r s and g e n -
erators to the g r o u n d bus should be not less than
N o . 1/0 A W G but must not be smaller in current-
carrying capacity than 25 percent o f the highest
continuous rating o f any piece o f primary apparatus
to which it is connected. L a r g e generators, m o t o r s
and transformers should have t w o c o n n e c t i o n s to the
ground bus. A l o n g r o w o f switchgear units should
have a ground connection from each end o f same.
Connections to the equipment to be g r o u n d e d m a y
be brazed, w e l d e d or m a d e with suitable solderless
terminals.
T w o typical g r o u n d i n g systems are s h o w n in F i g -
ures 2.3 and 2.4.
GROUNDING OF CONDUCTOR ENCLOSURES
List of Equipment to be Grounded
T h e National Electrical C o d e specifies that e x p o s e d
conductive materials enclosing electric equipment, o r
forming a part of such equipment, are g r o u n d e d for
the purpose o f preventing a potential a b o v e g r o u n d
on the equipment. T h i s includes items such as cabi-
nets, junction b o x e s , outlet b o x e s , controllers, service
raceway, conduit, couplings, fittings, cable armor, lead
sheath and grillwork. In addition, there are switch-
gear, transformers, s w i t c h b o a r d frames, m o t o r s , gen-
erators, elevators, frames and tracks o f cranes and
portable equipment.
Grounding Methods
O n account of the great number o f c o n d u c t o r en-
closure items which w o u l d be part of this subject, all
cannot be discussed in detail, but general principles
can be pointed out and s o m e details given for the
following.
Equipment and W i r e Raceways
Metal b o x e s , cabinets and fittings, o r non-current-
carrying metal parts of other fixed equipment, if
metallically c o n n e c t e d to g r o u n d e d cable armor or
metal raceway, are considered to be g r o u n d e d b y
such connection. W h e r e the metal enclosure of a
wiring system is used as part of the protective g r o u n d -
ing, the electrical continuity of the enclosure should
be assured, with special attention to obtain secure
fastenings.
F o r conduit, armored cable, or metal raceways, the
ground connection should be as near as practicable
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to the point w h e r e the c o n d u c t o r s in the raceway
system c o n c e r n e d receive their supply.
T h e lead sheaths, shields and a r m o r of three c o n -
ductor and small single c o n d u c t o r (less than 500,000
circular mils) p o w e r cables should be grounded at
both ends. In l o n g cables it is sometimes desirable
that sheaths also be g r o u n d e d at several intermediate
points.
T h e lead sheath, shield and a r m o r o f large single-
c o n d u c t o r cables (500,000 circular mils and a b o v e )
should be g r o u n d e d at o n e end o n l y to prevent cir-
culating currents. T h e sheath, shield and armor of
such a cable should b e insulated from g r o u n d through-
out the remainder o f its length unless the cable is
too long, in w h i c h case insulating joints must b e p r o -
vided to permit g r o u n d i n g at a sufficient number of
points to keep sheath v o l t a g e s d o w n to desirable
limits. F o r example, the mutual reactance t o neutral
(X )
m for a 500,000 circular mils standard strand cable
varnished c a m b r i c insulated, lead sheathed (approxi-
mate outside diameter 1.5 inches) with equivalent
spacing between cables o f 3 inches, is approximately
0.0525 o h m per 1000 feet. A s s u m i n g a current (7c)
of 400 amperes in the c o n d u c t o r , the induced voltage
to neutral per 1000 feet can b e calculated from the
formula:
= 40 x 0.0525 = 21 v o l t s
F o r lead-sheathed cable in duct, sheath voltage
should be limited to 12 to 15 volts. F o r jacketed cable,
sheath voltages o f 40 to 50 volts m a y be permitted
because the jacket acts as an insulator.
T h e m i n i m u m size g r o u n d c o n d u c t o r for lead cable
sheaths should be N o . 1/0 c o p p e r .
Service Conductor Enclosures
T h e service conduit g r o u n d i n g w i r e should run
directly f r o m it t o the g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n . T h e interior
conduit, a r m o r e d cable, o r metal raceways, if well
b o n d e d to the service conduit, should need no addi-
tional g r o u n d connection.
Large Enclosures, Such as Switchgear, Transformers,
Motors, Generators, Cranes and Portable Equipment
T h e s e in general are g r o u n d e d to structures o r ade-
quate size g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r s connecting them
direct to a g r o u n d bus. S o m e o f these items o f equip-
ment are referred to in m o r e detail in other parts of
this chapter.
Contact Surfaces
If conduits, couplings, o r fittings having protective
coating o f n o n c o n d u c t i n g material, such as enamel,
are used, such coating should b e t h o r o u g h l y r e m o v e d
from threads o f b o t h couplings and conduit and such
surface o f fittings w h e r e the conduit o r g r o u n d clamp
is secured, in o r d e r to obtain the requisite g o o d elec-
tric c o n n e c t i o n . G r o u n d e d pipes should b e free from
rust, scale, etc., at the place o f attachment o f ground
clamps.
 Figure 2.3
Typical grounding system for a building and
heavy electric apparatus in the building.

