Gates Engineering College::Gooty: II B.Tech II Semester (R09)

GATES ENGINEERING COLLEGE::GOOTY
Manufacturing Technology
LAB MANUALS
II B.Tech II Semester (R09)
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Preparation of Making & Design.
2. Preparation sand specimen & testing sand properties.
3. Preparation of a green sand moulding single piece pattern.
4. Preparation of V-BUTT JOINT
5. Preparation of a double welded lap joint by shielded metal arc welding.
6. Preparation of Welded joint by using spot welding
7. Preparation of Welded joint by using TIG welding
8. Prepare a model by using blanking and piercing
9. Prepare a model using injection Moulding
10. Study and prepared the Press working process
i) Blanking & piercing ii) Deep drawing & Extrusion iii) Bending

PATTEREN
A pattern is defined as a model of a casting, constructed in such a way that it can be used for forming an
impression (mould) in damp sand. It is not an exact replica of the casting desired. There are certain essential
differences. It is slightly longer than the desired casting, due to various allowances (shrinkage allowance,
machining allowance etc.) and it may have several projections called core prints. It may also have extensions
to produce runners and gates during the moulding process.
The requirements of a good pattern are:
1. Secure the desired shape and size of the casting.

2. Cheap and readily repairable.
3. Simple in design for ease of manufacture.
4. Light in mass and convenient to handle.
5. Have high strength and long life in order to make as many moulds as required.
6. Retain its dimensions and rigidity during the service life.
7. Its surface should be smooth and wear resistant.
8. Able to withstand rough handling.
PLTTERN MATERIALS:
The following factors assist in selecting proper pattern material:
i. The number of casting to be produced. Metal patterns are preferred when the production
quantity is large.
ii. The desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish required for the castings.
iii. Nature of molding process i.e., sand casting, permanent mold casting, shell molding, investment
casting, etc. sand castings can be produced with the help of wooden patterns where as
investment casting needs wax patters.
iv. method of molding i.e., hand or machine molding.
v. shape, complexity and size of the casting.
vi. Casting design parameters (i.e., minimum section thickness) and the complexity of the cast part.
vii. Type of the molding material.
Materials for making patterns:
Patterns may be constructed out of the following materials. The different materials have their own
advantages, limitations and field of applications.
1. Wood 2. Metal 3. Plastic 4. Plaster and
5. Wax
 WOOD:

The wood used for pattern making should be properly dried and seasoned. It should not contain
more than 10% moisture to avoid warping and distortion during subsequent drying. It should be
straight grained and free from knots.
Advantages:
1. light in weight.
2. Comparatively inexpensive.
3. Good workability.
4. Holds well varnishes and paints.
5. Can be repaired easily.
6. Easy to obtained good surface finish.
Limitations:
1. Inherently non uniform in structure.
2. Posses poor wear and abrasion resistance.
3. Cannot withstand rough handling.
4. Absorbs and gives off moisture, so that it varies in volume, warps and thus changes its
mechanical properties. These draw backs however can be remedied by drying and drying and
seasoning it and then giving coats of water proof varnishes and paints.
Applications:
Wooden patterns are used where the number of castings to be produced is small and the pattern size is
large.
The following types of woods are commonly used for pattern making:
a. white pine:
It is widely used for pattern making, because
• It is straight grain
• It is light weight
• It is soft and easy to work
• It is unlikely to warp.
• It is used where small sized castings are to be produced in small quantities.
b. Mahogany:
• It is harder than white pine.
• It is more durable than white pine.
• It is stronger than white pine.
• It can be worked easily if it is straight grained.
• It is relatively less likely to warp.
• It is used to produce the castings in small quantities.
• It is not used for producing patterns of complicated design and requiring high accuracy.
c. Maple, birch and cherry:

These woods are harder and heavier than white pine. They tend to warp in large sections so
should be used for small patterns only. They should be carefully treated because they pick up
moisture readily.
The other common wood materials are – teak, Shisham, Kail and deodar.
 METAL:
Metal patterns are cast from wooden patterns. The different metals and alloys used for making pattern are:
i.Aluminium and alluminium alloys

ii.Steel
iii.Cast lron
iv. Brass
v. White metal
Advantages of metal patterns:
 Unlike wooden patterns they do not absorb moisture. They retain their shape.
 They are stronger and accurate as compared to wooden patterns.
 They posses life much longer than wooden patterns.
 They can with stand rough handling.
 They do not warp.
 They posses greater resistance to abrasion
 They have accurate dimensional tolerances.
 They are far stable under different environments.
 It is easy to obtain smooth surface finish.
 They have good machinability characteristics.
 They possess excellent wear resistance and strength to weight ratio.
Limitations:
 Expensive as compared to wooden patterns.

 Metal patterns are not easily repaired.
 Ferrous patterns get rusted.
 Ferrous patterns are heavier than wooden patterns.
 They cannot be machined so easily as wooden ones.

Applications:
Metal patterns are employed where large numbers of castings have to be produced from the same pattern.
Different metals used for pattern making along with their advantages, limitations and applications are
given below:
1. Alluminium and Alluminium Alloys:
These used for pattern making because of the following advantages:
 Alluminium is the best pattern material.

 It possesses excellent resistance to corrosion.
 It possesses excellent resistance to swelling.
 It possesses good machinability, wear resistance and strength.
 It is very light as compared to other metals used for pattern making.
 It is a low melting point material and easy to cast.
 Good surface finish can be obtained.
 Alluminium alloys do not rust.
 Alluminium patterns do not with stand rough handling.
 They are subjected to wear by abrasive action of molding sands.
 Accidental contacts between molder’s tools and the patterns may damage the
patterns.
Applications:
a. Alluminium patterns find uses as big patterns.
2. Steel:
Steel patterns possess,
• Fair machinability.
• Excellent wear resistance.
• High strength.
• Good reparability.
• Excellent resistance to swelling
But they possess,
• High weight.
• Poor resistance to rust and corrosion.
3. Cast iron:
Advantages:
 Fine grained cast iron is preferred for making patterns.

 It is more durable than other metals.
 It can produce smooth surfaces.
 It may be cast to acquire the shape of the master (wooden) pattern easily.
 It can with stand the abrasive action of the mould materials.
 It can be easily machined.
 It is easy to file and fit.
Limitation:
 Larger weight of the patterns as compared to those made from other metals/alloys.
 Cast lron is hard, brittle and may easily break.
 It may get rusted easily in the presence of moisture.
4. BRASS (cu-zn alloy):
Advantages:
 Brass can be easily worked and machined.
 It can be joined by soldering and brazing.
 Very good surface finish can be obtained.
 Patterns will not get rusted.
 Brass with stand the abrasive action of the mold materials.
 Possess high strength and toughness.
 Small patterns can be easily rectified and fitted.
Limitations:
 Brass is heavier than cast iron.
 It is expensive as compared to other metals.

CASTING
Casting is the process of producing metal/ alloy component parts of desired shapes by pouring the molten
metal/alloy into a prepared mould (of that shape) and then allowing the metal/alloy to cool and solidify.
The process involves the following basic steps:
1. Melting the metal

2. Pouring it into a previously made mould or cavity which conforms to the shape of
The Desired component.
3. Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould.
4. Removing the solidified component from the mould cleaning it to further treatment
If necessary.
The solidified piece of metal, which is taken out of the mould, is called as “Casting”. A plant where the
castings are made is called a “Foundry”. It is a collection of necessary materials, tools and equipment to produce a
casting. The casting process is also called as “Founding”.
The foundries are basically of two types:
1. Jobbing Foundries
2. Captive Foundries
Jobbing Foundries:
These foundries are mostly independently owned. They produce castings on contract, within
their capacity.
Captive Foundries:
Such foundries are usually a department of a big manufacturing company. They produce
castings exclusively for the parent company.
CASTING TERMS:
 FLASK:
A moulding flask is one which is one which holds the sand mould intact. Depending upon the
flask in the mould structure it is referred by various names such as drag, cope and cheek. It is made up of wood
for temporary applications or more generally of metal for long term use.
 DRAG: Lower moulding flask.
 COPE: Upper moulding flask.
 CHEEK: Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
 PARTING LINE:
This is the dividing line between two moulding flasks that makes p the sand Mould. In split it is also
dividing line between the two halves of the pattern.

