Paper No.

6363

INVERSEDESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES

bY
Jacques Heyman, M.A., Ph.D., A.M.I.C.E.
University Lecturer in Engineering, University of Cambridge
For writfen discussion

SYNOPSIS
Elastic design involvesthe calculation of maximum stressesand deflexions of
a structure under the action of external loads. Deflexions are calculated by
double integration. In the present Paper, a deflected form of the structure is
assumed, satisfying the boundary conditions; curvatures corresponding to this
deflected form are thencalculated by doubledifferentiation. The bending
moment at any sectionof the structure can then be determinedas the product of
the calculated curvature and the flexural rigidityof the structure at that section.
Since the bendingmomentsmust also satisfy the equations of equilibrium
(involving the external loads), the flexural rigidity can be determined at each
section, and this gives a design of the structure. It is shown that the require-
ments of strength and stiffness (i.e. stressand deflexion limitations)can easily be
satisfied simultaneously,in contradistinction to the normal design process.
the ideas are first presented
Parts I and I1 of the Paper deal with elastic design;
with reference to beams, where the variables are functions of one dimension
(the distance along the beam). The general theory is then established for two-
dimensional plane grillages, loaded transversely, and two simple examples are
worked.
Part I11 shows that great simplifications can be made if a plastic design is
adopted.

Part I: Elastic design of beams

Introduction
FORCONVENIENCE, the following remarks applyto beam systems; grillages may
be discussed in a similar way.
2. Consider the steps involved in the conventional elastic designof a redun-
dant beam system:-
1. The bending-moment diagram is constructed in terms of the unknown
redundancies; that is, the equilibrium conditionsare satisfied.
2. A guess is made of the final cross-sectional propertiesof the members of
the beam system.
3. The second-order differential equation from whichdeflexions can be
calculated may now be written; this equation involves the bending
moment and the flexurd rigidity at each cross-section. By integrating
339

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 340 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES

the equation, and using the boundary conditions (slopes and deflexions
of known values), the redundancies may be determined.
Now, a structure, to be satisfactory, mustin general satisfythe two requirements
of strength and stifness. The maximum stress in the beam, and the maximum
deflexion, must not exceed certain permitted values. If prismatic members are
used for the guessed structure in step 2, it is just possible to carry out the cal-
culations in terms of unknown sectional properties, provided that the beam
system isnot toocomplex, and making use of standard results (i.e. slopedeflexion
equations, moment-area relations, conjugate beam theory, etc.) to avoid carrying
out the actual integration in step 3. These unknown sectional properties can
then be finally assignedso that the stress and deflexion requirementsare satisfied.
3. If the structure is at all complex, however, or if tapering members are
used, then, in general, a complete guess must be made of the final design. One
design variable can be allowed, the scale factor of the whole structure. Thus, in
general, one only of the two structural conditions can be satisfied;if the stress
condition governs, it may well be that the guessed structure is much too stiff;
if the deflexions are given their limiting values,the structure may be understressed.
In either caseit may be necessary to make a new guess at the section properties
and torepeat the analysis, the design thus proceeding by trial and error.

Inverse elastic design

4. The design method presented here allows both requirements, of strength
and stiffness, to be satisfied simultaneously. More important, tapering members
may be used without dificulty, since the integration of equationsinvolving
variable flexural rigidities is not required. The steps involved in the inverse
method may be outlined as follows:-
1. Assume a deflected form of the structure, i.e., if W is the deflexion at any
cross-section, w=f(x), where X ismeasuredalong the beam. The
function W satisfies the boundary conditions of slope and deflexion.
d2w
2. Calculate the curvature at each section, K = = The bending moment
M at each section is now given in terms of the unknown flexural
rigidity EI by means of the equation M = - EIK.
3. The bending moments M must satisfy the equilibrium equations; thus,
since M and K are known, the flexural rigidity EZ may be found.
4. The depth of the beam may be fixed at each pointso that the stress does
not exceed the permitted value.
Two examples should make clearthe application of these steps.