23

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 In ice houses, packing plants, etc., w h e r e a great
deal of moisture is present and w h e r e conduits are
attached to metal cabinets, cutout, pull, o r junction
b o x e s b y means o f l o c k nuts and bushings, these c o n -
duits should be b o n d e d together.
Grounding Connectors
T h e grounding c o n d u c t o r should be attached to the
grounding electrode b y means o f ( 1 ) a suitable bolted
clamp of cast b r o n z e , brass or plain o r malleable
cast iron, o r ( 2 ) a pipe fitting , plug, o r other suit-
able device, screwed into the pipe o r into the fitting,
or ( 3 ) by brazing, w e l d i n g o r the equivalent. Soldered
connections shall not be used. W h e r e practicable the
point of attachment should be accessible.
Ground clamps for use o n c o p p e r water tubing and
copper, brass o r lead pipe should preferably be o f
copper and these for use on galvanized o r iron pipe
should preferably be o f galvanized iron to prevent
electrolysis.
T h e sheet metal strap type of g r o u n d clamp is not
considered adequate unless it has a rigid metal base
seated on the water pipe o r other electrode and the
strap is of such material and dimensions that it is
not liable to stretch during o r after installation.
Mechanical protection should be p r o v i d e d for the
ground wire and connections, if it is necessary. I f a
ground wire is installed in a steel conduit, it should
be connected at each end o f the conduit to reduce the
impedance o f the circuit.
T h e point of connection of the g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r
to interior metal raceways, cable a r m o r and the like
should be as near as practicable to the point of power
supply.
T h e grounding c o n d u c t o r , b o n d , o r b o n d i n g j u m p e r
should be attached to conduits, cabinets, equipment
and the like, b y means o f suitable lugs, pressure c o n -
nectors, clamps o r other suitable means. S o l d e r e d c o n -
nections shall not be used.
Size Grounding Conductors
The minimum allowable grounding conductor size to
be used under any circumstances is prescribed in article
250 of the National Electrical Code. Under the most
severe grounding system duty in which a single ground-
ing conductor must alone meet the full duty, a somewhat
larger size should be used in accordance with Table 2.1.
T A B L E 2.1
COPPER W I R E SIZE OF G R O U N D I N G CON-
DUCTOR FOR V A R I O U S SIZES OF P O W E R
CONDUCTORS
A W G Size of Size of
Power Conductor Grounding Conductor
6 o r smaller 8 stranded
4 6
2 4
1 2
0 0
00 0 or structure should be grounded through a ground-
000 00
0000 or larger 0000
24
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Common Grounding Conductor for Circuits,
Metal Raceways, and Equipment
T h e g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r of an interior wiring sys-
tem m a y also be used as the g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r
for equipment, conduit, and other metal raceways or
enclosures for c o n d u c t o r s , including service conduit
or cable sheath and service equipment, p r o v i d e d such
g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r meets the current-carrying ca-
pacity requirements for service raceways, and provided
further, that the s e c o n d a r y distribution circuit supply-
ing the interior wiring system has at least o n e addi-
tional g r o u n d at the transformer o r elsewhere.
GROUNDING OF MISCELLANEOUS
LARGER MOTORS
Method of Obtaining Ground Connections
All larger m o t o r frames should be g r o u n d e d with
the g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r equipped with c o p p e r ter-
minal brazed thereto, o r with a suitable solderless
terminal fastened to the m o t o r beneath the head of
an end shield bolt, o r b y means o f a 5/16 inch (mini-
m u m ) bolt tapped into a suitable place o n the m o t o r
frame. Soldered terminals should not be used. A
washer should b e used between b o l t head and ter-
minal lug. A t t a c h m e n t under head of foot bolt should
not be used. T h e other end o f the grounding c o n -
ductor should be fastened with suitable clamps or
terminals to the rigid metallic conduit o r t o the nearest
available g r o u n d . T a p s from a g r o u n d bus to larger
m o t o r s and generators m a y b e c o n n e c t e d directly to
the bed plate. A l s o refer to National Electrical Code.
Size of Grounding Conductors
In the case of exceptionally large high-current-rated
rotating machines, grounding conductors of 500 to 750
M C M may be appropriately used. Even larger cross
sections occasionally find application.
PORTABLE ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT
Definition of Portable Electric Equipment
Portable electric equipment is electric equipment
which m a y be m o v e d from place to place and which
is supplied with p o w e r through a flexible cable. T h i s
cable m a y be permanently c o n n e c t e d at each end or
m a y be c o n n e c t e d through a suitable plug o r discon-
necting device. Portable electric equipment can be
further subdivided into g r o u p s based o n operating
voltage and p o w e r requirements.
Portable Equipment Above 600 Volts
Portable equipment operating at line voltages above
600 volts should be supplied through a suitable port-
able cable permanently connected at both ends. The
complete equipment including any associated housing
ing wire or wires in this cable equal in current-
carrying capacity to the largest line conductor.
 It is desirable that such equipment b e operated from
a w y e - c o n n e c t e d system with its neutral g r o u n d e d
through a resistor w h i c h limits ground-fault current
to 50 amperes o r less. Suitable ground-fault relaying
should be provided .
P o r t a b l e E q u i p m e n t 600 V o l t s o r L e s s
( a ) Portable equipment operating at line v o l t a g e s
of 600 volts o r less, e x c e p t for single-phase circuits
of 150 volts and b e l o w rated not o v e r 15 amperes,
should be g r o u n d e d through a separate g r o u n d i n g
wire or wires (either bare or colored green) in the con-
necting cable equal in current-carrying capacity to the
largest line conductor. If the cable is not permanently
connected at each end, grounding should be through
separate grounding contacts in the power plug and re-
ceptacle.
( b ) Portable equipment operating from a single-
phase circuit at 150 volts and b e l o w and rated not
over 15 amperes should be g r o u n d e d through a sepa-
rate grounding wire (colored green) in the connecting
cable equal in current-carrying capacity to the line con-
ductors. Grounding should be through separate ground-
ing contacts in the plug and receptacle. In new instal-
lations, receptacles of the type having two parallel line
contacts and one grounding contact should be used ex-
clusively. It is desirable that existing t w o - c o n t a c t
receptacles be replaced with the a b o v e g r o u n d i n g re-
ceptacles w h e r e v e r practicable, but until this is d o n e ,
an adapter ( n o w available) can be used to convert the
two-terminal to a three-terminal grounding-type re-
ceptacle.
( c ) N o t e that portable lamps with n o n - c o n d u c t i n g
guards and sockets need not be g r o u n d e d . Special c o n -
sideration must also b e given t o certain equipment,
such as soldering irons, w h e r e g r o u n d i n g m a y c o n -
stitute a hazard.
General Comments
( a ) A l t h o u g h neutral c o n d u c t o r s are g r o u n d e d at
the source, they should never be used for equipment
grounding.
( b ) Equipment g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r s if insulated,
should be identified with green c o l o r c o d e as speci-
fied b y National Electrical C o d e .
( c ) It is assumed that an adequate g r o u n d c o n n e c -
tion will b e available at the fixed end o r receptacle
of a portable g r o u n d i n g cable. In general, this should
consist of a direct c o n n e c t i o n to the steel frame of a
building o r other structure w h i c h has been suitably
g r o u n d e d o r to the g r o u n d bus of the building. If
such a g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n is not available, it m a y be
necesary to carry a separate g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r
from the point of c o n n e c t i o n o f the portable cable
with the supply line b a c k t o a suitable g r o u n d point.
( d ) T h e g r o u n d i n g contact in a c o n n e c t i o n plug
should be s o designed that it can never be inserted
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so as to m a k e contact with any o f the line contacts
in the receptacle. W h e n a plug is inserted in a recep-
tacle, the g r o u n d contact must engage before any of
the line contacts make contact.
Maintenance
G r o u n d i n g o f portable electric equipment can be
a hazard instead o f a safeguard if not properly in-
stalled and maintained. T h e following precautions
should be o b s e r v e d :
( a ) Care must b e taken that o n l y the green c o n -
d u c t o r is c o n n e c t e d to the parts to be grounded.
( A s specified b y National Electrical C o d e )
( b ) Portable t o o l s should b e c h e c k e d for proper
g r o u n d i n g - c o n d u c t o r c o n n e c t i o n s each time they
are passed to the operator.
( c ) A l l portable cables and their associated plug
equipment should be inspected at regular inter-
vals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Principles and Practices in Grounding — EEI
Publication N o . D - 9 , 1936.
2. Bureau o f Standards — T e c h n o l o g i c Paper 108-
G r o u n d C o n n e c t i o n s for Electric Systems.
3. National Electrical C o d e , National Fire Protection
A s s o c i a t i o n , B o s t o n 10, M a s s .
4. National Electrical Safety C o d e , National Bureau
of Standards, W a s h i n g t o n 25, D . C .
5. National Bureau o f Standards H a n d b o o k H 4 3 .
6. E n g i n e e r i n g Practice — G r o u n d i n g Systems for
Generating Stations and Substations G E U - 2 4 D . —
General E l e c t r i c C o .
7. E n g i n e e r i n g Standards. E1P, E. I. DuPont de
Nemours Co.
8. S o m e Fundamentals o f E q u i p m e n t G r o u n d i n g Cir-
cuit Design, R . H . Kaufmann, A I E E Trans., Appl.
& Indus., N o v . 1954, pgs. 227-31.
9. I r o n Conduit I m p e d a n c e Effects in G r o u n d Circuit
Systems, A . J. Bisson and E. A . Rochau, A I E E
Trans., Appl. & Indus., V o l . 73, July, 1954, pgs. 104-6.
10. Voltage Gradients Through the Ground Under Fault
Conditions, A I E E Committee Report, A I E E Trans-
actions, P o w e r Apparatus and Systems, October 1958,
pages 669-692.
11. Impedance and Inductive Voltage Measurements on
Iron Conductors, W . F. Mackenzie, A I E E Transac-
tions, V o l . 73, 1954, Part I, page 577.
12. Application Guide on Methods of Substation Ground-
ing, A I E E Committee report, A I E E Transactions.
V o l . 73, 1954, Part I I I A , page 271.
 CHAPTER III
STATIC A N D LIGHTNING PROTECTION GROUNDING
— STATIC
PURPOSE OF STATIC GROUNDING
Introduction
Industrial plants, c o m m e r c i a l establishments and
institutions handling solvents, dusty materials, or
other flammable products, often have a potential
hazardous operation condition because o f static ac-
cumulating on equipment, on materials being handled
or even on operating personnel.
T h e discharge of a static charge to g r o u n d or to
other equipment in the presence of flammable or ex-
plosive materials is often the cause of fires and ex-
plosions which result in the loss of m a n y lives each
year, and with an a c c o m p a n y i n g financial loss of
millions of dollars.
T h e simple expedient of g r o u n d i n g equipment is
not always the solution of the p r o b l e m ; therefore, it
is necessary to study each installation in order that
an adequate method of control m a y be selected.
T h i s guide has been prepared to set forth s o m e of
the considerations that must be taken into account
in the study of static p r o b l e m s .
T h e material contained in this chapter is not neces-
sarily new, but has been gleaned from many excellent
papers and booklets on the subject and due credit
is given the authors and c o m m i t t e e s in the biblio-
graphy at the end o f this chapter.
Excerpts of these articles are included in this report
to place in the hands o f the electrical engineer charged
with protecting life and p r o p e r t y from the hazard o f
static sufficient information to r e c o g n i z e the possibili-
ties of static generation and s o m e means that m a y
be effective in protecting against it.
Basic Objectives
Protection of human life is the first o b j e c t i v e in
attempting to control static charges. Besides the danger
to lives because o f explosions o r fires that m a y result
from a static discharge, there is also the danger o f
a person b e c o m i n g startled if suddenly subjected to
a static shock, w h i c h m a y result in falling o r acci-
dentally c o m i n g into contact with s o m e m o v i n g equip-
ment.
T h e second aim in eliminating o r controlling static
is to prevent the loss o f :
1. Capital investment in buildings and equipment
2. Operating funds in stored materials
3. Profits because of the loss of production
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GROUNDING —
If losses such as cited a b o v e can b e avoided by
proper static control, the expenditure required to
secure this protection is g o o d insurance.
A n additional need for static control m a y be for
i m p r o v e m e n t in p r o d u c t quality. F o r example, static
in grinding operations prevents grinding to a fine
degree. Static in certain textile operations causes
fibers to stand on end instead of lying flat which
often affects the quality o f the material.
Static charges on materials handled b y chutes or
ducts have been k n o w n to c l o g them b y clinging to
the inside of the chutes and ducts.
F U N D A M E N T A L CAUSES OF STATIC
T h e o r y of Static
A difference in potential will exist between t w o
materials or substances when one holds a positive
charge and the other holds a negative charge. T h e s e
charges accumulate w h e n dissimilar substances, one
of w h i c h must be in insulator, are brought into c o n -
tact with each other. U n d e r this condition the nega-
tive electrons will migrate from the surface of one
substance to the surface o f the s e c o n d substance, leav-
ing the positive ions on the first substance. Simply 1
stated, then, o n e substance has a positive charge and
the s e c o n d has a negative charge. U p o n separation of
t w o such oppositely c h a r g e d materials, a static dis-
charge m a y take place.
Conditions Affecting the Production of Static Charges
T h e possibility of p r o d u c i n g electrification (static)
and the degree that it will be p r o d u c e d will depend
mainly o n :
1. Material characteristics
2. Speed of separation
3. A r e a in contact
4. T h e m o t i o n b e t w e e n substances
5. A t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
Material Characteristics
It has been previously stated that o n e of the mate-
rials o r substances will have insulating properties to
at least s o m e degree. T h e physical forms m a y be
solids, liquids o r gases; the solids m a y be in the form
of sheeting, rods, etc., o r m a y be b r o k e n up into
particles that f o r m a dust.
1
Numbers refer to numbered references in bibliography at end of
chapter.
26
 T h e degree o f electrostatic charge that m a y exist T A B L E 3.1
between t w o materials will b e proportional t o the
difference in their dielectric constants. A l s o , the p o s i - Range of Static Voltages
tive charge will usually s h o w up o n the material Produced by Various Processes
having the highest dielectric constant. Type of Equipment Voltage Range Observed
Belted D r i v e s 60,000 — 100,000
Speed of Separation Fabric H a n d l i n g 15,000— 80,000
Paper M a c h i n e s 5,000 —100,000
A s the speed o f separation of t w o o p p o s i t e l y c h a r g e d Tank Trucks up to 25,000
substances is increased, the greater the chance for Belt C o n v e y o r s ( G r a i n ) up to 45,000
i m p o u n d i n g the charges o n the materials, thus increas-
ing the potential differences b e t w e e n them. F r o m the table o f sparking distances given in T a b l e
3.2 it can be seen that even v o l t a g e s o f 25,000 volts
Effect of Motion m a y j u m p o v e r o n e inch, such a spark could readily
release e n o u g h e n e r g y to ignite flammable mixtures.
W h i l e friction is not necessarily the cause o f static
charges, it d o e s have the effect o f increasing the F o r a c o m p l e t e discussion o n the explosive limits
degree o f electrification; this m a y be attributed t o of various gas and liquid mixtures as well as the
the m o t i o n permitting m o r e particles o f o n e o f the spark e n e r g y required to ignite such mixtures, refer-
substances c o m i n g into c o n t a c t with the other sub- ence is m a d e to the article "Industrial Fires and
stance; this is particularly true in the flow o f liquids E x p l o s i o n s from Electrostatic O r i g i n " and the b o o k
4

in a pipe w h e r e a turbulent c o n d i t i o n m a y exist. " C o m b u s t i o n , Flames and E x p l o s i o n s " .