 BOTTOM BOARD:
This is a board normally made of wood which is used at the start of the mould making. The pattern is
first kept o the bottom board. Sand is sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done in the drag.
 FACOMG SAND:
The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mould cavity to
the give better surface finish to the casting.
 MOULDING SAND:
It is the freshly prepared refractory material used for making the mould cavity.
It is a mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions to get the desired result and it surrounds
the pattern while making the mould.
 BACKING SAND:
It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould.
 CORE:
It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
 GATING SYSTEM:
The molten metal from the ladle is not introduced directly in to the mould cavity,
because it will strike the mould cavity with a great velocity ad can cause considerable erosion of the
mould cavity. Due to this, the molten metal is introduced into the mould cavity from the ladle through a
gating system. The gating system for a casting is a series of channels which lead molten metal from the
ladle in to the mould cavity. It may include any or all of the following
i. Poring basin
ii. Sprue
iii. Sprue base or well
iv. Runner
v. Choke
vi. Skim bob
vii. Gates and/ or in gates viii. Riser
i. Poring basin:
A pouring basin or cup is a reservoir at the top of the sprue that receives the stream of the molten
metal poured from the ladle. Sometimes the metal is directly poured into the top of the sprue, which is made
with a funnel shaped opening.
The pouring basin is filled quickly at the start of the pour and it should remain full of molten
metal during pouting. Thus dross consisting of oxides and slags which float, may be kept from entering the
sprue. If the depth of metal in the cup is insufficient a funnel is likely to form above the sprue entrance
through which air and slag may get into the sprue and then into the mould cavity.

The depth of the pouring basin is a function of sprue entrance diameter. Experience has shown
that liquid metal depth above the sprue entrance should be 2.5 times the sprue entrance diameter.
ii. Sprue:
From the pouring basin the molten metal is transported down into the mould cavity by means of
the sprue or down gate. It is a vertical channel that connects the pouring basin with runners and gates. As the
metal flows down in the sprue its velocity increases. Hence the section of the sprue should be decreased,
otherwise the sprue will not remain full of metal with the metal leaving the walls of the sprue. This will result in
aspiration of gases through the surrounding moulding sand. To prevent this the sprue are made tapered down
ward. The taper ranges from 2⁰ to 4⁰.
iii. Sprue Base:
Where a sprue joins a runner, usually an enlargement in the runner is made. This enlargement
which is called as “Sprue Base” or “Sprue Well” serves a dual function.
iv. Runners:
A runner is commonly a horizontal channel which connects the sprue with gates thus allowing
the molten metal to enter the mould cavity.
v. Skim – bob:
A skim bob is an enlargement along the runner, whose function is to trap heavier and
Lighter impurities such as dross or eroded sand. It thus prevents these impurities from going into
the mould cavity.
vi. Gates:
Gates are channels which connects the runners to the mould cavity and through which the
incoming metal directly enters into the mould cavity. The gates should break off easily from the casting
after solidification. For this at the junction to the cavity the gates are much reduced in thickness.
Classification of Casting Process:
Depending on whether the moulds, patterns (used to make the mould cavities) and cores
(used to produce internal details in a component) are permanent or expendable (disposable), the casting process
are classified into following three types
I. Expendable mould casting

II. Permanent mould casting
III. Semi – permanent mould casting
 Expendable mould casting:

In this process the mould cavity is obtained by consolidating a refractory material
(moulding material) around a pattern. The mould has to be broken to take out the casting. So such moulds
are one casting moulds. The moulding material can be sand or some other refractory material.
 Permanent mould casting:
In this process the is used repeatedly and is not destroyed after the solidification of the
casting. The moulds are adaptable to the production of tens and thousands of castings. Generally the
process is practical for making parts of small and medium mass from light non-ferrous alloys. The casting
produced by this method has smooth surface ad increased accuracy of dimensions.
 Semi – Permanent mould Casting:
These moulds are prepared from high refractory materials, for example based on
graphite.
SAND MOULD CASTING:
The sand moulds are single casting mould and are completely destroyed for taking out
the metal has solidified in the mould cavity. The moulding material is sand, which is mixed with small amounts of
other materials (binders and additives) and water to improve the cohesive strength and mould ability of sand. For
making the mould, the moulding material will have to be consolidated and contained around the pattern.
Depending upon the type of pattern used, the sand moulding process is of two types:
A. Permanent or Removable Pattern Process
B. Expendable or Disposable pattern process
Permanent Pattern Process:
In this process the pattern is removed from the mould cavity, before the molten metal is poured
into the mould cavity. This is the most common sand mould casting process.
Disposable Pattern Process:
In this process the mould cavity, before the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity. It gets
melted and forms a part of the final casting.
Advantages of Casting Process:
1. Casting is one of the most versatile manufacturing processes.
2. Casting provides the greatest freedom of design in terms of shape, size and the product

quantity.
3. Casting imports uniform directional properties and better vibration damping capacity to
the cast pats.
4. Casting produces machinable parts.
5. A product may be cast as one piece, thereby eliminating the need of metal joining processes.
6. Metals difficult to be shaped by other manufacturing processes may be cast.
7. Castings can be designed for equal distribution of loads (on all members of a product) and
for Minimum stress concentration in order to achieve more strength and increased service
life.
8. A part can be made almost to the finished shape before any machining is done.
Applications of Casting:
A few applications of casting are mentioned below:
 Machine tool structures
 Turbine vanes
 Power generators
 Transport vehicles
 Air craft jet engine blades
 Agricultural parts
 Sanitary fittings
 Pistons and piston rings
 Communication and construction applications.

Exp: Dates:
PATTERN DESIGN
AIM: To Design and Manufacture a Wooden Pattern for a given Casting.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Teak wood of 70 × 70 × 70 mm³
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS REQUIRED: Hack Saw, Jack Plane, Steel Rule, and Wood Working Lathe, Drill
bit Boring Tool, Vernier Calipers and Emery Paper.
THEORY:
 A pattern is a mold forming tool in the hands of foundry men.
 A pattern is model or the replica of the object to cast.
 Except for the various allowances a pattern exactly resembles the casting to be made.
 A pattern may be defined as a model or form around which sand is packed to give rise to a cavity
known as mould cavity in which when molten metal is poured, the result is cast OBJECT.
Functions of a pattern:
 A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
 A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and need to be
hallow.
 Runner, gates and risers (used for introducing and feeding molten metal to the mold cavity) may form
the part of the pattern.
 A pattern may help in establishing locating points on the mold and therefore on the casting with a
purpose to check the casting dimensions.
 Pattern establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mold.
 Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
 Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the castings.
Pattern Making Machines:

Besides the hand tools, a modern pattern makers shop needs some power-driven machines also. These
machines help the pattern maker in
 Increasing production.
 Improving accuracy and maintaining consistency in the patterns.
 Performing many more operations easily and conveniently.
The following tools are used for different purposes by a pattern maker.
a) Measuring, making and layout tools:
i) Steel rule ii) Shrinkage rule iii) Caliper
iv) Divider v) Marking gauge vi) Trammels

vii) Try square viii) T-bevel ix) Combination square.
(b) Tools for clamping purposes:
i) Hand vice ii) Pattern makers vice iii) Bar clamp
iv) C-clamp v) Hand screw
(C) Sawing tools:
i) Coping saw ii) Bow saw iii) Compass saw
iv) Rip saw v) Crosscut saw vi) Panel saw
vii) Back saw viii) Dovetail saw
Wood working lathe:
The woodworking lathe is one of the most important machines used in a carpentry shop. This is employed
primarily for turning jobs in making cylindrical parts. However, by suitably manipulating the tools, radii, and
other irregular shapes can also be easily turned.
It resembles the ‘engine lathe’ most frequently used in the machine shop and consists of a iron bed, a head
stock, tail stock, tool rest, live and dead centers, and a speed control device (shown in fig). the drive, in modern
lathes, is individual motor driven; and a cone pulley on the head stock spindle is connected by a belt to a cone
pulley on the motor shaft.
In practice, the work piece is either clamped between two centers or on a face plate. Long jobs are held
between the centers and turned with the help of gouge, skew chisel, parting tool, etc. generally, the lathe is
supplied together with a number of accessories for making it useful for a variety of jobs. The size of a
woodworking lathe, as in the engine lathe, is usually specified in terms of the so-called “swing” of the lathe and
the maximum distance between centers.
Allowances:
A pattern is always larger in size when compared to normal casting, because it carries certain allowances due to
mechanical reasons and metallurgical reasons for example, shrinkage allowance is the result of metallurgical
phenomenon whereas machining, draft, and other allowances are provided on the patterns because of mechanical
reasons.
The various pattern allowances are:
a) Shrinkage or contraction allowance.

(b) Machining or finishing allowance.
(c) Draft or topper allowance.
(d) Distortion camber allowance.
(e) Shaking rapping allowance.