Design example I : Reinforced concrete-simply supported beam

5. Considerasimplysupported beam of length l carrying a uniformly
distributed load q per unit length (Fig. 1). Assume that the deflected form of
this beam is as follows:

(1)
This expression for the deflexion W satisfies the condition that the two ends,
X = 0 and X = l, are supported;the maximum deflexion ofthe beam is WO.

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 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS A N D GRILLAGES 341
Differentiating equation(1) gives :

The curvature is thus constant for this assumed deflexion curve. If, therefore, a
beam of constant depth h is used, the upper and lower fibres of the beam will
have the same stress at all cross-sections. If the permitted maximum stress is
uo,the depth h may be fixed from:

i.e.

FIG.1 FIG.2

Now the bending moment at any section is given by:

M = -EIu
= E I8WO
7 . . . . . . . (5)
on substitution for K. But the bending moment must satisfy the equilibrium
equation:

i.e. 4
M = --(x2+Ax+B)
2
. . . . (7) .
where A and B are the two constants of integration. Equation (7) must .satisfy
the conditions M=O at x=O,l; thus the constants A and B can be found, and:
M = -4
2x ( l - X )
. . . . . . (7a)
Comparing equations ( 5 ) and (7a) :
.IF =~
4x(1-x) . . . . . . (S)
Thus the flexural rigidity EI varies parabolicallyfor this particular design.
6. Combining equations (3) and (8):
I =- 9h x(1-X)
400
. . . . . . (9)
and if the beam is of (variable) rectangular cross-section, width
b, then:
. . . . . . (10)

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 342 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES
7 . As a numerical example, supposethat the material is reinforced concrete,
with average properties:
u0 = 1,OOO Ib/sq.in., and E = 2 x 106 Ib/sq.in. . . (11)
and that: l = 50 ft, andq = 1,800 Ib/ft .
. . . (12)
The calculations will be inexact in that the simple theory of bending has been
assumed in deriving the above equations, and no account has been taken of shift
of neutral axis, effect ofreinforcement, etc.
8. The maximum deflexion will be limited to W O = 1 in. From equation (4),
the depth of the beam is determined as h=45 in. From equation ( l O ) ,

[";(
b = 20 - 1 - -
31 in. The beam tapers parabolically from 20 in. width at the
centre to zero at each end; noallowance has been made, ofcourse, for the effect
of shearing force.

Design sample2: Steel-propped cantilever

9. As another simple example, consider the propped cantilever carrying a
uniformlydistributed load shown in Fig. 2. The deflexion function W must
dw
satisfy the conditions W =0 at X =O,l, and -=0 at X =0, if X is measured from
dx
the left-hand end. A simple function with these properties is:
W = 3 $(l- X) . . . . . (13)
The deflexion at mid-span is wo; the maximum deflexion in the span is approxi-
mately 18% greater.
d2w 16w0
10. From equation (13) : D = -(l- 3x)
13
. . . . .
. (14)
Suppose again that a beam of constant depth h is used. Now equation (14)
shows that the largest absolute curvature in the span is 32wO/l2;therefore, as
before, the depth of the beam may be determinedas :
h =0
E0
- 12
16wo . . . . . . . (15)
For this design, the maximum fibre stress uo will be reached at only one cross-
section of the beam; all other cross-sections will have maximum stresses less
than ao.
11. Proceeding as before:

EI -
q ~ 3 ~ ~ + A x + B
or :
32wo( I-3x ) . . .
. . (17)
It will be seen that the curvature is zero at X = 1/3 ; the bending moment must
inflect at the same point. (Alternatively, the flexural rigidityfrom equation (17)
will become infiniteat X =1/3 unless the constants A and B are chosen properly.
Determination of constants in this way is a feature of the inverse method, which
recurs in many examples.)

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 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES 343

12. The expression (xz+ Ax+ B) must therefore have factors

Noting that the bending moment is zeroat X'= l :
(X--
3(X+ C).