6

Liquids sprayed o r expelled f r o m a n o z z l e , particu-

larly if they impinge o n a surface, often p r o d u c e high- T A B L E 3.2
voltage charges.
Sparking Distances in Air
Materials in a tank m a y accumulate static charges for Various Voltages Between Needle Points 3

because o f agitation o f the liquid either purposely ( R M S Values)

or because o f tank m o t i o n .
Distance Distance
Volts Inches Centimeter Volts Inches Centimeter
A n example o f m o t i o n p r o d u c i n g alternate contact
5,000 0.255 0.57 60,000 4.65 11.8
and separation o f materials is the passing o f a belt
10,000 0.470 1.19 70,000 5.85 14.9
o v e r a pulley, and as p r e v i o u s l y pointed out the higher
15,000 0.725 1.84 80,000 7.10 18.0
the speed the oftener these alternations o c c u r and the
20,000 1.000 2.54 90,000 8.35 21.2
greater the static charge on the belt. T h e same prin-
25,000 1.300 3.30 100,000 9.60 24.4
ciple applies to any sheeting passing o v e r rolls such
30,000 1.625 4.10 110,000 10.75 27.3
as in the manufacture and p r o c e s s i n g o f rubber m a -
terials, papers, textiles, etc. R u b b e r t i r e s rolling o v e r
2 35,000 2,000 5.10 120,000 11.85 30.1
streets and r o a d s p r o d u c e the same effect and m a y 40,000 2.450 6.20 130,000 12.95 32.9
account for static charges o n automobiles, tank 45,000 2.95 7.50 140,000 13.95 35.4
trucks, etc. 50,000 3.55 9.00 150,000 15.00 38.1

Area in Contact
METHODS OF TESTING FOR STATIC 6

T h e area of substances in contact has a direct

bearing on the degree o f electrification because of
the greater ease o f transmitting positive ions and nega-
tive electrons f r o m o n e substance to the other.
Atmospheric Conditions
T e m p e r a t u r e and humidity conditions as related to
production o f static are p r o b a b l y w e l l k n o w n to e v e r y -
one because o f personal d i s c o m f o r t experienced in
touching a metal o b j e c t o n a c o l d , d r y day after a c -
cumulating a c h a r g e b y w a l k i n g across a rug or
c o m i n g into contact with s o m e other insulating
material. T h i s s h o w s clearly the hazard that can exist
in an operation that m a y require c o n t r o l l e d tempera-
ture and humidity conditions.
Voltages Possible
V o l t a g e s that have been o b s e r v e d in a f e w indus-
tries o r have been created in tests are s h o w n in
Table 3.1.
Gold-Leaf Electroscope
T h e familiar gold-leaf e l e c t r o s c o p e because o f its
delicate construction is primarily a laboratory instru-
m e n t ; but, if handled with care, it m a y be used to
detect static charges. Its advantage is that because
of its l o w capacity, it d r a w s practically n o spark upon
c h a r g e o r discharge and thus m a y b e used in locations
w h e r e flammable substances m a y b e present. T h i s de-
vice, of c o u r s e , w o u l d o n l y indicate the presence of
static and not its magnitude.
Electrostatic Voltmeter
A s static charges are characterized b y high voltage
and l o w e n e r g y , instruments that have practically
no current drain must be used for voltage measure-
ments. T h e electrostatic v o l t m e t e r is such an instru-
m e n t and, w h i l e it m a y n o t have high accuracy
characteristics, it is sufficiently accurate for voltage
determination o f static charges.

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 N e o n T u b e Tester
This device is v e r y inexpensive and can be carried
readily so occasional c h e c k s for static can be m a d e ;
however, it m e r e l y indicates the presence of static
and contains no instrument to indicate the v o l t a g e
that m a y exist.
V a c u u m T u b e V o l t m e t e r and
Vacuum Tube Electrometer
T h e s e instruments m a y be used to detect the pres-
ence of static electricity but they should have v e r y
high input impedance s o as to limit current drain.
Instruments are available with input impedances of
the order of 1 0 o h m s . If a c o m m e r c i a l type of in-
1 5
strument is not available an electron tube detector
as described in the next paragraph m a y be c o n -
structed.
Electron T u b e Detector
This detector s h o w n in Figure 3.1 operates in the
following manner: T h e tube current is adjusted in
the plate circuit to s o m e value near the mid-point
of the characteristic grid voltage—plate current
curve b y means of the " C " battery. T h e sensitivity
of the circuit is determined b y the grid leak, " R " .
TUBE TYPE 164-G
PROBE k OUTPUT
] 3 MlLLlAMPERES
B= 4 5
R =5- MEGOHMS
C s 7.5 V O L T S A s |.5 V O L T S
STATIC DETECTOR
Figure 3.1
One line diagram o f a static ground detector.
Usually 5 m e g o h m s give a satisfactory result. T h e
lead marked " p r o b e " m a y consist o f a shielded lead
connected to a tinsel bar about 3 o r 4 inches long,
or just the bare end of the wire leading to the grid
of the tube: If the p r o b e is b r o u g h t near a substance
that held a positive charge, this charge w o u l d be re-
flected on the grid o f the tube and an increase in
plate current w o u l d result, likewise if the p r o b e w a s
brought near a substance h o l d i n g a negative charge
a decrease in plate current w o u l d b e indicated. A n
indicating milliammeter is usually used in this cir-
cuit although possibly a graphic meter c o u l d b e used,
which w o u l d permit r e c o r d i n g the relative intensities
even though observers m a y n o t b e present.
Industrial Static I n d i c a t o r
There is c o m m e r c i a l l y available an instrument that
detects the presence of static charges, gives an alarm
both visual and audible. It also contains an instru-
ment to indicate the magnitude o f the charge. T h i s
device is portable o r m a y b e installed in a permanent
location with an antenna system installed in the
operating areas to pick up a signal if static is present.
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Such an instrument is listed b y U n d e r w r i t e r s ' L a b o r a -
tories for Class I G r o u p s " C " and " D " hazardous
locations.
H A Z A R D S IN V A R I O U S T Y P E S OF
INDUSTRIES
Industries
See T a b l e 3.3 for a summation o f the following data.
A v i a t i o n Industry. Several fatal e x p l o s i o n s and fires
have been the result of liquid m o v e m e n t ( g a s o l i n e )
in this industry. T h e loading o f airships with fuel
is extremely hazardous, and the possibility of static
discharge is always guarded against b y the use of
g r o u n d networks, etc.
Chemical Industry. T h e m o v e m e n t o f liquids and
gases within the p r o c e s s itself can be responsible for
the creation of electric charges. T h e s e may accumu-
late o n u n g r o u n d e d c o n d u c t i n g surfaces in sufficient
quantity to result in a static spark to adjacent c o n -
ducting structures. In the presence of highly c o m -
bustible material o r e x p l o s i v e atmospheres, such
spark discharges are to be a v o i d e d by appropriate
means such as leakage circuits to ground.
Coal Industry. M a n y mine e x p l o s i o n s have been at-
tributed to the accumulation of coal dust and the
m o v e m e n t of particles. M o r e than ordinary precau-
tions against possibility of static discharge spark must
be taken to avoid u n d e r g r o u n d explosions.
VOLTS
F l o u r and Grain Industry. Material m o v e m e n t and
the machinery of manufacture can be responsible for
charge accumulation and resulting static discharge.
Fine particles of grain dust suspended in the air afford
an excellent source o f explosive.
G a s Industry. M o v e m e n t of the gas itself in s o m e
cases m a y cause static accumulation and spark. W h e n
this o c c u r s in the presence o f volatilized atmosphere,
explosions o c c u r .
Paint Industry. M o v e m e n t of liquids and process
in the manufacture m a y cause hazardous conditions
due to the static electricity discharge.
P a p e r and Printing Industries. T h e m o v e m e n t of
the paper itself over the various rolls and the ma-
chinery of manufacture tends t o cause static voltages.
Refining Industry. M o v e m e n t o f gas and liquids
and the spraying o f caustic solutions in tanks and
acid bubbling has caused static discharges in m a n y
cases. T h e surrounding atmosphere due to the p r o c -
ess makes it necessary that a m a x i m u m amount of
effort be directed t o w a r d reducing the hazard of
static electricity.
P o w d e r Industry. T h e v e r y nature of manufacture
and the possibility o f contaminated atmosphere make
possible m a n y hazards. T h e m o v e m e n t o f material
and the manufacturing p r o c e s s can b e the s o u r c e of
static v o l t a g e s .
R u b b e r Industry. T h e various rolls and presses in
the manufacturing p r o c e s s with the resulting m o v e -
ment o f material often cause static accumulation.
T e x t i l e Industry. T h i s industry offers possible c o n -
trol of hazardous conditions by humidity, but the
28
 presence o f lint in the air is d a n g e r o u s . Static dis-
charges from l o o m s , belt drives, and other m a c h i n e r y
have caused fires in m a n y cases.
Institutions and Commercial Establishments
Hospitals. M i x t u r e s o f air and certain anesthetics
are flammable o r explosive. O p e r a t i n g r o o m s should
constantly guard against the possibility o f static dis-
charges w h i c h w o u l d immediately ignite the surround-
ing atmosphere.
Dry Cleaning. T h e m o v e m e n t o f garments, flam-
mable liquids causes an extended blanket o f h i g h l y
flammable v a p o r s . Static sparks are easily generated
b y this same m o v e m e n t o f the garment.
Offices — Business machines, particularly those
handling materials such as papers often accumulate
Humidity Control
W h e r e high humidity d o e s not affect the material,
this affords o n e o f the best w a y s o f c o n t r o l l i n g static.
Steam ejected into the area, especially near the point
w h e r e static is accumulating, is perhaps the best w a y
of supplying additional humidification. T h e minimum
value o f relative humidity that can b e tolerated is
difficult to determine and will v a r y with the process
and surrounding c o n d i t i o n s ; h o w e v e r , it is believed
that w h e r e the relative humidity is maintained in the
range o f 60 percent, static accumulations are not
likely to reach d a n g e r o u s p r o p o r t i o n s . W h e r e the
p r o c e s s m a y b e affected b y humidity and the area
m a y even be air-conditioned for p r o c e s s c o n t r o l , then
o n e o f the f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d s o f static c o n t r o l m a y
be c o n s i d e r e d .
Static Collectors or Electrostatic Induction Ionization 7