Shrinkage allowance:
All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically after solidification and therefore the pattern to
be obtain a particular sized casting is made oversize by an amount equal to that of shrinkage or contraction.
Different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is the property of the cast metal or alloy. The metal
shrinkage depends upon the cast metal or alloy, pouring temperature of the metal or alloy, casting dimensions
(size), and molding conditions (i.e., mold materials and molding methods employed).
Machine allowance:
 A casting is given an allowance for machining, because castings get oxidized in the mold and
during heat treatment; scales etc., thus formed need to be removed.
 It is intended to remove surface roughness and other imperfections from the castings. It is
required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
 Surface finish is required on the casting.
The above factors necessitate the provision of extra metal on the castings or the machining/allowance. How much
extra metal or how much machining allowance should be provided, depends upon the factors listed below:
 Nature of metal i.e., ferrous or non ferrous. Ferrous metals get scared while nonferrous metals do
not.
 Size and shape of the casting. Long casting tend to warp and need more material (i.e., allowance)
to be added to ensure that after machining the casting will be alright.
 The type of machining operation (I.e., grinding, milling, turning, boring etc).
 Casting conditions I.e., whether casting conditions result in a rough casting or a semi finished
one.
 Molding process employed. Die casting produces parts which need little machining allowance
whereas parts sand cast, require more machining allowance.
 Number of cuts to be taken. Machining allowance is directly proportional to the number of cuts
required for finishing the casting.
 The degree of surface finish desired on the cast part.
Draft or taper Allowance:
It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to the parting line. Draft allowance is given so that pattern can be easily
removed from molding material which is tightly packed around it with out damaging the mold cavity. The amount
of taper depends upon
 Shape and size (length) of pattern in the depth direction in contact with the mold cavity.
 Molding methods.
 Mold materials.
Draft allowance is imparted in internal as well as external surfaces; of course it is more on internal surfaces.
Taper in external surfaces = 10 to 25 mm/meter or1⁰ -2⁰.
Taper on internal surfaces = 40 to 65 mm/meter or 3⁰ ₋ 4⁰.

Problem:
Design a pattern for the casting shown in fig. which is to be made of steel by considering shrinkage, machining
and draft allowance.
Solution:
Shrinkage allowance:
For steel shrinkage allowance is 21mm/m.
For dimension 60, allowance is 60 × 21/1000 = 1.26 ~1.3
For dimension 20, allowance is 20 × 21/1000 = 0.42
The pattern drawing with required dimensions taking shrinkage into account is shown in fig.
Machining Allowance:
For steel machining allowance is 3mm
For dimension 61.3, allowance =61.3+3=64.3
For dimension 20.42, allowance = 20.42+3=23.42
Draft allowance:
Assume 2⁰ taper for external details and 4⁰ for internal details.
For the above casting taper required
External = 64.3 × tan 2⁰ = 2.24 mm.
For dimension 64.3, allowance = 64.3+2.24 =66.54 mm
After providing this taper the pattern drawing is as shown in fig. The procedure for preparing the pattern is given
below.
PROCEDURE:
1. The given work piece is prepared using the jack plane.

2. The work piece is cut by using sawing tools according to the dimensions.
3. Finish the same using wood rasp file
4. Fix the work piece on wood working lathe.
5. Fix a drill of required diameter in the tail stock.
6. Perform drilling operation according to the dimensions.
7. Fix a boring tool in tool post.
8. Swivel the compound rest to the required angle and perform boring operation according to
the Dimensions.
9. Finish the work using emery paper.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The work piece should be held rigidly in the vice while performing cutting operation.
2. The work piece should be held rigidly in the chuck of lathe.
3. Make sure that the axis of drill coincides with the axis of work.
4. Optimum machining conditions should be maintained.
RESULT:


EXP No: Date:
PREPARATION OF STEPPED PULLEY PATTERN (Pattern Making)
AIM: Prepare a stepped pulley pattern of given dimensions as shown in fig. using wood turn lathe.
TOOLS REQUIRED: Gauge, skew chisel, parting tool, scraping tools.
DESCRIPTION OF LATHE:
Wood turning lathe is also called lathe. It is simple in construction having three basic parts bed, head stock and
tail stock. The head stock is permanently fixed on the left side of the bed. On the top of the bed guide way tail
stock is mounted and it is free to slide and it can be clamped in any position. The work piece is held between
centers (head stock and tail stock) and revolved on its own axis. The tool is fed manually to remove UN wanted
material from rotating work piece. From this machine any axis symmetric component can be produced.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take the work piece of required length and size.

2. Check the end faces weather they are perpendicular or not with the rectangular faces.
3. Mark the centers on both end faces.
4. Fix the work piece between centers. That is live center and dead center.
5. Rotate the work piece in anti clock wise direction.
6. Feed the tools manually to get the des
PRECAUTIONS: Use goggles to protect the eyes from dust.

RESULT:
EXP No: Date:
SAND PROPERTIES TESTING
AIM: To Prepare a Sand Specimen for Testing Properties

Equipments: Sand, Clay, Universal Testing Machine , Compression Testing Machine , Permeability Testing
Machine
Theory:
Sand preparation: tests are conducted on a sample of the standard sand. The moulding sand should be prepared
exactly as is done in the shop on the standard equipment and then carefully enclosed in a closed container to
safeguard its moisture content.
Moisture content: moisture is an important element of the moulding sand as it affects many properties. To test
the moisture of moulding sand a carefully weighted test sample of 50g is dried at a temperature of 105 0C to 1100C
for 2 hours by which time all the moisture in the sand would have been evaporated. The sample is then weighted.
The weight difference in grams when multiplied by 2 would give the percentage of moisture contained in the
moulding sand.
Alternatively a moisture teller can also be used for measuring the moisture content. In this the sand is
dried by suspending the sample on a fine metallic screen and allowing hot air to flow through the sample. This
method of drying completes the removal of moisture in a matter of minutes compared to 2 hours as in the earlier
method.
Another moisture teller utilizes calcium carbide to measure the moisture content. A
measured amount of carbide in a container along with a separate cap consisting of measured quantity of moulding
sand is kept in the moisture teller care has to be taken before closing the apparatus that carbide and sand do not
come into contact. The apparatus is then shaken vigorously such that the following reaction takes place.
CaC2+2H2O→C2H2+Ca (OH)2
The acetylene (C2H2) coming out will be collected in the space above the sand raising the
pressure. A pressure gauge connected to the apparatus would give directly the amount of
acetylene generated which is proportional to the moisture present. It is possible to calibrate the pressure gauge to
directly read the amount of moisture.
Clay content: the clay content of moulding sand is determined by dissolving of washing
it off the sand. To determine the clay percentage a 50g sample is dried at 105 to 1100C and the dried sample is
taken in a one litre glass flask and added with 475 ml of distilled water and 25ml of a one percent solution of
caustic soda (NaOH 25g per litre). This sample is thoroughly stirred. After the stirring, for a period of five
minutes the sample is diluted with fresh water up to a 150mm graduation mark and the sample is left undisturbed
for 10 minutes to settle. The sand
settles at the bottom and the clay particles washed from the sand would be floating in the water. 125mm of this
water is siphoned off the flask and it is again topped to the same level and allowed to settle for five minutes. The
above operation is repeated till the water above the sand becomes clear, which is an indication that all the clay in
the moulding sand has been removed. Now the sand is removed from the flask and dried by heating. The
difference in weight of the dried sand and 50g when multiplied by two gives the clay percentage in the moulding
sand

Procedure:
Step1:
Specimen preparation:
since the permeability of sand is dependent to a great extent, on the degree of ramming, it is necessary
that the specimen be prepared under standard conditions. Toget reproducible ramming conditions, a laboratory
sand rammer is used along with a specimen tube. The measured amount of sand is filled in the specimen tube, and
a fixed weight of 6.35-7.25kg is allowed to fall on the sand three times from a height of 50.8±0.8mm. to produce
this size of specimen usually sand of 145 to 175g would be required.
After preparing a test sample of sand as described, 2000cm 3 of air are passed through the sample and the
time taken by it to completely pass through the specimen is noted. Then from the above equation the permeability
number can be calculated.
Step 2:
Strength: measurement of strength of moulding sands can be carried out on the universal sand strength testing
machine. The strength can be measured in compression, shear and tension. The sands that could be tested are
green sand. Dry sand of core sand. The compression and shear test involve the standard cylindrical specimen that
was used for the permeability test.

Green compression strength: green compression strength or simply green strength generally refers to the stress
required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading. The sand specimen is taken out of the specimen
tube and is immediately (any delay causes the drying of the sample which increases the strength) put on the
strength testing machine and the force required to cause the compression failure is determined. The green strength
of sands is generally in the range of 30 to 190kPa.
Green shear strength: with a sand sample similar to the above test, a different adapter is fitted in the universal
machine so that the loading now be made for the shearing of the sand sample. The stress required to shear the
specimen along the axis is then represented as the green shear strength. The green shear strengths may vary from
10 to 50 kPa.
Dry strength: the tests similar to the above can also be carried with the standard specimens dried between 105
and 1100C for 2 hours. Since the strength greatly increases with drying, it may be necessary to apply larger
stresses than the previous tests. The range of dry compression strengths found in moulding sands is from 140 to
1800 kPa, depending on the sand sample.
Step 3:
Mould hardness: the mould hardness is measured by a method similar to the Brinell hardness test. A spring
loaded steel ball with a mass of 0.9kg is indented into the standard sand specimen prepared. The depth of
indentation can be directly measured on the scale which shows units 0 to 100. When no penetration occurs, then it
is a mould hardness of 100 and when it sinks completely, the reading is zero indicating a very soft mould.