(x'+Ax+B) E 3 ( 3 ~ - c ) ( ~ - c ) . . . . (18)
Finally,
therefore : M =
4
z(~x-~)([-x) . . . . . . (19)

and, from equation (17): El = - 1--( ); . . . . . (20)

The flexural rigidity of the beam decreases uniformly from the left-hand end to
zero at the right-hand end.
13. As a numerical example, take the following conditions:
cro = 20,000 lb/sq. in. ; E = 30 X 106 lb/sq. in.; I = 50 ft
W O = 1/2 in.; q = 1,800 lb/ft
. (21) }
From equation (15), h= 30 in., and, from equation (20), El= 12,000 1-- in.4
+
If a built-up I-girder be used, with a web 30 in. X in., then suitable flanges at
( 7)
the encastre end have dimensions 15 in. X 13 in. Theoretically these flanges
should taper, either in width or thickness, or in both; for example, 10-in. X l-in.
flanges are &table at mid-span. Using a material like steel,however, which has
almost ideal plastic properties, use may be made of the plastic theorem (which
may be thought self-evident), which states that a structure stronger than that
required theoretically will be satisfactory. Thus the flangesof the I-girder in
the present example may be curtailed at discrete points along the girder, and not
tapered continuously.

14. Before leavingthe problem of design of beams, which has been discussed
mainly as an introduction to the grillage problem,it is of interest to state some
features of examples more complicated than the two simple beams above. A
continuous beam resting on several supports can be designed span by span.
In assuming a deflexion function for a given span, arbitrary slopes should be
assumed for the ends of the span; these slopes must then be matched to the
slopes of the adjacent spans. In this way there will be just enough variables in
the problem to permit the equations to be solved uniquely. (A brief discussion
of this will be given in a later Paper.1) The use of inflexion points to determine
constants of integration recurs in the design of continuous beams.
15. Thetwoexamplesworked above had uniformly distributed loads.
Concentrated loadscan be dealt with easily; indeed, an arbitrary loading can be
dealt with graphicallyrather than analytically.

Part II:Elastic design of gdlageg

16. The inverse design of grillages will be based on small-deflexion theoryfor
flat plates. When the flexural rigidityof a flat plate has been determined, by the
method outlined below, to carry a given loading, the plate will be replaced by
beams forming a grillage of a specific shape. The material of the plate will be

1 The references are given on p. 352.

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 344 HEYMAN
ON
INVERSE
DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES
“concentrated” along the lines of the beams, each beam replacing some width of
the original plate. Thus, if a certain value of flemal rigidity per unit width of
the plate, say EZo, has been calculated,and the beams of the grillage are spaced
at a distance l at that region of the plate, each beam must have flexural rigidity
EZoI to carry the given loading. With a large number of beams in the grillage,
little error wibe introducedby this replacement of the original continuous plate
l
by discrete beams;even if the number of beams is small,the calculations will be
reasonably accurate. (The approximation is analogousto replacing a distributed
load by a number of concentrated loads.)
17. Suppose fixed Cartesian axesX and y are taken in the plane of the plate,
and that the deflexion of the plate is given by a function w(x,y). Then curva-
tures at any point (x,y) are given by:

The curvature K,,, is a twisting curvature. Consider the new axes (E,?) making
an angle $ with the axes (x,y). Then

The curvatures referred to the new axes are related to those referred to the old
axes. In particular, the condition for the twisting curvature K~ to be zero is
that :
a+ a2w
2-p
=-
cot a+ = f(x,~),(say) . . . . (24)
2-
axay
dv equation (24) becomes:
Making the substitution tan #= D

The two equations (25) give a set of orthogonal curves; along these curves the
twisting curvature is zero, and they are in fact curves of principal curvature.
The values of the principal curvaturesare:

18. The proposedmethod for the inverseelasticdesign of grillagesis as

follows:-
1. Assume a deflected form of the grillage w(x,y), satisfying the boundary
conditions.
2. Calculate the functionffrom equation (24), and solve equations (25) to
give the lines of principal curvature. The beams of the grillage will
be run along these lines; these beams will not be subjectto twist, since
a2w
it has been ensured that -=0.
asall

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 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES 345
3. Calculate the principalcurvatures from equations (26). From these
principalcurvatures, the bendingmoments per unit width of the
beams, Mt and M,,, can be determined:

Here EZf,for example, is the flexural stiffnessof the beam running in

the 5 direction; if a (variable) rectangular cross-sectionis used, then
It=& b#, where b, is the width of the beam per unit width of the
plate, measured perpendicularlyto the direction of 6.
4. As for the onedimensional beams discussed above, the depth he and h,
of the beams of the grillage can be determined so that a given stress
uo is not exceeded.
5. Finally, the equilibrium equation must be satisfied. If q is the load per
unit area carried by the grillage, then:

This equation serves to provide one relation betweenthe two flexural

stiffnesses EZEand EZ,,, on substitution of equations (27). It will be
appreciated that f and r ] are curvilinear co-ordinates, and equation (28)
must be interpreted properly; in practice, it may be simpler to refer
equation (28) to the original axes (x,y).
Two simple examples should make the method clear.

P- -
I
I 1 6
I
I
I
I
l
1

(a) (b)
FIG.3
Design example 3: Infinite floor supported by regular array of columns
19. Consider a floor supported by columns spaced regularly at a distance 2a
apart in the X direction, and 2b in the y direction, as shown in Fig.3a. A
typicalpanelisshown in Fig. 3b; taking axes at the centre of the panel,
assume a deflexion function:

The maximum deflexion occurs for X = y = 0, and has value wo; the deflexion at
X= a,y = f.b (i.e. at the columns) is zero. Further, 2 2 (S-
= 1) W O is zero
22

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 346 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES

for X =0 and X = a, as it should be by symmetry, and similarly for the slope in

the y direction. From equation (29) :
e
ax2 =-?&-?.2)
_ - +?(l 2 )
azw
ay2
-a+-
axay - 1 . . . . .

The last of equations (30) shows that the lines of principal curvature are straight
and parallel to the X and y axes; therefore a rectangular grillage
wed.
20. From equations (27):
of beams will be
(30)

. . . . .
and these equations must satisfy equation (28), which may be rewritten:

Suppose that the load q per unit area is constant. There is an infinity of solu-
tions of equations (31) with equation (32); the simplestdesign is I, and Iy
constant. Then Z, and Zy are related by the single equation:
12w& (5-+- 2)-- q . . . . . (33)
and any values of I, and Zy satisfying equation (33) will provide a satisfactory
design.
21. Theassumeddeflexion function W is validonly for - a d x d a and
- b d y b. Beams must be provided at the edges of this rectangle in order to
transmit the load to the columns. In the X direction, the shearing force per
unit width in the beams of the grillage is:

12wo
At x = a , the edge beam must therefore carry a total load of -EIX.2b,of
a3
which one half will be transmitted to the column at (u,b). Considering all the
beams meetingat this column, the total load carried by the column is:
12w0 12w0
-U3
EZX.4b+-p- EIY.4a
and this expression is equal to 4q ab, by virtue of equation (33). Thus a check
has been providedon the work, and the edge beams can be designed to carry the
required distributed loads. The edge beams themselves may also be designed by
the inverse method.
22. As a numerical example, suppose that :
UO = 1,OOO lb/sq. in.
E = 2 x 106 lb/sq. in. . . . . . (35)
q = 80 lb/sq. ft

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 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS A N D GRILLAGES 347
and that the columns are spaced at 20-ft intervals in the X direction and 30-ft
intervals in the y direction, i.e. a = 10 ft, b = 15 ft. The maximum deflexion will
be taken as 0.3 in.
23. From equations (30), the largest absolute curvatures are 4w0/a2 and
4wo/bZ;if the stress at these sections of greatest curvature is to be ao,then the
depths of the beams in the two directions are:
h - - U-,,=a2
- E 2 ~ 0
12 in.; and, similarly: h,, = 27 in. . . . .(36)
From equation (33) : 5.0625 Z +
, Zy = 81 .. . . . (37)
Any values of I, and Zy satisfying equation (37) will give a satisfactory design:
it turns out that whatever values are chosen, the material consumption is con-
stant for the grillage. Thus Zy could be taken zero,all the beams running in the
X direction, or vice versa; suitable edge beams must be provided. As a specific
design, take Zy = 61 5 in3, I,= 3.85 in3. Usingrectangularcross-section
beams :
7?ib,,.h,,3 = 61.5
i.e. :
and similarly:
by = 0-0374 in/in.
b, = 0.0267 in/in. 1 * (38)
Now the beams in they direction “look after” a total width 20 ft; thus the actual
width By of the beams is given by:
By = (240)(0.0374) = 9 in.
and similarly : B, = (360)(0.0267) = 9.6in. } . . .
. (39)
One arrangement would thereforebe to run a single beam of width 9 in. in the
y direction, and 3 beams of width 3-2 in, in the X direction; the design is sketched
in Fig. 4. The edge beams have not been designed.