static charges that m a y interfere with the operation

of the machine. Metallic c o m b s o r bars o f tinsel are sometimes
effective if placed v e r y c l o s e t o the sheeting at the
TABLE 3.3 point o f greatest accumulation. In the case o f tinsel
it m a y e v e n b e p l a c e d in c o n t a c t w i t h the material
Processes W h i c h Are Likely to
assuming that the material w o u l d not b e affected b y
Product Static in Various Industries such contact.
Material Movement Machinery Process Neutralizers
Industry Solids Liquids Gases
Aviation X
Neutralizers are n o w available c o m m e r c i a l l y w h i c h
Chemical X X X ionize the air w h e n placed near the m o v i n g material.
Coal X T h e s e neutralizers either a c c o m p l i s h ionization b y the
Flour & Grain X X use o f radioactive m a t e r i a l s w h i c h emit alpha par-
7

Gas X X ticles o r b y h i g h - v o l t a g e stressing o f the air; in the

Paint X X latter case t w o types are e m p l o y e d , the first requires
Paper & Printing X X a g r o u n d b a r in c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o the material, the
Refining X X X s e c o n d d o e s n o t e m p l o y such a g r o u n d bar and
Powder X X X operates at a higher potential. In the application o f
Rubber X X X neutralizers, care must b e taken to p r o t e c t operating
Textiles X X and maintenance personnel f r o m h i g h - v o l t a g e circuits
D r y Cleaning X X o r f r o m harmful radiation in the case o f radioactive
Service Stations X neutralizers.
Hospitals X
Conductive Belts
Offices X
M o s t belts are c o n s t r u c t e d o f insulating materials.
T h e s e , pressed into c o n t a c t with pulleys, constitute
METHODS OF STATIC CONTROL —
o n e o f the m o s t prolific generators o f static charges.
GROUNDING AND BONDING
In locations w h e r e such c h a r g e s are a real hazard,
M a n y static p r o b l e m s can b e s o l v e d b y b o n d i n g consideration should b e given to direct drives rather
the various parts o f the equipment t o g e t h e r and than belted drives.
g r o u n d i n g the entire system. N o attempt will b e
W h e r e it is necessary to use belted drives considera-
made here to describe in detail h o w and w h e r e such
tion should b e given t o the use o f c o n d u c t i v e rubber
b o n d i n g and g r o u n d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s s h o u l d b e m a d e ,
belts, w h i c h have the ability to drain off at least a
but reference is m a d e t o the National Fire P r o t e c -
certain amount o f static charges.
tion A s s o c i a t i o n ' s bulletin "Static E l e c t r i c i t y " , for
6

s o m e detailed m e t h o d s . T h e r e s e e m s to b e n o industry-wide standard as

to the m a x i m u m resistance that a belt m a y have and
G r o u n d i n g , h o w e v e r , is n o t a cure-all; f o r e x a m p l e ,
still b e c o n s i d e r e d adequate from a static dissipation
if the material b e i n g p r o c e s s e d is rather b u l k y and
standpoint. T h e National Bureau o f Standards Bulle-
has high dielectric characteristics, the c h a r g e o n the
tin C - 4 3 8 gives fundamental principles to determine
10

upper portion o f the material will b e v e r y effectively

insulated from g r o u n d and m a y result in a spark
discharge. E v e n films o r o t h e r sheet materials, either
because o f the area in c o n t a c t o r the s p e e d o f separa-
tion, accumulate c h a r g e s that c a n n o t b e drained off
adequately b y g r o u n d i n g and the f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d s
o f c o n t r o l are often utilized.
the resistivity o f material w h i c h can be related to
its ability to dissipate static at a satisfactory rate and
the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e is given.
' T n the case o f an insulated m a c h i n e driven b y a
belt o f w i d t h W centimeters, running at a linear
v e l o c i t y o f V centimeters per s e c o n d , the belt m a y

29

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be assumed charged to the m a x i m u m charge density
of 2.6 x 1 0 c o u l o m b per square centimeter and the
-9
rate of production is equivalent to 2.6 x 10* W V 9
c o u l o m b s per second. If the leakage to g r o u n d is to
carry this current with a potential difference w h i c h
is less than the minimum sparking potential of 350
volts, the resistance must be less than R = 3 5 0 / ( 2 . 6
x 1 0 " W V ) == 1.3 x 1 0 " / W V o h m s . If the width,
9
W , happens to be 10 centimeters and the velocity,
V , 1000 centimeters per s e c o n d , the resistance should
be less than 1.3 x 10 o h m s (13 m e g o h m s ) . "
7
O n e manufacturer o f belts considers that a belt
which s h o w s a 10 m e g o h m resistance when measured
on an S A inch section will have sufficient static
J
properties to make the belt safe throughout its life,
some feel that a m u c h higher resistance will still
permit dissipating static satisfactorily; h o w e v e r , it is
desirable to keep the resistance as l o w as possible
to provide a g o o d margin of safety.
A v e r y important consideration in applying c o n -
ductive rubber belts is to be sure that b o t h the drive
and the equipment are well g r o u n d e d .
O n e method for testing belts is to place t w o ^ - i n c h
diameter electrodes o n the belt & A inches apart. T h e
T
electrodes should be moistened before placing o n the
belt and each should have 3 p o u n d s per square inch
pressure applied. T h e resistance can then be measured
b y means of a standard 500-volt m e g o h m m e t c r .
Belts other than o f the conductive type can b e
made safe b y the application of certain c o n d u c t i v e
solutions, s o m e o f w h i c h are available c o m m e r c i a l l y .
T h e National Fire Protection A s s o c i a t i o n lists a n u m -
ber o f solutions in their bulletin "Static E l e c t r i c i t y " . 6
Conductive F l o o r s
W h e r e extremely hazardous operating conditions
exist such as in the production o f s o m e explosives,
or those involving gases o r certain solvent-air m i x -
tures, the use o f conductive flooring m a y be required.
W h e r e such flooring is required, it must b e of n o n -
sparking materials, such as c o n d u c t i v e rubber, lead
or other conductive c o m p o u n d s .
T h e electric resistance, as measured between g r o u n d
and a five-pound electrode in direct contact with five
square inches o f floor area, must not e x c e e d 250,000
ohms. T h e electrode should be m o v e d about the floor
to determine if any high resistance areas exist.
If w a x e s or other floor preservants are used, they
should have conductive qualities. C o n d u c t i v e floors
m a y increase in resistance with age, therefore, should
be tested at regular intervals.
Conductive Shoes
W h e n conductive flooring is used operators o r others
entering the area must wear conductive, non-sparking
shoes. Their resistance should be c h e c k e d at regular
intervals or before entering the w o r k area.
30
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S h o e testers are available for determining the resist-
ance while being w o r n . Such testers are essentially
direct reading ohmeters with internal resistors to limit
the short-circuit current to 0.5 milliampere.
W h e r e c o n d u c t i v e floors and shoes are required, the
resistance b e t w e e n the wearer and g r o u n d must not
exceed o n e million o h m s , w h i c h is the total resistance
of conductive shoes o n a person plus the resistance
of the floor.
Special P r e c a u t i o n s
In addition to the use o f c o n d u c t i v e floors and
shoes, other controls m a y b e considered such as:
1. P r o v i d i n g wearing apparel with l o w static pro-
ducing qualities.
2. Establishing rigid operating procedures.
3. W h e r e c o n d u c t i v e floor is not used throughout
an area, c o n d u c t i v e rubber mats m a y be c o n -
sidered.
Hospital operating r o o m s (because of the extreme
hazard o f anesthetic agents, and the possibility of
creating static from n o z z l e s , operators with improper
attire, and other causes) utilize m o s t of the above
techniques. T h e subject of protection is well c o v e r e d
in published bulletins and the details will not be
8
c o v e r e d here. In industrial areas with extremely
hazardous conditions it m a y be well to consider these
recommendations.
Follow-Up
L i k e any piece o f equipment, static control devices
are no better than the maintenance that they receive,
therefore, it is imperative that regularly scheduled in-
spections should be m a d e t o :
1. Determine if all b o n d i n g and g r o u n d i n g c o n n e c -
tions are intact.
2. Ascertain the resistance t o g r o u n d . T h i s m a y be
found b y the use o f c o m m e r c i a l l y available o h m -
meters. T h e resistance to g r o u n d should, if at all
possible, b e limited to o n e o h m .
3. E x a m i n e static neutralizers to b e sure they are
in the correct position and if of the high-voltage
type that they are energized.
4. T e s t belts to see if they have lost their c o n d u c t -
ing characteristics.
5. T a k e resistance measurements of conductive
flooring.
6. T a k e instrument readings to determine if static
charges are accumulating, either because o f the
loss of o n e o f the static control devices o r because
of a change in operating conditions such as a
change in machine speed, o r the addition o f
material-handling equipment or change in the
materials w h i c h m a y have different character-
istics.
 — LIGHTNING PROTECTION GROUNDING —