Besides these, there are other tests to determine such properties as deformation, green tensile strength, hot
strength, expansion, etc.
After preparing a test sample of sand as described, 2000cm 3 of air are passed through the sample and the time
taken by it to completely pass through the specimen is noted. Then from the above equation the permeability
number can be calculated.
Step 4:
Permeability: the rate of flow of air passing through a standard specimen under a standard pressure is termed as
permeability number.
The standard permeability test is to measure time taken by a 2000cm3 of air at a pressure typically of 980
pa to pass through a standard sand specimen confined in a specimen tube. The standard specimen size is 50.8mm
in diameter and a length of 50.8mm. then the permeability number P is obtained by
P=VH/ρAT
Where
V= volume of air=2000cm3
H= height of the sand specimen=5.08cm
P= air pressure, g/cm2
A= C/S area of sand specimen=20.268cm2
T= time in minutes for the complete air to pass through the gaps
Inserting the above standard values in to the expression, we get
P=501.28/ρT

RESULT:

Exp No: Date:
PREPERATION OF GREEN SAND MOULD USING SINGLE PIECE PATTERN
AIM: Preparation of green sand mould for given single piece pattern.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Green molding sand, pattern, molding boxes.
TOOLS REQUIRED: Rammers, slicks, strike of bar, riddle, shovel, riser, sprue pin etc.
SKETCH:
DESCRIPTION: A mould can be described as a cavity created in compact sand mass which when filled with
molten metal will produce a casting. Obviously it is the impression left behind by a pattern after with drawing the
pattern. The cavity obtained will exactly resemble with the external shape and size of pattern. The process of
producing this cavity is called molding technique
PATTERN:

PROCEDURE:
1.First of all a suitable flask is selected. Large enough to accommodate the pattern and also allow some space
around it for ramming.
2.Sprinkle the parting sand on the floor for partly removal of pattern. The drag part is placed upside down on the
floor.
3. The pattern is placed on the floor in side the flask centrally.
4. Molding sand is filled all along the pattern surface and fill up to the level flank rammed properly. Hold the
pattern and ram the sand around it. Again fill the sand up to the level of flask and ram it.
5. The excess sand is removed by using strike off bar.
6. A small amount of dry loose sand is sprinkled over the top surface and the drag is turned upside down.
7. The cope is placed over the drag and parting sand is sprinkled on the top surface.
8. Runners, riser is put in positions and supported vertically by taking small amount of molding sand around them.
9. The sand is filled in the flask and rammed it. Excess sand is removed and vent hole are made, parting sand is
sprinkled around the top surface.
10. Then remove the cope and drag flask gently and carefully without spoiling the mould.
11. Remove the pattern from the flask by slightly shaking pattern in horizontal position along x and y direction.
12. Repairs are then made in the cavity and gates are cut.
13. The cope and drag flasks are assembled together and mould is ready for pouring of molten metal.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ramming to be done uniformly.
2. Molding flask (cope and drag) is to be assembled with guide pins.
RESULT:

WELDING
Introduction:
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by application of heat, with or without application of pressure or
filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in composition and characteristics of the metal joined. The
various welding process are:
1) Electric Arc welding 2) Gas welding 3) Thermit welding 4) Resistance welding
5) Friction welding.
However, only electric arc welding and Gas welding are discussed here. In either process, the work pieces are
melted along a common edge, to their melting point and then a filler metal is introduced to form the joint on
solidification. The materials to be welded must be free from rust, scale, oil or other impurities, so as to obtain a
sound weld.
Arc Welding:
In Arc welding, heat required for joining the metals is obtained from an electric arc. Transformers or
motor generator sets are used as arc welding machines. These Machines supply high electric currents at low
voltages and an electrode is used to produce necessary arc. The electrode serves as the filler rod and the arc melts
the surfaces so that, the metals to be joined are actually fused together. Fig ( ) shows the principle of arc
welding, using a transformer.
In addition to the welding machine, certain accessories are needed for carrying out the welding work.
1) Welding Cables:
Two welding cables are required, one from the machine to the electrode and holder and other, from the
machine to the ground clamp. Flexible cables are usually preferred because of the ease of usage and coiling the
cables. Cables are specified by their current carrying, capacity, say 300A, 400A etc.
2) Electrodes:
Filler rods used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of metallic wire called core wire, having
approximately the same composition as the metal to be welded. These are coated uniformly with a protective
coating called flux.
3) Electrode Holder:
The Electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and holds the electrode. It should be light,
strong and easy to handle and should not become hot while in operation. Figure shows one type of electrode
holder. The jaws of the holder are insulated, offering protection from electric shock.

Fig: Ground Clamp Fig: Chipping Hammer

Fig: Arc Welding
Fig: Welding Positions
4) Ground Clamp:
It is connected to the end of the ground cable and is clamped to the work or welding table to complete the
electric circuit. It should be strong and durable and give a low resistance connection.
5) Chipping Hammer and Wire Brush:
A wire brush is used for cleaning and prepared the work for welding. A chipping hammer is used for
removing slag formation on welds. One end of the head is sharpened like a chisel and the other, to be blunt, and
round point.

6) Face Shield:
A face shield is used to protect the eyes and face from the race of the arc and from spatter and flying
particles of hot metal. It is available either in hand or helmet type (fig ). The hand type is convenient
to use where ever the work can be done with one hand. The helmet type is through not comfortable to wear, leaves
both hands free for the work.
Shields are made of light weight non-reflecting fiber and fitted with dark glass to filter out the harmful
rays of the arc. A cover glass is fitted in front of the dark lens to protect it from spatter.
7) Hand Gloves:
These are used to protect the hands from electrical shock and hot spatters.
Preparation of work
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign material.
Thin pieces of metal are generally welded without believing the edges. However, thick work pieces should be
beveled or veed out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of the weld. But, in either case, the parts
to be welded must be separated slightly to allow better penetration of the weld (fig ).
Welding Positions
Depending on the position of the welding joint, appropriate position of the electrode and hand movement
are selected. Figure shows different welding positions.
Arc Welding Machines:
Both Direct current (DC) and alternate current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each having its
particular applications. DC welding supply is generally obtained from generators driven by electric motors or if
no electricity is available by internal combustion engines.
Transformers are predominately used for almost all welding works. They have to step down the usual
supply voltage of 200V-400Volts to the open circuit voltage of 50-90 volts. A 100A to 200A small and portable
and available in single phase also. A 300A to 400A size is suitable for manual welding of average work.
Automatic welding requires 800A to 3000A.
The two popular manufacturers are I) Indian Oxygen’s INDARC and
II) Advani Orlikon makes. The transformer may be air cooled or oil cooled with transformer oil.


Arc Welding Currents and Voltages
The range of currents and voltages applied are changed according to the electrode selected for the job.
The details are given in the table below.
Table: Voltage used in Arc Welding Table: Welding currents for various
electrodes
Dia of Electrode (mm) Current (A)

Current (A) Voltage (V) 2 45
Up to 100 15 2.5 70
Over 100 to 250 20 3.25 105
Over 250 to 350 30 4.0 140
Over 350 to 500 35 5.0 180
Over 500 40 6.0 235
8.0 310
Gas Welding:
Oxy acetylene flame is commonly used for gas welding (fig ). It consists of the supply of oxygen and
acetylene under pressure in cylinder and pressure regulators, a torch, hoses and accessories like goggles and a
lighter. The oxygen and acetylene cylinders are connected to the torch through pressure regulators and hoses. The
regulator consists of two pressure gauges, one for indicating the pressure indicating the cylinder and other shows
the pressure of the gas fed in to the torch, which may be regulated. The torch mixes the two gases and the flame
may be controlled by adjusting the oxygen and acetylene supply.
Note: Oxygen regulators have “Right hand” threads with plain nuts and acetylene regulators have “Left hand”
threads with notched hexagon nuts. So that they can’t be confused. The regulator is closed by unscrewing the
regulating screw.
Goggles with colored glasses are used to protect the eyes from glare and flying bits of hot metal. A welding table
with a top of fire bricks is recommended for acetylene welding.