FIG.4
Design example 4: Clamped circular grillage
24. A circular area of radius a is to carry a uniformly distributed load q per
unit area; the beams of the grillage are to be encastrk at the periphery. Assume
a deflexion function:

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 348 HEYMAN ON
INVERSE
DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES

This has the required boundary propertiesof slope and deflexion, and :

. . (41)

The function f ( x , y ) defined by equation (24) is :

X' -y2
f=-
2xy . *
. . (42)
so that equations (25) become:

Equations (43) integrate to give:

as the lines of zero twisting;the orthogonal set of beams in the grillage are radii
and concentric circles, as shown in Fig. 5. Equations (26) give the principal
curvatures along these lines:

from which, as usual, the depth of the beams can be calculated.

FIG.5 FIG.6

25. It is convenient for thisproblem to work in polar co-ordinates; the

principal curvatures are :

and :

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 HEYMAN
ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES 349

from which : 4w0 (u2- 39)

M, = EZ, -
d‘
4w0
. . . . . (47)
and : MO= EZg--J (u2-G)
and, taking account of radial symmetry, equation (28) becomes

The simplest solution of equations (47) and (48) again has I, and le constant;
making the substitutions:
9Zr+I9 = 9d’ . . . . . .
(49)
Again, I, and Zg can have any values satisfying equation (49); as a speciiic
example, take Zg=O, i.e. only radial beams are present in the design. Then:
z,--
- 72Ewo . . . . . . . (50)

Taking again the design values (35), U = 10 ft, wo = b. in., the first of equations (46)
gives the largest curvatureas 8w0/u2,from which h, = 7.2 in. to give the maximum
stress UO= 1,000 lb/sq. in. Equation (50) then gives l,= 3.2 in3, from which
b,=0*103 in/in. At the periphery, the total width of the beams is therefore
(0.103)(2401r)=77.6in., say eight beams each 9-7 in. wide. These beams taper
uniformly to zero at the centre of the circular area; the arrangement is shown
in Fig. 6.

Square panels
26. Before discussing the plastic design of grillages, two sketches willbe made
of elastic grillages for square panels. The function:

W = WO ( ~ 2 - ~ 2 ) ( ~ 2 - ~ 2 ) . . . . . (51)

represents a suitable deflexion pattern for a grillage simply supported at the

edges of a square panelof sidslength b. The equations givingthe lines of zero
twist must be integrated numerically; the shape of the grillage is sketched in
Fig. 7a.

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 350 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES
Fig.7bshowsagrillageencastre at the edgesof the panel; the deflexion
function used is :

Part m: Plastic design

27. Whenever strength governs the design of a structure (deflexions being of
no importance), and provided that the designer is satisfiedthat the material used
is suitable, a plastic design may be made. As is well known, the calculation of
deflexions plays no part in determining a plastic design,and much of the work
involved in the inverse method described above canbe avoided.
28. The plastic-design procedure is well known for b e a m s and plane frames,
so that little description is necessaryhere. For example, for the propped
cantilever (Design example$92,9-13), it is necessary onlyto fmd any one solution
of the equilibrium equation:

M = -+2+Ax+B)
4 . . . . . (53)