NATURE OF LIGHTNING type of d a m a g e is not within the s c o p e o f this chapter

Lightning is an electric discharge between clouds
o r between c l o u d s and earth. Charges o f o n e polarity
are accumulated in the c l o u d s , and of the opposite
polarity in the earth. W h e n the charge increases to the
point that the insulation b e t w e e n can n o l o n g e r c o n -
tain it, a discharge takes place. T h i s discharge is
evidenced b y a flow o f current, usually great in
magnitude, but extremely short in time.
D a m a g e to buildings and structures is the result
of heat and mechanical forces p r o d u c e d b y the pass-
age of current through resistance in the path of dis-
except as g r o u n d i n g is involved. T h i s portion of the
subject is discussed under PROTECTION OF
P O W E R STATIONS A N D SUBSTATIONS.
It is not possible to positively protect a structure
against d a m a g e f r o m direct stroke except to c o m -
pletely e n c l o s e it with metal. T h e extent to which
lightning protection should b e provided is governed
b y w e i g h i n g the c o s t o f protection against the possible
consequences o f b e i n g struck. T h e factors to be c o n -
sidered are:
1. F r e q u e n c y and severity o f thunderstorms.

charge. A l t h o u g h the discharge takes place at the 2. V a l u e and nature o f structure or content.
point where the potential difference exceeds the 3. Personnel hazards.
dielectric strength o f the insulation, which implies
4. Consequential loss, such as loss of production,
l o w resistance relative t o other paths, it is not un-
salaries o f w o r k e r s , d a m a g e suits and other in-
common for the current to f o l l o w a path of high direct losses.
resistance. T h i s m a y b e a tree, a m a s o n r y structure,
5. Effect o n insurance premiums.
o r a porcelain insulator. Obviously, damage due to
direct stroke can b e minimized b y p r o v i d i n g a direct T h e a b o v e factors are listed primarily to call atten-
tion to their importance. N o general conclusions can
path o f l o w resistance to earth.
be d r a w n as to the relative importance o f each o r
L i g h t n i n g can cause d a m a g e to structures b y direct to the necessity for o r the extent of lightning protec-
stroke and to equipment b y surges c o m i n g in o v e r tion for any given c o m b i n a t i o n of conditions. A s a
e x p o s e d p o w e r lines. Surges m a y be the result of matter o f interest, a m a p s h o w i n g the frequency of
direct strokes to the line at s o m e distance away, or thunderstorms for various areas o f the United States
they m a y b e electrostatically induced voltages. is s h o w n in F i g u r e 3.2. It should b e noted, h o w e v e r ,
that the s e v e n t y o f storms is m u c h greater in s o m e
THE NEED FOR PROTECTION local areas than in others and, therefore, the need
D a m a g e t o structures and equipment due to surge for protection is not necessarily in direct proportion
effect is a subject in itself and protection against this t o the frequency.

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 EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURES T H A T
SHOULD BE CONSIDERED FOR
PROTECTION
T h e nature o f buildings and their content are im-
portant in deciding whether lightning protection is
desirable. S o m e of the factors w h i c h should be c o n -
sidered are as f o l l o w s :
1. All-metal structures.
2. Metal-frame buildings with non-metallic facings.
3. Buildings m a d e entirely o f n o n - c o n d u c t i n g ma-
terials such as w o o d , stone, brick and tile.
4. Buildings of historical value.
5. Buildings containing combustible o r explosive
material.
6. T a n k s and tank farms.
7. Transmission lines.
8. P o w e r plants, substations, and water pumping
stations.
Metal buildings and structures offer a v e r y satis-
factory path to earth and require little in the w a y
of additional protection. Metal-frame buildings with
non-metallic facings require m o r e extensive measures.
Buildings m a d e entirely o f n o n - c o n d u c t i n g materials
require complete lightning protective systems.
In special cases buildings m a y have historical value
out of all proportion to the intrinsic value and m a y
justify extensive protection systems. P o w e r stations,
substations, and water p u m p i n g stations p r o v i d i n g
extremely important functions to outside facilities
may demand protective measures far m o r e extensive
than w o u l d normally be warranted b y the value o f the
structure. B y the same token structures containing
combustible or explosive material, liquids and gases
of a toxic nature o r otherwise harmful to personnel
or property if allowed to escape f r o m their confining
walls, m a y justify extensive protective systems.
REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD PROTECTION
T h e fundamental theory of lightning protection o f
structures is t o p r o v i d e means b y w h i c h a discharge
m a y enter or leave the earth without passing t h r o u g h
paths of high resistance. Such a condition is usually
met b y g r o u n d e d metal o r m e t a l - c o v e r e d structures,
and is often met b y g r o u n d e d steel-frame structures.
Suitable protection is nearly always p r o v i d e d b y the
installation of lightning c o n d u c t o r s .
A lightning c o n d u c t o r system consists o f terminals
projecting into the air a b o v e the u p p e r m o s t parts o f
the structure, with interconnecting and g r o u n d i n g
conductors. Terminals should b e placed s o as t o
project a b o v e all points w h i c h are likely t o b e struck.
Conductors should present the least possible i m p e -
dance to earth. T h e r e should b e n o sharp bends o r
loops. Each projecting terminal a b o v e the structure
should have at least t w o c o n n e c t i n g paths t o earth
and m o r e if practicable.
Each c o n d u c t o r running d o w n from the terminals
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on top of the structure should have an earth con-
nection. P r o p e r l y m a d e c o n n e c t i o n s to earth are an
essential feature o f a lightning r o d system for p r o -
tection of buildings. ( S e e Chapter I V . ) It is m o r e
important to p r o v i d e ample distribution o f metallic
contacts in the earth than to p r o v i d e low-resistance
connections. L o w - r e s i s t a n c e c o n n e c t i o n s are desirable,
h o w e v e r , and should be p r o v i d e d w h e r e practicable.
Earth connections should be m a d e at uniform inter-
vals about the structure, avoiding as m u c h as possible
the g r o u p i n g of c o n n e c t i o n s on o n e side. E l e c t r o d e s
should be at least t w o feet a w a y from and should
extend b e l o w building foundations. T h e y should make
contact with the earth from the surface d o w n w a r d
to avoid flashing at the surface.
Interior metal parts of buildings o r structures
should b e g r o u n d e d independently, and if they are
within six feet of metallic r o o f s , walls o r c o n d u c t o r s
running d o w n f r o m the terminals o n t o p o f the struc-
ture, they should be securely c o n n e c t e d thereto.
T e r m i n a l s projecting a b o v e the structure should
be o f ample length to bring the t o p point at least
10 inches a b o v e the o b j e c t to be protected. In m a n y
cases a greater height is desirable. Experiments have
indicated that a vertical c o n d u c t o r , o r point, will
divert to itself direct hits w h i c h m i g h t otherwise fall
within a c o n e shaped space, of w h i c h the apex is the
point and the base is a circle w h o s e radius is approxi-
mately equal to the height o f the point.
PROTECTION OF P O W E R STATIONS
AND SUBSTATIONS
Station protection against direct stroke should in-
clude effective shielding of the station structure itself
and at least the first 2000 to 2500 feet of e x p o s e d lines
adjacent to the station. T h i s shielding m a y take the
f o r m o f masts or extensions o f the steel structure t o
provide a p r o p e r c o n e o f protection to apparatus and
circuits within the station area. T h e s e extensions m a y
be arranged to also support the station end o f the
overhead g r o u n d wires carried o v e r the first 2000 feet
of line. T h e height of a single mast o r single ground
wire shielding is usually based o n a shielding angle
of 30 degrees. H o w e v e r , w h e n t w o o r m o r e masts
or g r o u n d wires are used that part of the shielding
angle that lies between masts or g r o u n d wires is
increased to 60 degrees. T h i s p r o v i d e s an unsym-
metrical c o n e o r w e d g e w h o s e base is equal to the
height o n the outside areas and t o about twice the
height in areas b e t w e e n masts o r g r o u n d wires. T h e
overhead g r o u n d wires o n the lines should have an
effective l o w resistance g r o u n d at each structure.
L i g h t n i n g protection o f p o w e r stations and substations
includes the protection o f station equipment b y means
of lightning arresters.
F o r lightning arresters a local g r o u n d i n g c o n n e c -
tion should b e m a d e b y driving electrodes into the
earth (see Chapter I V ) near the arresters, as s h o w n
in Figure 3.3. I n addition, the lightning arrester
g r o u n d i n g c o n d u c t o r should b e c o n n e c t e d into the
c o m m o n station g r o u n d bus. F o r the average case
an arbitrary upper limit o f 5 o h m s resistance to
 Structures of this nature m a y be subject to c o m -
plete destruction from a small spark which w o u l d
be of n o c o n s e q u e n c e except for the presence of
combustible or e x p l o s i v e mixtures. Sheet metal of
3/16 inch thickness is adequate to withstand direct
strokes without puncturing. Steel tanks with steel
roofs and floating metal roofs are generally consid-
ered to be self-protecting. T a n k s with non-metallic
roofs are not self-protecting and should usually be
protected with air terminals, conducting masts or
overhead g r o u n d wires. In all cases, joints and piping
connections should be electrically continuous, and all
vapor or gas openings closed o r flameproof.

T a n k s should be well g r o u n d e d to c o n d u c t current

of direct strokes to earth and avoid building up
potentials that w o u l d cause arcing to ground. Steel
tanks with intimate contact with the earth are usually
considered to be well g r o u n d e d .