Types of Flames
The correct adjustment of flame is important for efficient welding. When oxygen and acetylene are
supplied to the torch nearly in equal volumes, a neutral flame is produced having a maximum temperature of
32000 C. The neutral flame is widely used for welding steel, cast iron, copper, aluminum etc. Carburising flame is
produced with an excess of acetylene, is needed for welding led, Oxidising flame with excess of oxygen is used
for welding brass.
Depending on the thickness of the job, different torch nozzle sizes are used. The pressure of the gases and
the flame size vary depending on the size of the nozzle tip.
Safe and Correct Practices:
1) Arc welding:

1) Never look at the arc with naked eye. The arc can burn your eyes severely.
Always use a shield while welding.
2) Always use gloves, apron and leather shoes.
3) Ensure proper insulation of cable and check for openings.
4) Apply eye drops after arc welding is over for the day to relive strain on the eyes.
2) Gas Welding:
1) Always wear welding goggles while doing gas welding.
2) Never play or get careless when using the gas welding equipment. Combustible
Gas must be handling carefully.
3) Always use spark lighter to light the torch, never use match.
4) Strictly follow the instructions and procedures laid-out in handling the
Cylinders, regulators and torches.

Fig: V-Butt Joint
Exp.No: Date:
V-BUTT JOINT

AIM: Preparation of V-Butt joint as shown in figure using shield metal arc
welding process.
Material required: 2M.S Flat pieces of given sizes.
Tools Required: Welding Transformer, Connecting cables, electrode holder,
ground clamp, electrodes, chipping hammer, welding shield etc.
Procedure:
1. The given metallic piece is filed to the desired sizes.
2. On both pieces beveled in order to have V-grove.
3. The metallic piece is thoroughly cleaned from rust, grease, oil etc.
4. The connecting cables are connected to terminals of transformers.
5. Select electrode dia based on thick of work piece and hold it on the electrode holder. Select suitable range
of current for selected dia.
6. Switch on the power supply and initiate the arc by either striking arc method or touch and drag method.
7. Tak welding to be done before full welding.
8. In full welding process, after completion one part before going to second part, slag is removed form the
weld bed with the metal wire bed or chipping hammer
9. Then the above process will be repeated until to fill the groove with weld bed or weld metal.
Precautions:
1. Use goggles gloves in order to protect the human body.
2. Maintain the constant arc length.
Result:
Conclusion:
Signature of the Faculty

Fig: Lap Joint

Exp.No: Date:
LAP JOINT
AIM: Preparation of Lap joint as shown in figure using shield metal arc welding process.
Material required: 2M.S Flat pieces of given sizes.
Tools Required: Welding Transformer, Connecting cables, electrode holder, ground clamp, electrodes, chipping
hammer, welding shield etc.
Procedure:
1. The given metallic piece is filed to the desired sizes.

2. The metallic piece is thoroughly cleaned from rust, grease, oil etc.
3. Now given metallic pieces are assembled as shown in figure.
4. Select electrode dia based on thick of work piece and hold it on the electrode holder. Select suitable range
of current for selected dia.
5. Switch on the power supply and initiate the arc by either striking arc method or touch and drag method.
6. Tak welding to be done before full welding.
7. In full welding process, after completion one part before going to second part, slag is removed form the
weld bed with the metal wire bed or chipping hammer
8. Then the above process will be repeated until to reach desired height of weld.
Precautions:
1. Use goggles gloves in order to protect the human body.

2. Maintain the constant arc length.
Result:
Conclusion:
Signature of the Faculty

Exp: 3 Dates:
SPOT WELDING (LAP JOINT)
AIM: To prepare a lap joint on the given work pieces using spot welding equipment.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: GI Sheet of 150 × 50 mm² --- 2 Nos.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Spot Welding Equipment, Snips and Gloves
THEORY:
In resistance welding (RW) a low voltage (typically IV) and very high current (typically 15,000
A) is passed through the joint for a very short time (typically 0.25 ѕ). This high amperage heats joint, due
to the contact resistance of the joint and melts it. The pressure on the joint is continuously maintained and
the metal fuses together under this pressure. The heat generated in resistance welding can be expressed as
Q = k l² R t
Where Q = the total heat generated in the work, J
L = electric current, A
T = time for which the electric current is passing through the joint, s
R = the resistance of the joint, ohms
And k = a constant to account for the heat losses from the welded joint.
The resistance of the joint, R is a complex factor to know because it is composed of
1. The resistance of the electrodes,

2. The contact resistance between the electrode and the work piece,
3. The contact resistance between the two work piece plates,
4. The resistance of the work piece plates.
The amount of heat released is directly proportional to the resistance. It is likely to be released at all of the
above-mentioned points, but the only place where a large amount of heat is to be generated to have an effective
fusion is at the interface between the two work piece plates. Therefore, the rest of the component resistances
should be made as small as possible, since the heat released at those places would not aid in the welding.
Because of the squaring in the above, equation, the current, I needs to be precisely controlled for any
proper joint. The main requirement of the process is the low voltage and high power supply. This is obtained by
means of a step down transformer with a provision to have different tappings on the primary side, as required for
different materials. The secondary windings are connected to the electrodes which are made of copper to reduce
their electrical resistance. The time of the electric supply needs to be closely controlled so that the heat released is
just enough to melt the joint and the subsequent fusion takes place due to the force (forge welding) on the joint.
The force required can be provided either mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically. To precisely control the
time, sophisticated electronic timers are available.

The critical variable in a resistance welding process is the contact resistance between the two work piece
plates and their resistances themselves. The contact resistance is affected by the surface finish on the plates, since
the rougher surfaces have higher contact resistance. The contact resistance also will be affected by the cleanliness
of the surface. Oxides or other contaminants if present should be removed before attempting resistance welding.
Procedure:
1. The two pieces to be joined by spot welding are placed between the two electrodes in the required
position.
2. Set the timer for which the current flows through the electrodes with reference to the thickness of the
plates.
3. Press the foot lever, so that the movable electrode moves towards the fixed electrode.
4. This causes to develop a pressure of about 200-1000 Kg /cm² on the sheets.
5. A low voltage and very high current is passed through the joint for a very short time. The duration of the
current flow is for about 2 sec (this high amperage heats the joint, due to contact resistance at the joint
and melts it).
6. Then the metal under electrodes pressure is squeezed and welded
7. Pressure is then released and the process is repeated until the job is completed.
8. The welding is carried out in a regular pattern as shown in fig.
PRECATIONS:
1. Proper pressure should be applied on the electrodes.
2. Correct electrode diameter needs to be chosen depending on the material thickness to be joined.
3. Proper weld time should be selected for welding.
Result:

Exp No: Date:
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)
AIM: To prepare a Butt joint on the given work pieces using TIG welding equipment
Apparatuses: Argonic Cylinder, Work pieces, TIG welding Tranformer
Theory:
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an inert gas shielded arc
welding process using non-consumable electrode. The electrodes may also contain 1 to 2 % thoria (thorium oxide)
mixed along with the core tungsten or tungsten with 0.15 to 0.40 % zirconia (zirconium oxide).the pure
tungsten electrodes are less expensive but will carry less current. The throriated tungsten electrodes carry high
currents and are more desirable because they can strike and maintain a stable arc with relative ease. The zirconia
added tungsten electrodes are better than pure tungsten but inferior to thoriated tungsten electrodes.
A Typical tungsten inert gas welding setup is shown in fig. it consists of a welding torch at the centre of
which is the tungsten electrode. The inert gas is supplied to the welding zone through the annular path
surrounding the tungsten electrode to effectively displace the atmosphere around the weld puddle. The smaller
weld torches may not be provided with circulating cooling water.
The TIG welding process can be used for the joining of a number of materials though the most common
ones are aluminum, magnesium and stainless steel. The typical combination of TIG setups to be used with these
and other metals are presented in table.
Procedure:
Step 1: Power sources:
The power sources used are always the constant current type. Both direct current (DC) and alternating
current (AC) power supplies can be used for TIG welding. When DC is used, the electrode can be negative
(DCEN) or positive (DCEP). With
DCEN more heat is generated near the work piece and consequently the electrode does not get heated to a
great extent. But when DCEP is used, a large amount of heat is liberated at the electrode itself thereby limiting the
maximum current that can be carried by an electrode. Roughly, the current carrying capacity of a DCEN electrode
is about 10 times as high as that of a DCEP electrode.
The DCEP is sometimes utilized to break down the oxides on the surface of the metals such as aluminium. The
electrons from the oxide layer move towards the positive electrode weakening the surface layer. The positively
charged ions from the electrode would then be able to easily break the surface layer and thus would help in
obtaining the fusion. Similarly, when AC is used, the half cycle during which the electrode is positive, the
electrons from the oxide layer would be moving towards the electrode, whereas in the other half the electrons
from the electrode would be able to easily break the oxide layer on the work piece surface. Thus, an AC arc
welding is likely to give rise to a higher penetration than that of DCEP. Hence, DCEP is normally used for