= -4(l-x)(c-x) . . . . . . (54)
since the moment Mmust be zero at X = 1. Any arbitrary choice of the constant c
will givea bending-moment distribution for the cantilever; if then the beam isso
designed that its bending strength (full plastic moment) at each cross-section
is not less than the value given by equation (54), a satisfactory designwill have
been achieved (there isan infinite number of suitable designs).
29. Turning to the design of grillages, suppose the beams run along ortho-
gonal curves of zero twist, as for the inverse elastic design. Then, exactly as
for the simple beam problems, the equilibrium equation must be satisfied, i.e.
any solution of equation (28) is satisfactory, provided that the directions ( 5 , ~ )
are known. The bending strengths of the beams of the grillage must again not
be less than the values M f , M,, satisfying equation (28).
30. The orthogonal curves of zero twist should usually be obtained from a
deflexion function satisfying the boundaryconditions. As for the elastic
design, it must be arranged that the bending moments change sign at inflexion
points indicated by the assumed deflexion function; but, apart from this, cal-
culated curvatures need not be used in designing the grillage, for the following
reason. Suppose the full plastic momentsof the grillage have exactlythe values
ME,M,, required for the solution of the equilibrium equation (28); then, at
collapse, all cross-sections of the grillage will become fully plastic, and the gril-
lage can take any deflected form, including the form assumed for calculating
the lines of principal curvature. If the full plastic moments of the members
exceed the values MC,M,, required, then again the “safe” theorem of plastic
theory shows that the grillage is satisfactory.
31. For a certain class of problems, it is not necessary to assume a deflexion
function. If an arbitrary set of orthogonal curves be sketched by the designer,
then the value of cot 2$ in equation (24) will be known at each point of the
grillage. Apart from possible singularities, therefore, equation (24) defines some
deflexion function W having the constructed set of orthogonal curves as lines of

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 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND QRILLAGES 351
principal curvature. It must be checked, however, that the function W satisfies
the boundary conditions of the problem.
32. As an example, suppose that it is decided to cover the circular area of
Design example 4 (g24-25) with a square grillage of beams. For this grillage,
the value of cot 2$ in question (24) is infinite, i.e.:

The general solution of equation (25) is:

w = g(x)+h(y) . . . . . . (56)
where g and h are arbitrary functions. Thus:

w =
WO
2 (d-x2-y*) . . . . . . (57)

is a solution of equation ( 5 3 , and the deflexion is zero round the boundary.

Notice that the principal curvatures are constant, that is, no idexion points
occur. Thus an encastrk grillage is not possible; a simply supported grillage is
just possible, and one solution of the equilibrium equation (28) is:

M, = My = 4 _ ( ~ z - x 2 - y z )
4
. . . . (58)

Here the values M, and My can be taken to be the full plastic momentsof the
beams, and the resulting grillage, usingthree beams in each direction, is sketched
in Fig. 8.

FIG.8

33. In general, a rectangular grillage may be used if the boundary can be

expressed as :
g(x)+h(y) = 0 . . . . . . (59)
Alternatively, if it is not insisted that deflexions are zero all round the boundary,
but only at discrete points connected by edge beams, as in Design example 3
(g20-23), almost any form of orthogonal grillagemay be sketchedby the
designer. This is a remarkable feature of the plastic approach; such orthogonal
systems have of course been used, notably by Nerviz, in reinforced concrete
design.

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 352 HEYMAN ON INVERSE DESIGN OF BEAMS AND GRILLAGES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
34. The results presentedin this Paper were obtained in the course of research
sponsored by the Office of Naval Research under Contract Nonr-562 (10) with
Brown University.

REFERENCES
1. Jacques Heyman, “On the absolute minimum weight design of framed structures”.
Quart. J. Mech. appl. Math. To be published.
2. P. L. Nervi, “Concrete and structural form”. Struct. Engr, vol. 34 (1956), p. 155.

The Paper, which was received on 6 October, 1958, is accompanied by two

sheets of drawings, from which the Figures in the text have been prepared.

Written discussion on this Paper should be forwardedto reach the Institution

before 15 September, 1959, and will bepublished in or after January 1960.
Contributions should not exceed 1,200 words.-sac.

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