CHIMNEYS A N D STACKS

Chimneys and stacks m a y be primarily used for

c o m b u s t i o n gases or for ventilation. W h e r e ventilat-
ing stacks emit explosive gases o r dust, the terminals
projecting a b o v e the structure should extend at least
five feet a b o v e the opening. If explosive mixtures are
emitted under forced draft these terminals should
project at least fifteen feet a b o v e the openings.

METHODS OF PROTECTION

Suggested m e t h o d s of providing lightning protection

are summarized a b o v e . A m o r e detailed description
of the characteristics of lightning, factors to be c o n -
sidered and m e t h o d s , m a y be found in the National
Figure 3.3
Typical method of grounding a lightning arrester. Bureau of Standards H a n d b o o k 46, titled " C o d e for
Protection A g a i n s t Lightning".

ground has been established. L o w e r values m a y be

desirable, depending on the degree of protection re- BIBLIOGRAPHY
quired. T h e connection from arrester to g r o u n d should
be as short and as straight as possible. T h e National 1. Static Electricity in Industry — R . Beach, E l e c -
Electrical C o d e states that a lightning arrester g r o u n d trical Engineering, V o l . 65 N o . 5 pages 184-94,
c o n d u c t o r shall not be smaller than N o . 6 A W G . 1945.
A larger sized c o n d u c t o r is desirable as the system
voltage increases. 2. Protection Against Static Electricity — J. M.
Pearson, A u t o m o t i v e T r a n s . V o l . 21, 1940.

3. R a d i o A m a t e u r s H a n d b o o k — A . F. Collins and
TANKS AND TANK FARMS
D . J. Duffin, T h o m a s Y . C r o w e l l C o m p a n y , N e w
Structures used for the storage of flammable liquids Y o r k , 1949.
and gases m a y require special attention. S o m e of the
4. Industrial Fires and E x p l o s i o n s from Electro-
features which should be considered in protecting
static Origin — R . Beach, Mechanical Engineer-
such structures are as follows:
ing, April 1953.
1. A l l metal, gastight structures.
5. Combustion, Flames and E x p l o s i o n s — B. Lewis
2. T a n k s of partial or total non-metallic material.
and G. V o n E l b e , A c a d e m i c Press, N e w Y o r k ,
3. V a p o r or gas openings. 1951.

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 6. Static Electricity — National Fire Protection 9. C o d e for P r o t e c t i o n A g a i n s t Lightning, H a n d -
Association Pamphlet, 60 Batterymarch Street, b o o k 46, U . S. D e p t . o f C o m m e r c e , National Bu-
Boston 10, Mass., 1947. reau o f Standards.

10. Static Electricity — National Bureau of Stand-

7. Electrostatic Neutralizer D i s c h a r g e and Safety
Characteristics — R . Beach, Mechanical E n g i - ards Circular C-438.
neering, V o l . 71 N o . 4, pages 329-34. 11. Static Electricity — F a c t o r y Mutual Bulletin N o .
12.21.
8. R e c o m m e n d e d Safe Practice for Hospital O p e r a t -
ing R o o m s — National Fire Protection A s s o c i a - 12. Electrostatic Hazards and T h e i r Control — R.
tion Pamphlet, June 1952. Beach.

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 CHAPTER IV

CONNECTION TO EARTH

RESISTANCE TO EARTH T A B L E 4.2

Recommended Acceptable Values THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT ON

THE RESISTIVITY OF SOIL
T h e m o s t elaborate g r o u n d i n g system that can b e
designed m a y p r o v e to be inadequate unless the c o n - Moisture Content Resistivity (Ohms Per CM Cube)
nection of the system to the earth is adequate and (Percent by weight) Top Soil Sandy Loam
has a l o w resistance. It f o l l o w s , therefore, that the 0 >l,000xl0 a
>l,000xl0 a

earth connection is one of the m o s t important parts 2.5 250,000 150,000

of the w h o l e g r o u n d i n g system. It is also the m o s t 5 165,000 43,000
difficult part to design and to obtain. 10 53,000 18,500
15 19,000 10,500
T h e perfect connection to earth should have z e r o 20 12,000 6,300
resistance, but this is impossible to obtain. G r o u n d 30 6,400 4,200
resistances of less than o n e o h m can b e obtained,
although this l o w a resistance m a y n o t b e necessary T A B L E 4.3
in m a n y cases. Since the desired resistance varies
T H E EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE
inversely with the fault current to g r o u n d , the larger
RESISTIVITY OF SOIL
the fault current the l o w e r must b e the resistance.
( S a n d y L o a m 15.2 percent M o i s t u r e )
For larger substations and generating stations, the
earth resistance should not exceed one o h m . For Temperature Resistivity
smaller substations and for industrial plants, in g e n - C F (Ohms per CM Cube)
eral, a resistance o f less than five o h m s should b e 20 68 7,200
obtained if practicable. T h e National Electrical C o d e 10 50 9,900
(1953) states that the m a x i m u m resistance shall not 0 (water) 32 13,800
exceed 25 ohms. 0 (ice) 32 30,000
—5 23 79,000
—15 14 330,000
Resistivity of Soils

It is r e c o m m e n d e d that the resistivity of the earth Calculation of Resistance to Earth

at the desired location of the c o n n e c t i o n b e investi-
Resistance t o earth m a y b e calculated a n d / o r
gated. T h e resistivity o f soils varies with the depth
measured. Calculation is considerably involved, but
from the surface, with the moisture content, and with
has been simplified to a great extent into the formulas
the temperature of the soil. Presence of surface water
d e v e l o p e d b y Prof. H . B. D w i g h t . T h e s e formulas
4

does not necessarily indicate l o w resistivity. R e p r e - appear in T a b l e 4.4.

sentative values of resistivity for general types of soils
are s h o w n in T a b l e 4.1. T h e effects of moisture and
Current-Loading Capacity
temperature are s h o w n in T a b l e s 4.2 and 4.3.
O n e factor w h i c h should not be o v e r l o o k e d in de-
signing a g r o u n d i n g system is the current-loading
T A B L E . 4.1
capacity of a c o n n e c t i o n to earth. T h e temperature
THE RESISTIVITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS and moisture conditions immediately surrounding the
electrode have a direct effect o n the resistivity of this
Resistance (Ohms) Resistivity p
}i inch x 5 foot rods (Ohms per cm cube) section of the g r o u n d i n g "circuit". Currents passing
Soil Avg. Min. Max. Avg. Min. Max. from the electrode into the earth will have a definite
Fills
Ashes, Cinders, Brine effect on these t w o factors. T h e r e f o r e , the current-
Waste 14 3.5 41 2370 590 7000 loading capacity of a c o n n e c t i o n must be analyzed
Clay, Shale, Gumbo, from the standpoint of the nature of the grounding
Loam 24 2 98 4060 340 16300 circuit and the types o f loading w h i c h it can normally
Same — with varying be e x p e c t e d t o carry.
proportions of sand
and gravel 93 6 800 15800 1020 135000
Currents of l o w magnitude, even if of long dura-
Gravel, sand, stones, tion, will result in relatively little heating. T h e effect
with little clay or
loam 554 35 2700 94000 59000 458000 of heat c o n d u c t i o n and the m o v e m e n t of moisture

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 T A B L E 4.4

Formulas for the Calculation of Resistances to Ground

( A p p r o x i m a t e formulas including effects of images. D i m e n s i o n s must b e in centimeters

to give resistance in o h m s . )
p = Specific resistance o f earth in o h m s per c m 3

Hemisphere p _ P
Radius a R
2 ^

• One G r o u n d R o d
Length L, radius a

• • Two Ground R o d s
s > L; spacing s
«-^(^-0 ^0-8 !F-) + +

Two Ground Rods

s < L; spacing s

— Buried Horizontal Wire

Length 2L, depth s/2

i_ Right-Angle Turn of Wire

Length of arm L, depth s/2 R =
4^1 ( I O G ,
"T 1 + LOG
*T~ 0 2 3 7 3 +
°- 2 1 4 6
ZT + 0 1 0 3 5
T>~ 0 0 4 2 4
£i- • ' )

A Three-Point Star
Length of arm L, depth s/2 R
= dl ( LOG
<T-+ I O G
' 1
- 0 7 1
" A 2 0 9
T+ 0 2 3 8
IT" 0 0 5 4
£• •)

+ Foixr-Point Star
Length of arm L, depth s/2 ^ =
SjtE ( <^ +
LOG LOG
'
2
-T+ 2-912 - 1.071-*-+ 0.645^ - 0.146^...)

* Six-Point Star
Length of arm L, depth s/2
R =
ihh ( *1T
LOG + IOG
* T" + 6 8 5 1 _
3 1 2 8 - 1 - + 1.758-^- - 0.490-j;.. )

* Eight-Point Star
Length of arm L, depth s/2 * - ih. ( LOG
' 1 T + '<*• T-+ 1 0 9 8
" 5 5 1
T +
»-«^~ 1 1 7
T< )

O
R i n g o f Wire
Diameter o f ring D , diameter
of wire d, depth s/2

— Buried Horizontal Strip

Length 2L, section a by 6,
depth s / 2 , 6 < c / 8
R
= 4*L ( *< a 2 ( a
l0 +
+ 6)« + 1
^ , 1 +
I T " iSB + BHD'' )

Buried Horizontal R o u n d Plate R - P ± * I\ 7

<* + 83<* \
R a d i u s a, depth s/2 5a" " 4 « \
1
12 5* 4 0 s«* * 7

Buried Vertical R o u n d Plate /? - P 4. P /i 4. * 4. ° \ 7 A 9 9 4

Radius a, depth s/2 8a ^ 4 « V 24 s* ^ 320 * * ' " / 4

"Calculation of Resistance to Ground," by H . B. Dwight, Electrical Engineering, vol. 55, p. 1319, December, 1936.

due to capillary action will maintain, in m o s t cases, ductivity. T h e permissible current density for a given
the resistivity o f the earth at the electrode to a temperature rise is inversely proportional to the square
value close to that considered desirable. r o o t o f the soil resistivity. T h e effective resistance
of the earth c o n n e c t i o n w o u l d , therefore, depend o n
W h e r e the earth must dissipate high currents for the number o f such situations w h i c h c o u l d o c c u r in
short durations, n o appreciable a m o u n t o f heat can succession before stable conditions in the earth w e r e
be dissipated b y the normal p r o c e s s o f thermal c o n - re-established.

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 Ground currents of high magnitude and l o n g dura-
tion are unusual, but could o c c u r as the result of
ground faults w h i c h are not cleared promptly. If
ground currents of this type are anticipated, the sys-
tem must c o v e r a relatively large area in o r d e r to
keep the current density in the earth to a l o w value.
Soil Treatment
Soil resistivity m a y b e reduced anywhere from 15
to 90 percent, depending upon the kind and texture
of the soil, b y chemical treatment. T h e r e are a n u m -
ber o f chemicals suitable for this purpose, including
sodium chloride, m a g n e s i u m sulphate, c o p p e r sulphate,
and calcium chloride. C o m m o n salt and magnesium
sulphate are m o s t c o m m o n l y used.
Chemicals are generally applied b y placing them
in the circular trench around the electrode in such
a manner as to prevent direct contact with the elec-
trode. W h i l e the effects o f treatment will not b e c o m e
apparent for a considerable period, they m a y be ac-
celerated b y saturating the area with water. A l s o , such
treatment is not permanent and must b e r e n e w e d
periodically, depending on the nature of the chemical
treatment and the characteristics o f the soil.
GROUND ELECTRODES
Existing Electrodes
Basically all g r o u n d electrodes m a y b e divided into
t w o groups. T h e first c o m p r i s e s u n d e r g r o u n d metallic
piping systems, metal building f r a m e w o r k s , well cas-
ings, steel piling, and other u n d e r g r o u n d metal struc-
tures installed for purposes other than g r o u n d i n g .
T h e s e c o n d c o m p r i s e s m a d e electrodes specifically
designed for g r o u n d i n g purposes.
T h e National Electrical C o d e states that continuous
underground water o r gas piping systems generally
have a resistance to earth o f less than 3 o h m s , and
that metal building frames, local metallic u n d e r g r o u n d
piping systems, metal w e l l casings, and the like, have
in general a resistance t o earth o f substantially less
than 25 o h m s . F o r safety g r o u n d i n g and for small
distribution systems w h e r e the g r o u n d currents are
of relatively l o w magnitude, such electrodes are usually
preferred because they are e c o n o m i c a l in first cost.
H o w e v e r , before reliance can b e placed on any elec-
trodes of this g r o u p , it is essential that their resistance
to earth be measured to insure that s o m e unforeseen
discontinuity has n o t seriously affected their suit-
ability. A l s o , care should b e exercised t o insure that
all parts w h i c h m i g h t b e c o m e disconnected are effec-
tively b o n d e d together.
Made Electrodes
M a d e electrodes m a y b e subdivided into driven
electrodes, buried strips or cables, grids, buried plates,
and counterpoises. T h e type selected will depend upon
the type o f soil encountered and the available depth.
Driven electrodes are generally m o r e satisfactory and
economical w h e r e b e d r o c k is ten feet o r m o r e b e l o w
the surface, while grids, buried strips o r cables are
preferred for lesser depths. Grids are frequently used
for substations o r generating stations to p r o v i d e equi-
potential areas t h r o u g h o u t the entire station w h e r e
hazards to life and p r o p e r t y w o u l d justify the higher
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cost. T h e y also require the least amount o f buried
material per o h m of g r o u n d c o n d u c t a n c e . Buried plates
have not been used extensively in recent years
because of the higher c o s t as c o m p a r e d to r o d s or
strips. A l s o , w h e n used in small numbers, they are
9
the least reliable type o f m a d e electrode. T h e counter-
poise is a f o r m of buried cable electrode used to
g r o u n d transmission line t o w e r s and structures.
W h e n multiple electrodes are used, spacings o f less
than ten feet d o not p r o v i d e the m o s t economical use
of materials.
In selecting the number and size of grounding termin-
als, their current discharge limitations must be recognized.
If these are exceeded, the earth around the electrode may
be exploded by steam generation, or may be dried out to
the extent of becoming nonconductive.
D r i v e n R o d or P i p e
D r i v e n electrodes m a y b e either r o d s o r pipes, al-
though r o d s are generally m o r e economical. W h e r e
soil conditions permit, a f e w deep r o d s are usually
m o r e satisfactory than a multiplicity o f short r o d s
since the v o l u m e o f soil affected increases directly
with the length o f e l e c t r o d e b e l o w the surface and
the soil resistivity generally decreases with depth
due to the increased moisture content. A n article
b y J. Z a b o r s z k y and J. W . R i t t e n h o u s e presents a
6
number o f design charts for determination o f o p t i m u m
g r o u n d r o d dimensions and spacings for a given in-
stallation.
B u r i e d Strip, W i r e and Cable
W h e r e b e d r o c k is near the surface, o r w h e r e sand
is encountered, the soil is apt t o b e v e r y dry and
of high resistivity and it is necessary to have an
earthing c o n n e c t i o n o f considerable extent. U n d e r
such conditions, buried metal strips, wires o r cables
offer the m o s t e c o n o m i c a l solution. Since the effec-
tiveness o f this type o f electrode for lightning dis-
charges is a function o f its inductance, the use o f a
n u m b e r o f w e l l spaced shorter strips in parallel is
preferable to o n e o r m o r e l o n g strips. T h e depth at
w h i c h the strips are buried is n o t critical. Tests b y
the Bureau o f S t a n d a r d s s h o w that the decrease in
1
resistance f r o m the m i n i m u m depth for cultivation
to the m a x i m u m practicable — about 18 to 36 inches
— is o n l y about 5 percent, based o n uniform soil
resistivity. Similarily, the effect o f c o n d u c t o r size is
e x t r e m e l y small.
Grid Systems
Grid systems usually extend o v e r the entire station
yard and m a y extend s o m e distance b e y o n d the
b o u n d a r y fence. T h e y consist o f c o n d u c t o r s buried
a m i n i m u m o f 6 inches in the g r o u n d o r stone fill
and f o r m i n g a n e t w o r k o f squares T h e size of
squares will v a r y with the v o l t a g e class o f the station
but cable spacings o f 10 to 12 feet are c o m m o n l y
used. A l l cable c r o s s i n g s should b e securely b o n d e d
and the system c o n n e c t e d t o the n o r m a l g r o u n d sys-
tem as well as t o all equipment and structural steel
w o r k . In r o c k g r o u n d w h e r e driven g r o u n d s are i m -
practical, it is s o m e t i m e s m o r e e c o n o m i c a l and desir-
able t o use a g r i d s y s t e m in p l a c e o f buried strips,
in w h i c h case the cables are usually buried at a depth
37
 of one to t w o feet. A n article b y E . T . B . Gross, B. V .
Chitnis and L . J. S t r a t t o n gives the basic charac-
6
teristics and design elements for extensive grid s y s -
tems.
Plates
T h e preferred practice with plate electrodes is to
bury them on e d g e since a minimum o f excavation
is required and it is possible to obtain better c o n -
tact with the soil w h e n backfilling. T h e r e appears t o
be little difference between the effective resistance
of horizontal and vertical plates. F o r c o m m o n l y used
plates o f 10 to 20 square feet, the o p t i m u m burial
depth is 5 t o 8 feet.
METHODS A N D TECHNIQUES OF
CONSTRUCTION
Choice of Rods
Ground rods are manufactured in J^, % Connecting to Electrodes
and 1 inch diameters and in lengths o f from 5 to 40
feet. F o r m o s t applications the A, $A and ^4 inch
Z
diameters, in lengths o f 8, 10, 12 and 16 feet, are
satisfactory. T h e National Electrical C o d e specifies
that rods of steel o r iron shall be at least Y% inch
in diameter, and that r o d s of non-ferrous materials
shall not be less than inch in diameter. C o p p e r -
clad steel, one o f the m o s t c o m m o n types o f rod,
permits driving t o considerable depth without d e -
struction of the r o d itself, while the c o p p e r coat makes
possible direct c o p p e r - t o - c o p p e r connection between
the ground wire and the rod. In addition to the
copper-clad steel, galvanized steel r o d s are available.
F o r ease of driving the rods, s o m e r o d s are available
in sections threaded at b o t h ends. A s the sections
are driven, the rods are c o n n e c t e d b y the couplings into
a continuous conductor. A r e m o v a b l e stud will take
the driving b l o w s and avoid d a m a g e to the threads
of the joint.
T h e effect of the r o d diameter o n the resistance o f
the connection t o earth is small. T h e diameter of
ground rod will be determined mainly b y the mechani-
cal rigidity required for driving. It is advantageous
to select the smallest diameter r o d which meets the
driving requirements. A v e r a g e soil conditions will
permit the use o f the ^2 inch r o d ; the % inch r o d
can be driven in nearly all types o f soil, and the
Y± inch diameter r o d m a y be reserved for exceptionally
hard driving conditions, o r for deep driven rods.
F o r ordinary soil condition, the 10 f o o t length o f
rod has b e c o m e fairly well established as a m i n i m u m
standard length to meet the c o d e requirement o f a
minimum o f 8 buried feet.
Methods of Driving Rods
Sledging requires a m i n i m u m o f driving equipment,
but m a y require considerable time per f o o t of r o d .
A modification of the s l e d g i n g process, consisting
of a chuck and sliding hammer, permits the w o r k to
be carried on at a level convenient to the w o r k m a n
without a ladder o r auxiliary platform. A n additional
advantage is that the b l o w is delivered to the r o d
38
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at a point not far from the g r o u n d line, thus per-
mitting r o d s to be driven to greater depths than
w o u l d be possible b y hand sledging. If r o d s are to
be driven o n a comparatively large scale, it is desir-
able to p r o v i d e p o w e r driving equipment. Electric,
pneumatic, and gasoline driven hammers are avail-
able, the first t w o requiring sources of p o w e r . R e -
gardless of the type of driving tool used, precautions
should be taken to prevent "mushrooming*' o f the
head.
L o c a t i n g W a t e r M a i n ( N e w Construction)
Prior to n e w construction, analysis of the soil c o n -
dition and location o f the g r o u n d i n g point m a y per-
mit locating a water pipe nearby. T h i s w o u l d eliminate
a l o n g g r o u n d i n g line ( t o a distant water main) with
its inherently high inductance. T h e e c o n o m i c ad-
vantage o f such an arrangement should not be over-
looked.
Connections to electrodes are usually made in
t w o principal manners. T h e first o f these methods
involves the use of mechanical ( b o l t e d ) fittings which
are readily available, simple to install, disconnectable
for measurements o f resistance to earth, and have
a l o n g history of satisfactory usage. A l t h o u g h cor-
rosion has sometimes presented a p r o b l e m , considera-
tion o f the joint as a standard electric connection in
a c o r r o s i v e element, and treatment accordingly, elimi-
nates m o s t o f the p r o b l e m s in this respect. Mechani-
cal connections should, if at all possible, be accessible
for inspection and servicing.
T h e s e c o n d m e t h o d , a thermit p r o c e s s of connect-
ing to the electrode, has increased in usage in recent
years because o f the savings in time and costs when
m a n y c o n n e c t i o n s must be m a d e . T h i s m e t h o d will
provide a permanent c o n n e c t i o n eliminates contact
resistance, is relatively c o r r o s i o n free, and permits
the use o f smaller cable because o f the 450 C maxi-
m u m temperature limitation as c o m p a r e d to the
m a x i m u m o f 250 C usually permitted for mechanical
connections. It does, h o w e v e r , have certain inherent
limitations. It requires separate disconnecting means,
such as a b o v e g r o u n d bolted joints, for measurements
of resistance t o earth. It also requires the use of a
certain amount of training, and it cannot be used
in the presence o f volatile o r explosive mixtures, or
w h e r e the gaseous p r o d u c t s of the operation w o u l d
interfere with nearby operations.
A third m e t h o d that ultilities are presently experi-
menting with involves the use o f a c o p p e r o r copper
alloy c o n n e c t o r w h i c h is squeezed o n to both ground
r o d and cable simultaneously b y a hydraulic press.
T h i s m e t h o d is e c o n o m i c a l , presents m o s t o f the ad-
vantages o f the thermit process, and eliminates m o s t
of the o b j e c t i o n s t o that p r o c e s s .
O t h e r m e t h o d s o f joining, such as brazing or w e l d -
ing, are satisfactory if p r o p e r l y d o n e .
Joining to Underground Piping Systems
Joining to pipe presents several p r o b l e m s . Clamp
type fittings are relatively expensive, since they must
obviously a c c o m m o d a t e large pipe in addition to the
relatively small c o n d u c t o r . W e l d i n g or brazing to the
pipe will cause localized- stress w h i c h m a y impair
the function of the pipe, particularly if it contains
fluid under high pressure. A typical w e l d e d c o n n e c -
tion to water pipe is s h o w n in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
Typical method of grounding to a large ungrounded
water pipe using welding method.
Joining to Structural Steel
Bolted fittings lend themselves best to structural
steel w h i c h can b e field drilled but not welded. T h e s e
are available in a n u m b e r o f shapes and sizes t o a c -
c o m m o d a t e the range o f c o n d u c t o r s . Material for the
clamps, or protective finishes applied to the clamps
should be chosen s o as to b e satisfactory, from the
corrosion standpoint, to b o t h the g r o u n d i n g wire and
the steel o r iron. Brazing and the thermit process are
also used in connecting to structural steel, but should
be restricted to applications which will not affect the
structural properties o f the steel.
Preparing the Joint
It is important that the surface of any c o n n e c t i o n
be cleaned of any insulating medium, such as insula-
tion, grease, paint, o r dirt, before making the c o n n e c -
tion.
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MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
TO EARTH
Need for M e a s u r e m e n t
In any formula for the determination of the re-
sistance to earth there are m a n y indeterminate
factors, and t o o m u c h reliance should not be placed
u p o n the calculated results. T h e o n l y certain w a y
is to measure the resistance after the system has
been c o m p l e t e d . A desirable refinement w o u l d be to
measure the resistance of each electrode during in-
stallation.
Methods for Measuring
T h e principles used in the measurement of resist-
ance to earth are essentially the same as those used
for measuring other types of electrical resistances.
T h e various m e t h o d s available all make use of t w o
auxiliary electrodes in addition to the o n e under test,
and m a y be g r o u p e d into the following theree general
classes:
1. T h e three point m e t h o d , in w h i c h the resistance
to earth of the electrode under test and the
auxiliary electrodes are measured t w o at a time
in series. T h i s m e t h o d is suitable for measuring
the resistance to earth of isolated g r o u n d elec-
trodes or small g r o u n d i n g installations. It is
not suitable for the measurement of low-resist-
ance installations.
2. T h e fall-of-potential m e t h o d , which involves the
passing of a k n o w n alternating current through
the electrode under test and one of the auxiliary
electrodes, and measuring the potential d r o p b e -
tween the former electrodes and a secondary
auxiliary electrode set at various distances be-
tween the t w o fixed electrodes. T h i s method
m a y be subject to considerable error if stray
g r o u n d currents are present, o r if pipes or other
c o n d u c t o r s are buried near the test electrode.
3. T h e ratio m e t h o d , which involves measurements
of the ratio of the resistance to earth of an
auxiliary test electrode to the series resistance
to earth of the electrode under test and a second
auxiliary electrode.
Multiplying this ratio b y the series resistance
gives the effective resistance of the ground
electrodes. T h i s m e t h o d is m o r e satisfactory than
triangulation m e t h o d s , since ratios of test elec-
trode resistance to the resistance of the electrode
under test m a y be as high as 300:1.
A m o r e c o m p l e t e treatment of the details of these
three m e t h o d s m a y be found in the Standard H a n d -
b o o k for Electrical Engineers, and other standard
w o r k s . C o m m e r c i a l l y available portable testing in-
struments p r o v i d e the m o s t convenient and satis-
factory means for measuring the resistance of connec-
tions to earth. Instruments used for measuring in-
sulation resistance are n o t suitable, h o w e v e r , because
they cannot measure sufficiently l o w resistance values.
Precision in measurements of resistance to earth is
difficult t o obtain and is usually n o t required. Meas-
urements in the o r d e r of one, ten, or 100 o h m s are
generally indicative of the adequacy of the connection.
 It is desirable, in measuring the resistance of the
completed system, to a l l o w s o m e time to elapse before
measurements are made, so that the earth around
the electrodes will be consolidated.
Periodic Testing
T e s t s should be m a d e periodically after the original
installation and test, so that it can be determined
whether the resistance is remaining constant or is
increasing. If later tests s h o w that the resistance
is increasing to an undesirable value, steps should
be taken to reduce the resistance either b y additional
electrodes or b y increasing the moisture content or
by chemical treatment.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
A n y discussion o f c a t h o d i c protection is b e y o n d the
scope of this publication. T h e reader is referred to
the conference paper "Electrical G r o u n d i n g and
Cathodic Protection at the Fairless W o r k s " b y W . E.
Coleman and H . Frostick, U . S. Steel Corporation,
presented b y the A I E E S u b c o m m i t t e e o n Cathodic
Protection at the 1954 A I E E W i n t e r General Meeting.
A n article in the M a r c h 1954 issue o f I r o n and Steel
Engineer, "Cathodic P r o t e c t i o n for Steel Mill G r o u n d -
ing System", b y J. F. H e a d l e e , U . S. Steel C o r p o r a -
tion, is also r e c o m m e n d e d .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ground Connections for Electric Systems, b y
O . S. Peters, National Bureau of Standards T e c h -
nical Bulletin N o . 108.
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2. A n Investigation o f Earthing Resistance, b y P. J.
H i g g i n s , I . E . E . Journal, V o l . 68, p. 736, Feb. 1930.
3. Lightning Arrester G r o u n d s , Parts I, I I , and I I I ,
b y H . M . T o w n e , General Electric R e v i e w , March,
A p r i l and M a y , 1932.
4. Calculation o f Resistance to Ground, b y H . B.
D w i g h t , A I E E Transactions, V o l . 55, 1936, page
1319.
5. D e s i g n Charts for D e t e r m i n i n g O p t i m u m Ground
R o d Dimensions, b y J. Z a b o r s z k y and J. W .
Rittenhouse, A I E E Trans., Power A p p . & Systems,
V o l . 72, 1953, pgs. 810-17.
6. G r o u n d i n g Grids for H i g h - V o l t a g e Stations, by
E. T . B . G r o s s , B . V . Chitnis and L . J. Stratton,
A I E E Trans., Power A p p . & Systems, V o l . 72, 1953,
pgs. 799-810.
7. Earth Resistivity and G e o l o g i c a l Structure, by
R. H . C o r d , A I E E Transactions, V o l . 55, 1935,
page 1153.
8. G r o u n d i n g Electric Circuits Effectively, b y J. R.
Eaton, General Electric R e v i e w , June, July and
A u g u s t , 1941. ( R e p r i n t e d b y James G. Biddle C o . ) .
9. Fundamental Considerations o f G r o u n d Currents,
b y R e i n h o l d R u d e n b e r g , Electrical Engineering,
January 1945, page 1.
10. Establishing G r o u n d s , b y Claude Jensen, Elec-
trical Engineering, F e b r u a r y 1945, page 69.
11. Analytical E x p r e s s i o n s for the Resistance of
G r o u n d i n g Systems, b y S. J. S c h w a r z , A I E E
Transactions 1954, p a g e 1011.
12. Lets L o o k to Station G r o u n d i n g , b y S. J-
S c h w a r z , Electrical W o r l d , M a y 2, 1955, page 55