welding thin metals whereas for deep penetration welds DCEN is used. DCEP. Also causes larger heat affected
zones and more weld distortion than DCEN.
The DC power supply used for TIG can be either a steady one or more often a step pulsed one. In the case
of the step pulsed current machine, the current level is maintained at two levels, as shown in fig. the low level is
called background currents which is used for cooling the weld metal. The other is the peak current used when the
actual melting (welding) takes place. During
the background current period the arc is maintained but very small heat input goes to the weld and, as a result, the
arc crater cools. This type of step pulsed DC source is, particularly, useful for welding in out of positions (other
than flat position) since it allows for the controlled heating and cooling. Otherwise, the electrode is to be flipped
away slightly from the arc crater to allow for the cooling of the puddle before it is moved forward again. But the
pulsed DC arc welding provides for proper solidification during the background current period when the torch is
moved forward for forming the next spot (bead), as shown in fig.
When the alternating current (AC) is used for TIG welding, the current continuously changes its direction.
It changes its direction 50 times every second (in 50Hz power supply) such that half the time it is operating as
DCEN and rest, as DCEP. A typical AC wave form is shown in fig. which is termed as balanced wave since the
positive side and the negative side is identical in magnitude. But the TIG welding machine would not behave as
normal AC. During the period when the electrode is positive, the electron move from flat work piece surface to
the small sized tip of the electrode which restricts the flow of electrons. This is termed as ‘Rectification’ and is
responsible for the reduced current flow during DCEP portion of the AC wave as shown in fig. This is known as
unbalanced wave.
This rectification is an AC cycle during the time when the electrode becomes positive will make the AC
arc, a highly unstable one. To maintain a steady arc in an un balanced AC welding machine, a very high voltage,
very high frequency and low current power supply is superimposed on the unbalanced wave. This maintains the
shielding gas ionized during the period, when the electrode is positive and thus maintains the arc continuously.
There are quite a few advantages of an un balanced AC arc welding machine compared to a balanced wave
machine. It is less expensive. Since less current flows when the electrode is positive, less heat is liberated near the
electrode. This permits a higher current carrying capacity for the electrodes,
which results in better penetration.
It is possible to provide a balanced wave as shown in fig. by incorporating a large number
of capacitors in series to provide the necessary current discharges during the time when the electrode is positive.
These capacitors get charged during the time when the electrode is negative. A balanced wave maintains a steady
arc and therefore is preferred for better removal of the oxide layer is possible. However, these machines are more
expensive compared to the un balanced type.
Step 2: ELECTRODES
The tungsten electrodes used for the welding should be clean and completely free from any kind of
contamination such as molten filler metal. If the arc is started by first touching the base metal and withdrawn, the
electrode tip may pick up the base metal which causes the subsequent sputtering and loss of metal in the electrode
tip. Also, the electrode may get consumed quickly if it is allowed to be oxidized, since tungsten oxide has a lower

melting temperature. The oxidation occurs when the electrode is allowed to cool in the atmosphere after welding.
Hence, the shielding gas flow should be maintained for some time after extinguishing the arc so that the electrode
gets sufficiently cooled in a protective atmosphere rather than in the oxidizing normal atmosphere.
The tungsten electrode tip should be prepared for proper weld penetration. The typical shapes that can be
used are shown in fig. Though it is possible to use these electrodes without any tip preparation, it would be better
to prepare the tip since it enhances the weld quality. For AC welding with high frequency (AC-HF) un balanced
machines ,the tip should be pencil-pointed as shown in fig. so that the HF current gets concentrated and the arc is
easily initiated (high frequency current tend to flow through the surface). Also, once the arc is formed which
reduces the effect of current rectification and thus, stabilises the AC arc. With DCEN, the electrode would be
made conical as in fig. while grinding ,the tip concentricity should be maintained , otherwise the gas flow would
become uneven making some part of the puddle not properly shielded and thereby, causing contamination of the
weld joint in that portion. Pure tungsten electrodes are never made into conical point since the end is likely to melt
and contaminate the weld metal. Instead, it is better to make full round ball at the tip, as shown in fig
Step 3: Then the metal under electrodes pressure is squeezed and welded
Step 4: Pressure is then released and the process is repeated until the job is completed.
Step 5: The welding is carried out in a regular pattern as shown in fig.
PRECATIONS:
1. Proper pressure should be applied on the electrodes.

2. Correct electrode diameter needs to be chosen depending on the material thickness to be joined.
3. Proper weld time should be selected for welding.
Result:


Exp No: Dates:
INJECTION MOULDING (SCREW TYPE BOTTLE CAP)
AIM: To Make a Screw Type Bottle Cap by Using Injection Moulding.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Die, injection-moulding equipment.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: plastic pellets
THEORY:
PLASTICS:
Polymers can be divided into three into three broad divisions: plastics, fibers and elastomers (polymers of
high elasticity, for example, rubber). Synthetic resins are usually referred to as plastic. Plastics derive their name
from the fact that in a certain phase of their manufacture they are present in a plastic stage (that is acquire
plasticity), which makes it possible to impart any desired shape to the product. Plastics fall into a category known
chemically as high polymers.
Thus plastics is a term applied to compositions consisting of a mixture of high molecular compounds
(synthetic polymers) and fillers, plasticizers, stains and pigments, lubricating and other substances. Some of the
plastics contain nothing but resin (for instance, polyethylene, polystyrene).
Types of Plastics:
Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether heat causes them to set (thermosetting) or causes
them to soften and melt (thermoplastic).
Thermosetting plastics:
These plastics undergo a number of chemical changes on heating and cure to infusible and practically
insoluble articles. The chemical change is not reversible. Thermosetting plastics do not soften on reheating and
cannot be reworked. They rather become harder due to completion of any leftover polymerization reaction.
Eventually at high temperatures, the useful properties of the plastics get destroyed. This is called degradation. The
commonest thermosetting plastics are: alkyds, epoxides, melamines, polyesters, phenolics and urea’s.
Thermoplastic plastics:
These plastics soften under heat, harden on cooling, and can be resoftened under heat. Thus they retain
their fusibility, solubility and capability of being repeatedly shaped. The mechanical properties of these plastics
are rather sensitive to temperature and to sunlight and exposure to temperature may cause thermal degradation.
Common thermoplastics are: acrylics, poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl chlorides (PVC), nylons,
polyethylene, polypropylene etc.

Properties:
1. Their comparatively low density ( 1- 2 g/cm ), substantial mechanical strength, higher strength to
weight ratio and high anti friction properties have enabled plastics to be efficiently used as substitute for
metals, for example, non – ferrous metals and alloys-bronze, lead, tin, babbit etc.
2. With certain special properties (silent operation, corrosion resistance etc), plastics can sometimes replace
ferrous metals.
3. From the production point of view, their main advantage is their relatively low melting points and their
ability to flow into their moulds.
4. Simple processing to obtain machine parts.
5. In mass production plastics substituted for ferrous metals allow the production costs to be reduced by a
factor 1.5 to 3.5 and for non – ferrous metals by a factor of 5 to 20.
6. Good damping capacity and good surface finish of the product.
7. The high heat and electric insulation of plastics permits them to be applied in the radio and electrical
engineering industries as dielectrics and as substitutes for porcelain, ebonite, shellac, mica, natural
rubber, etc.
8. Their good chemical stability, when subjected to the action of solvents and certain oxdhlizing agents,
water resistance, gas and steam proof properties, enable plastics to be used as valuable engineering
materials in the automobile and tractor, ship bulling and other industries.
Disadvantages:
1. Comparatively higher costs of materials.
2. Instability of most plastics to withstand even moderately high temperatures.
Processing of thermoplastic plastics:
The common forms of raw materials for processing plastics into products are: pellets, Powders, Sheet,
Plate, and Tubing. Liquid plastics are used especially in the fabrication for reinforced plastic parts.
Thermoplastics can be processed to their final shape by moulding and extrusion processes. However,
extruding is often used as an intermediate process to be followed by other processes for example vacuum forming
or machining.
Injection moulding:
An important industrial method of producing articles of thermoplastics is injection moulding (shown in

fig.). The process is essentially as follows:
The moulding material is loaded into a hopper from which it is transferred to a heating section by a
feeding device, where the temperature is raised 1500C – 3700C and pressure is built up. The material melts and is
forced by an injection ram at high pressure through a nozzle and sprue into a closed mould which forms the part.
The mould is in at least two sections, so that it may be split in order to eject the finished component. For the
process to be competitive the mould must be fairly cool (between ambient temperature and the softening point of
the plastic) and consequently the mould must be cooled by circulating water.
The improvement to the ram type injection moulding machine lies in the separation of the plasticizing and
filling actions. The single – screw pre-plasticizer is probably the most successful design for injection moulding

machines (shown in fig). The rotation of the screw provides the plasticizing action by shearing and frictional
effects and the axial motion of the screw provides the filling action.
Injection moulding machines have a high production capacity: some can produce from 12 to 16 thousand
parts per shift. This method is suitable for making parts with complex threads and intricate shapes, thin-walled
parts etc. Typical parts include: cups, containers, housing, tools handles, toys, knobs, plumbing fittings, electrical
and communication components such as telephone receivers etc. injection moulding machines range in size from
an injection capacity of 12,000 mm³ to 2.2 × 10⁶ mm³. The injection pressure may range from 100-150 MPa.
PROCEDURE:
1. The pellet from of plastic is introduced into the container through hopper.
2. The plastic pellet enters into the container is heated with the coil, which is wounded around it.
3. The plastic of powder form is converted into molten stage at a temperature of 80⁰ C.
4. The die is placed exactly below the nozzle of the container.
5. The melted plastic is injected into the die with the help of lever arm and it is allowed to solidify
say for about one minute.
6. Then retract the lever arm slightly and open the mould.
7. Then eject the mould piece of the required shape from the die.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The material should not be heated rapidly.
2. The die should be placed exactly below the nozzle.
3. Proper temperature should be maintained while heating the plastic.
RESULT:

Exp No: Dates:

BLOW MOULDING (SCREW TYPE BOTTLE)
AIM: To Make a Screw Type Bottle by Using Blow Moulding.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Die, Blow-moulding equipment.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: plastic pellets
THEORY:
PLASTICS:
Polymers can be divided into three into three broad divisions: plastics, fibers and elastomers (polymers of
high elasticity, for example, rubber). Synthetic resins are usually referred to as plastic. Plastics derive their name
from the fact that in a certain phase of their manufacture they are present in a plastic stage (that is acquire
plasticity), which makes it possible to impart any desired shape to the product. Plastics fall into a category known
chemically as high polymers.
Thus plastics is a term applied to compositions consisting of a mixture of high molecular compounds
(synthetic polymers) and fillers, plasticizers, stains and pigments, lubricating and other substances. Some of the
plastics contain nothing but resin (for instance, polyethylene, polystyrene).
Types of Plastics:
Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether heat causes them to set (thermosetting) or causes
them to soften and melt (thermoplastic).
Thermosetting plastics:
These plastics undergo a number of chemical changes on heating and cure to infusible and practically
insoluble articles. The chemical change is not reversible. Thermosetting plastics do not soften on reheating and
cannot be reworked. They rather become harder due to completion of any leftover polymerization reaction.
Eventually at high temperatures, the useful properties of the plastics get destroyed. This is called degradation. The
commonest thermosetting plastics are: alkyds, epoxides, melamines, polyesters, phenolics and urea’s.
Thermoplastic plastics:
These plastics soften under heat, harden on cooling, and can be resoftened under heat. Thus they retain
their fusibility, solubility and capability of being repeatedly shaped. The mechanical properties of these plastics
are rather sensitive to temperature and to sunlight and exposure to temperature may cause thermal degradation.
Common thermoplastics are: acrylics, poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl chlorides (PVC), nylons,
polyethylene, polypropylene etc.
Properties:

1. Their comparatively low density ( 1- 2 g/cm ), substantial mechanical strength, higher strength to
weight ratio and high anti friction properties have enabled plastics to be efficiently used as substitute for
metals, for example, non – ferrous metals and alloys-bronze, lead, tin, babbit etc.
2. With certain special properties (silent operation, corrosion resistance etc), plastics can sometimes replace
ferrous metals.
3. From the production point of view, their main advantage is their relatively low melting points and their
ability to flow into their moulds.
4. Simple processing to obtain machine parts.
5. In mass production plastics substituted for ferrous metals allow the production costs to be reduced by a
factor 1.5 to 3.5 and for non – ferrous metals by a factor of 5 to 20.
6. Good damping capacity and good surface finish of the product.
7. The high heat and electric insulation of plastics permits them to be applied in the radio and electrical
engineering industries as dielectrics and as substitutes for porcelain, ebonite, shellac, mica, natural rubber,
etc.
8. Their good chemical stability, when subjected to the action of solvents and certain oxdhlizing agents,
water resistance, gas and steam proof properties, enable plastics to be used as valuable engineering
materials in the automobile and tractor, ship bulling and other industries.
Disadvantages:
1. Comparatively higher costs of materials.
2. Instability of most plastics to withstand even moderately high temperatures.
Processing of thermoplastic plastics:
The common forms of raw materials for processing plastics into products are: pellets, Powders, Sheet,
Plate, and Tubing. Liquid plastics are used especially in the fabrication for reinforced plastic parts.
Thermoplastics can be processed to their final shape by moulding and extrusion processes. However,
extruding is often used as an intermediate process to be followed by other processes for example vacuum forming
or machining.
Blow moulding:
An important industrial method of producing articles of thermoplastics is Blow moulding (shown in fig.).
The process is essentially as follows:
The moulding material is loaded into a hopper from which it is transferred to a heating section by a
feeding device, where the temperature is raised 150 0C – 3700C and pressure is built up. The material melts and is
forced by an injection ram at high pressure through a nozzle and sprue into a closed mould which forms the part.
The mould is in at least two sections, so that it may be split in order to eject the finished component. For the
process to be competitive the mould must be fairly cool (between ambient temperature and the softening point of
the plastic) and consequently the mould must be cooled by circulating water.
The improvement to the ram type injection moulding machine lies in the separation of the plasticizing and
filling actions. The single – screw pre-plasticizer is probably the most successful design for injection moulding
machines (shown in fig). The rotation of the screw provides the plasticizing action by shearing and frictional
effects and the axial motion of the screw provides the filling action.

Injection moulding machines have a high production capacity: some can produce from 12 to 16 thousand
parts per shift. This method is suitable for making parts with complex threads and intricate shapes, thin-walled
parts etc. Typical parts include: cups, containers, housing, tools handles, toys, knobs, plumbing fittings, electrical
and communication components such as telephone receivers etc. injection moulding machines range in size from
an injection capacity of 12,000 mm³ to 2.2 × 10⁶ mm³. The injection pressure may range from 100-150 MPa.
PROCEDURE:
1. The pellet from of plastic is introduced into the container through hopper.
2. The plastic pellet enters into the container is heated with the coil, which is wounded around it.
3. The plastic of powder form is converted into molten stage at a temperature of 80⁰ C.
4. The die is placed exactly below the nozzle of the container.
5. The melted plastic is injected into the die with the help of lever arm and it is allowed to solidify say for
about one minute.
6. Then retract the lever arm slightly and open the mould.
7. Then eject the mould piece of the required shape from the die.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The material should not be heated rapidly.
2. The die should be placed exactly below the nozzle.
3. Proper temperature should be maintained while heating the plastic.
RESULT:
BLANKING AND PIERCING

Blanking:
It is the process in which the punch removes a portion of the material from the stock which is a strip of
sheet metal of the necessary thickness and width. The removed portion is called a blank and is usually further
processed to be of some use.
Piercing: This is also called Punching. The piercing is making holes in a sheet. It is identical to blanking except
of the fact that the punched out portion coming out through the die in piercing is scrap. Normally a blanking
operation is will generally follow a piercing operation. The force required to be exerted by the punch in order to
shear out the blank from the stock can be estimated from the actual shear area and the shear strength of the
material. It can be given by the following formula
P=L*t*Ґ
Where, p= is punching force
Ґ =is shear strength in Mpa
EXTRUSION

PRINCIPLE
Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a closed cavity and then allowing it to flow from only
one opening so that the metal will take the shape of the opening. The operation is identical to the squeezing of
tooth paste out of the tooth paste tube.
A typical extrusion process is presented in the Fig1.The equipment consists of a cylinder r a container in
to which the heated metal billet is loaded .On one end of the container, the die plate with the necessary opening is
fixed .From the other end , a plunger or a ram compresses the metal billet against the container walls and the die
plate ,thus forcing in to flow through the die opening ,acquiring the shape of the opening .The extruded metal is
then carried by the metal handling system as it comes out of the die. A dummy block which is a steel disc of about
40mm
(0.05 to 0.75 of diameter) thick with a diameter slightly less than the container is kept between the hot billet and
the ram to protect it from the heat and pressure.
By the extrusion process, it s possible to make components which have a constant cross-section over any
length as can be had by the rolling process. Some typical parts that are extruded are shown in fig2 .The
complexity of parts that can be obtained by extrusion is more than that of rolling, because the die required being
very simple and easier to make. Also extrusion is a single pass process unlike rolling. The amount of reduction
that is possible in extrusion is large. Generally brittle materials can also be very easily extruded. It is possible to
produce sharp corners and re-entrant angles. It is also possible to get shapes with internal cavities in extrusion
by the use of spider dies which are explained later. Large diameter, thin walled tubular products with excellent
concentricity and tolerance characteristics can be produced.
The flow of the metal in the extrusion process is shown schematically in fig3.The extrusion ratio is
defined as the ratio of cross-sectional area of the billet to that of the extruded section. The typical values of the
extrusion ratio are 20 to 50.Low extrusion ratios are used for intermediate operations when the billets are extruded
to a given diameter before the final extrusion .since hot extrusion involves temperatures in the range of 500 to
1200 depending on the work material extruded, the cylinder and ram are severely affected by the temperature as
well as the stresses. The pressures applied may range from 35 to1000MPa.Typical extrusion pressures for
various materials are presented in table .The extrusion pressure for a given material depends on the extrusion
temperature, the reduction in area and the extrusion speed.

The extrusion speed depends on the work material. Some of the light alloys may be extruded at a speed of
0.05 m/sec, where as for the copper alloys it may be as high as 4.50m/sec. Too high an extrusion speed would
cause excessive heat generation in the Extruded metal causing lateral cracks
DEEP DRAWING
Drawing is the process of making cups, shells, and similar articles from metal blanks .Typical tools used
for drawing are shown in fig .
The setup is similar to that used in blanking except the punch and die are provided with the necessary
rounding at the corners to allow for the smooth flow of the metal during drawing .The plank is first kept on the die
plate. The punch slowly descends on the blank and forces it to take
the cup shape formed by the end of the punch, by the time it reaches the bottom of the die .when the cup reaches
counter bored portion of the die, the top edge of the cup formed around the punch expands slightly due to the
spring back. When the punch move sin the return stroke, the cup would be stripped by this counter bored portion.
This description is true in the case of shallow drawing operation only .shallow drawing is defined as that
where the cup height is less than half the diameter .for drawing deeper cups it is necessary to make specific
provisions to confine the metal in order to prevent the excess wrinkling of the edges .for this purpose, a blank
holder is normally provided on all deep drawing dies as shown in the fig .
The rigid blank holding as in fig , is normally used for thicker materials which are less likely to wrinkle.
A more common usage is the spring loaded pressure pad shown, in fig .The spring loaded pressure pad which
moves with the punch, maintains a uniform pressure on the plank throughout the operation.
To understand the problem of the wrinkling, consider the drawing of a cup as shown in fig .along with its
blank. The blank has been divided in to sections 1 to 4.The example is presented for a circular cup since these are
more generally used. It is also possible to draw other sections, such as rectangle, but that should be much more
difficult.
The first contact made by the punch with the blank is over the portion marked 1 which forms the bottom
of the cup. In this portion, there is no deformation of the blank .As the punch further moves down, the metal
shown in the ring 2f the blank gets bent by the punch over the die radius.
Upon further movement of the punch, the bent blank over the die radius gets straightened and the next
ring of the metal is bent over the die radius .Since, the metal present in each of the rings is

distributed over a circle of larger diameter than that of the cup ,the material needs to be moved radially for the
drawing action to takes place .While the material is flowing radially the outer edge gets thicker or wrinkles are
formed on the outer edges ,if there is no restraining force
applied on the blank .This is similar to wrinkles formed on the handkerchief when spread on a tumbler of small
size and pushed into it .
The restraining force applied on the blank by way of the blank holders stops the blank from increasing in
thickness beyond the limit, but makes it to flow radially outward .The limited thickness is controlled by the gap
between the rigid blank holder and the die or by the spring pressure in the case of a spring loaded blank holder
Too high a blank holder pressure increases the friction and subsequently the drawing load .A lubricant is normally
applied over the face of
the blank to reduce this friction .
As explained earlier, shallow drawing is relatively simple. Drawing when cup height is more than half the
diameter is termed as deep drawing .ductile materials are easier to be drawn in to deeper cups. In deep drawing,
because of the radial flow of the material, the side walls increase in thickness as the height is increased, as sown
in the fig .There would be a slight thinning of metal at the bottom of the corners .For applications requiring
uniform side walls, an operation called ironing is carried out on drawn cups.
Ironing is the operation of thinning the side walls and increasing the height. The die and punch set used is
similar to that of drawing operation except the clearance between the die and punch is smaller than that used in
the drawing operation .The materials gets compressed between punch and die which reduces the thickness and
increases the height, and thus is a severe operation .The wall thickness can be reduced to as much 50% in a single
ironing operation.

BENDING
Bending refers to the operation of deforming a flat sheet around a straight axis where the neutral plane
lies. The disposition of the stresses in a bent specimen is Here, due to the applied forces, the top layers are in
tension and bottom layers are in compression as shown. The plane with no stresses is called the neutral axis. The
neutral axis should be at the centre when the material is elastically deformed.
But when the material reaches the plastic stage, the neutral axis moves downward, since the materials
oppose compression much better than tension.
The nomenclature normally used with bending is in a bent specimen, since neutral axis remains constant,
it is the required length. Beyond the bend lines, the material is not affected. Hence to calculate the length required,
it is necessary to find out the bend allowance which is the arc length of the neutral axis between the bend lines.
Bend allowance B=α(R+Kt)

Where α=bend angle, in radians
R=inside radius of the bend, in mm
K=location of neutral axis from bottom surface
= 0.33 when R<2t
= 0.5 when R>2t
t = sheet thickness, in mm
The outer layers which are under tension should not be stretched too much; otherwise there is likelihood
of rupture taking place. The amount of stretching depends on the sheet thickness and the radius. Lower the bend
radius. Lower the bend radius, higher is the strain in this zone. Hence there is a minimum bend radius to be
specified, depending on the material characteristics.
Minimum bend radius = 0.5 t soft materials
= t other materials
= 3 t spring materials
The other aspect to be considered in designing parts from bending is the grain orientation of the sheet
which is bent. As far as possible, the bending is to be done in a direction perpendicular to the grain direction in the
metal. By virtue of the rolled sheets being used for bending, the grain direction usually is along the length axis,
being the direction of rolling. There is a possibility of cracks appearing at the time of bending if the bending is
done along the grains. But if two bending are to be done on the same sheet at right angles, then it may be
desirable to make them at 450 to the grain direction so that the risk of cracking is minimized.
Spring back in bending is difficult to estimate theoretically .but it is essential to
compensate it, because the bend geometry gets affected by the spring back directly. The types of bending methods
used are shown in figure:4. The first one is the wiping die
which is used for simple 900 bends only. Here the work is held firmly to the die, and the punch bends the
extended portion of the blank The V bending shown in fig b, can be used fro a wide range of angles as also the
900. These are the ones that are most generally used.
The bending load may be calculated from the knowledge of material properties and the die characteristics
as shown below
Fb= KLst2/W
Where Fb=bending force, N
K= 1.33 for die opening of 8t
= 1.20 for die opening of 16t

= 0.67 for U bending
= 0.33 for a wiping die
L = Length of the bent part, mm
s = ultimate tensile strength, MPa
t = blank thickness, mm
W = width between the contact points, mm

Gates Engineering College::Gooty: II B.Tech II Semester (R09)

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GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

1. Preparation of Making & Design.

2. Preparation sand specimen & testing sand properties.

3. Preparation of a green sand moulding single piece pattern.

4. Preparation of V-BUTT JOINT

5. Preparation of a double welded lap joint by shielded metal arc welding.

6. Preparation of Welded joint by using spot welding

7. Preparation of Welded joint by using TIG welding

8. Prepare a model by using blanking and piercing

9. Prepare a model using injection Moulding

10. Study and prepared the Press working process

GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

The requirements of a good pattern are:

1. Secure the desired shape and size of the casting.

Materials for making patterns:

GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

It is widely used for pattern making, because

GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

i.Aluminium and alluminium alloys

 They are stronger and accurate as compared to wooden patterns.

 They posses life much longer than wooden patterns.

 They can with stand rough handling.

 They do not warp.

 They posses greater resistance to abrasion

 They have accurate dimensional tolerances.

 They are far stable under different environments.

 It is easy to obtain smooth surface finish.

 They have good machinability characteristics.

 They possess excellent wear resistance and strength to weight ratio.

 Expensive as compared to wooden patterns.

GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

1. Alluminium and Alluminium Alloys:

These used for pattern making because of the following advantages:

 Alluminium is the best pattern material.

Steel patterns possess,

• Poor resistance to rust and corrosion.

 Fine grained cast iron is preferred for making patterns.

GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

 It can produce smooth surfaces.

 It can with stand the abrasive action of the mould materials.

 It can be easily machined.

 It is easy to file and fit.

 Cast lron is hard, brittle and may easily break.

 It may get rusted easily in the presence of moisture.

4. BRASS (cu-zn alloy):

 Brass can be easily worked and machined.

 It can be joined by soldering and brazing.

 Very good surface finish can be obtained.

 Patterns will not get rusted.

 Brass with stand the abrasive action of the mold materials.

 Possess high strength and toughness.

 Small patterns can be easily rectified and fitted.

 Brass is heavier than cast iron.

 It is expensive as compared to other metals.

GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

The process involves the following basic steps:

1. Melting the metal

 DRAG: Lower moulding flask.

 COPE: Upper moulding flask.

 CHEEK: Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.

GIT Department :Mechanical Engineering

It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould.