Power System Protection Lab Assignment: 1 Engr Yousaf Ali: Submitted To

Power System Protection

Lab Assignment: 1
Submitted to: Engr Yousaf Ali
AZHAR HASEEB 2015088

MUHAMMAD ASIF EJAZ 2015085
MUHAMMAD JAVED MALIK 2015275
HARIS JAMAL KHAN 2015138
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Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4
Objectives.................................................................................................................................... 4
Components ................................................................................................................................ 4
Generator Protection ...................................................................................................................... 5
UNDER/OVER FREQUENCY PROTECTION ................................................................................... 9
Over frequency operation ...................................................................................................... 9
Under frequency operation .................................................................................................... 9
UNDER/OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION ........................................................................................ 9
Over voltage protection .......................................................................................................... 9
Under voltage protection ....................................................................................................... 9
PROTECTION OF THE GENERATOR DUE TO UNBALANCE LOADING ........................................... 9
Motoring ............................................................................................................................... 10
Loss of synchronism .............................................................................................................. 10
Loss of excitation .................................................................................................................. 10
Transformer Protection ................................................................................................................ 12
Stresses generated by the supply ............................................................................................. 12
Stresses due to the load............................................................................................................ 13
Internal faults in oil filled transformers .................................................................................... 13
Selectivity between the protective devices upstream and downstream of the transformer .. 17
Selectivity between LV circuit breaker and MV fuses .............................................................. 17
Selectivity between LV circuit breaker and MV circuit breaker ............................................... 18
Transmission Line Protection ........................................................................................................ 19
Construction of Transmission line ............................................................................................ 19
FAULT ........................................................................................................................................ 19
Reactance Relay ............................................................................................................................ 22
Construction of Reactance Relay .............................................................................................. 22
Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay ........................................................................... 23
Distance Protection Relay ......................................................................................................... 24
Working Principle ...................................................................................................................... 25
Operation of Relay .................................................................................................................... 25
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Zones of Protection ................................................................................................................... 25

Application of Distance Protection Relay ................................................................................. 26
Mho Relay ................................................................................................................................. 26
Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay................................................................................. 26
Objective of Distribution System Protection ................................................................................ 29
Equipment ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Reclosers ................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 1: Time/Current Curves for Reclosers........................................................................ 31
Figure 2: Typical Sequence for Recloser Operation .............................................................. 33
Sectionalizers ............................................................................................................................ 33
Fuses ......................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3: Time/Current Characteristics of Typical Fuse Links: (a) 200K Fuse Link; (b) 200T
Fuse Link ................................................................................................................................ 36
Criteria for Coordination of Time/Current Devices in Distribution Systems ................................ 36
FuseFuse Coordination ............................................................................................................ 37
RecloserFuse Coordination ...................................................................................................... 37
Fuse at the Source Side ............................................................................................................. 38
Figure 5: Criteria for SourceSide Fuse and Recloser Coordination ..................................... 38
Fuses at the Load Side .............................................................................................................. 39
Figure 7: k Factor for the LoadSide Fuse Link ...................................................................... 39
RecloserRecloser Coordination ........................................................................................ 40
Hydraulic Reclosers ................................................................................................................... 40
ElectronicallyControlled Reclosers .......................................................................................... 41
RecloserRelay Coordination.............................................................................................. 41
RecloserSectionalizer Coordination ................................................................................. 42
RecloserSectionalizerFuse Coordination........................................................................ 42
4 References ................................................................................................................................. 43
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Introduction
Objectives
The main objectives of distribution system protection are:
I. To minimize the duration of a fault
II. To minimize the number of consumers affected by the fault
The secondary objectives of distribution system protection are:
1. To eliminate safety hazards as fast as possible

2. To limit service outages to the smallest possible segment of the system
3. To protect the consumers’ apparatus
4. To protect the system from unnecessary service interruptions and disturbances
5. To disconnect faulted lines, transformers, or other apparatus.
Components
A wide variety of equipment is used to protect distribution networks. The particular type of
protection used depends on the system element being protected and the system voltage level,
and, even though there are no specific standards for the overall protection of distribution
networks, some general indication of how these systems work can be made.
The devices most used for distribution system protection are:

1. Fuses
2. Overcurrent Relays
3. Circuit Breaker
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Chapter 1
Generator Protection
A generator is a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy) into electrical power
for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas
turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines and even hand cranks. Electrical
Generators can operate as the normal energy source of the power system, but also to provide
emergency power (Back up) when normal source is not available because of fails or any
maintenance activity
A generator needs to be protected from both electrical faults as well as mechanical faults. Since
Generators are rotatory machines and in addition are composed by many parts (Stator winding,
Rotor winding, Exciter, Bearings, among others) they are more prone to fail than any other
equipment in the power system. Electrical faults mainly include
i. Stator Fault
ii. Rotor Fault
While the mechanical problems that results in generators fault are
i. Fault in turbine
ii. Fault in boilers
iii. Vibrations
iv. Overspeed
v. Underspeed
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Some of the basic danger to a machine is excessive heating which may cause insulation and
structural damages. Mechanical forces and electrical voltages of destructive intensities are also
possible.
he objective of the Protection System is to protect the Generator and also to keep healthy the
Power System. The fault must be cleared by the correct device, as fast as possible and with high
reliability
Stator Winding Faults:

These types of faults occur due to the insulation breakdown of the stator coils. Different types
of stator windings faults are: a) phase to earth fault b) phase to phase fault c) inter turn fault
Phase to earth fault are limited by resistance of the neutral grounding resistor. There are fewer
chances for the occurrence of the phase to phase and interturn faults. The insulation between
the two phases is at least twice as thick as the insulation between one coil and the iron core, so
phase to phase fault is less likely to occur. Inter turn fault occurs due the incoming current
surges with steep wave front.
Differential protection for generators:

Differential protection is used for protection of the generator against phase to earth and phase
to phase fault. Differential protection is a unittype protection for a specified zone or piece of
equipment. Differential protection is based on the circulating current principle. In this type of
protection scheme currents at two ends of the protection system are compared. Under normal
conditions, currents at two ends will be same. But when the fault occurs, current at one end
will be different from the current at the end and this difference of current is made to flow
through relay operating coils. The fig below shows the differential protection scheme for a
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generator.
Stator ground fault protection:

A stator ground fault is a singlephase to ground fault. Generators must be protected against
them for two reasons: The first and obvious one, they are fault sand that means they are
irregular situations in the work of the machine causing nondesirable voltages, currents,
oscillations or damage.
The method of grounding effect the degree of protection which is employed by the differential
protection. High impedance reduces the fault current and thus it is very difficult to detect the
high impedance faults. So the differential protection does not work for the high impedance
grounding. The separate relay to the ground neutral provides the sensitive protection. But
ground relay can also detect the fault beyond the generator, it the time coordination is
necessary to overcome this difficulty. If we use the star delta transformer bank, then it will
block the flow of ground currents, thus preventing the occurrence of the fault on other side of
the bank from operating ground relays. In unit protection scheme the transformer bank limits
the operation of the fault relay to the generator.
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Stator inter turn fault protection:

Differential protection for stator does not provide protection against the interturn faults on
the same phase winding of the stator. The reason is that the current produced by the turn to
turn fault flows in the local circuit between the turns involved and thus it does not create any
difference between the current entering and leaving the windings at its two ends where the CTs
are mounted.
Stator over heating protection:

Stator over heating is caused due to the overloads and failure in cooling system. It is very
difficult to detect the over heating due to the short circuiting of the lamination before any
serious damage is caused. Temperature rise depend upon I^2Rt and also on the cooling. Over
current relays cannot detect the winding temperature because electrical protection cannot
detect the failure of the cooling system. So to protect the stator against overheating, embed
resistance temperature detector or thermocouples are used in the slots below the stator coils.
These detectors are located on the different places in the windings so that to detect the
temperature throughout the stator. Detectors which provide the indication of temperature
change are arranged to operate the temperature relay to sound an alarm.
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UNDER/OVER FREQUENCY PROTECTION
Over frequency operation

Over frequency results from the excess generation and it can easily be corrected by reduction in
the power outputs with the help of the governor or manual control.
Under frequency operation

Under frequency occurs due to the excess. During an overload, generation capability of the
generator increases and reduction in frequency occurs. The power system survives only if we
drop the load so that the generator output becomes equal or greater than the connected load.
If the load increases the generation, then frequency will drop and load need to shed down to
create the balance between the generator and the connected load. The rate at which frequency
drops depend on the time, amount of overload and also on the load and generator variations as
the frequency changes. Frequency decay occurs within the seconds so we cannot correct it
manually. Therefore automatic load shedding facility needs to be applied.
UNDER/OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION

Over voltage protection
Over voltage occurs because of the increase in the speed of the prime mover due to sudden
loss in the load on the generator. Generator over voltage does not occur in the turbo generator
because the control governors of the turbo generators are very sensitive to the speed variation.
But the over voltage protection is required for the hydro generator or gas turbine generators.
Under voltage protection

If more than one generators supply the load and due to some reason one generator is suddenly
trip, then another generators try to supply the load. Each of these generators will experience a
sudden increase in current and thus decreases the terminal voltage.
PROTECTION OF THE GENERATOR DUE TO UNBALANCE LOADING

Due to fault there is an imbalance in the three phase stator currents and due to these
imbalance currents, double frequency currents are induced in the rotor core. This causes the
overheating of the rotor and thus the rotor damage. Unbalanced stator currents also damage
the stator. Negative sequence filter provided with the over current relay is used for the
protection against unbalance loading. From the theory of the symmetrical components, we
know that an unbalanced three phase currents contain the negative sequence component. This
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negative phase sequence current causes heating of the stator. The negative heating follows the
resistance law so it is proportional to the square of the current. The heating time constant
usually depend upon the cooling system used and is equal to I²t=k.
Motoring
Real power flow in generators to reverse. The hazard in motoring is to the generator prime
over.
The Problems involved are
i. Turbine blade overheating, with steam turbines.
ii. Cavitation, with hydraulic turbines
iii. Backfire, and fire hazard, with diesel engines
The problem can be corrected with a directional unit that detects real power reversal. A small
amount of reverse power is usually tolerated to account for the machines rotational losses.
Loss of synchronism
Loss of synchronism in a small number of generators due to rare, severe fault in a power system
can cause loss of synchronism in other generators, leading to the risk of a wide-area blackout
development. Below, the line with the electrical center point is referred to as the zero-voltage
line.
Loss of excitation
Loss of excitation in synchronous machines generally causes undesirable, and usually damaging,
operation. In motors, the rotor will drop below synchronous speed and run as an induction
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motor on its amortisseur windings. If these windings were designed for starting duty only,
continuous operation will cause them to overheat. Synchronous generations are normally
overexcited inorder to deliver reactive power to system. When excitation is lost, this is
impossible; infact Q reverses and machine absorbs Q. An impedance relay can be used for
protection against loss of excitation
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Chapter 2
Transformer Protection
The electrical equipment and circuits in a substation must be protected in order to limit the
damages due to abnormal currents and over voltages.
All equipment installed in a power electrical system have standardized ratings for shorttime
withstand current and short duration power frequency voltage. The role of the protections is to
ensure that these withstand limits can never be exceeded, therefore clearing the faults as fast
as possible.
In addition to this first requirement a system of protection must be selective. Selectivity means
that any fault must be cleared by the device of current interruption (circuit breaker or fuses)
being the nearest to the fault, even if the fault is detected by other protections associated with
other interruption devices.
As an example for a short circuit occurring on the secondary side of a power transformer, only
the circuit breaker installed on the secondary must trip. The circuit breaker installed on the
primary side must remain closed. For a transformer protected with MV fuses, the fuses must
not blow.
They are typically two main devices able to interrupt fault currents, circuit breakers and fuses :
The circuit breakers must be associated with a protection relay having three main functions:
 Measurement of the currents

 Detection of the faults
 Emission of a tripping order to the breaker
 The fuses blow under certain fault conditions.
Here are some protections according to hazards are explained
Stresses generated by the supply

Two types of over voltages may stress and even destroy a transformer:
 The lightning over voltages due to lightning stroke falling on or near an overhead line
supplying the installation where the transformer is installed
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 The switching over voltages generated by the opening of a circuit breaker or a load
break switch for instance.
 Depending of the application, protection against these two types of voltage surges may
be necessary and are often ensured by means of ZnO surge arrestors preferably
connected on the MV bushing of the transformer.
Stresses due to the load

A transformer overload is always due to an increase of the apparent power demand (kVA) of
the installation. This increase of the demand can be the consequence of either a progressive
adjunction of loads or an extension of the installation itself. The effect of any overload is an
increase of the temperature of oil and windings of the transformer with a reduction of its life
time.
The protection of a transformer against the overloads is performed by a dedicated protection
usually called thermal overload relay. This type of protection simulates the temperature of the
transformer’s windings. The simulation is based on the measure of the current and on the
thermal time constant of the transformer. Some relays are able to take into account the effect
of harmonics of the current due to nonlinear loads such as rectifiers, computers, variable
speed drives etc. This type of relay is also able to evaluate the remaining time before the
emission of the tripping order and the time delay before reenergizing the transformer.
In addition, oilfilled transformers are equipped with thermostats controlling the temperature
of the oil.
Drytype transformers use heat sensors embedded in the hottest part of the windings
insulation.
Each of these devices (thermal relay, thermostat, heat sensors) generally provides two levels of
detection:
 A low level used to generate an alarm to advise the maintenance staff,

 A high level to deenergize the transformer
Internal faults in oil filled transformers

In oil filled transformers, internal faults may be classified as follow:
Faults generating production of gases, mainly:
 Micro arcs resulting from incipient faults in the winding insulation

 Slow degradation of insulation materials
 Inter turns short circuit
Faults generating internal over pressures with simultaneously high level of line over currents:
 Phase to earth short circuit
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 Phase to Phase short circuit.
These faults may be the consequence of external lightning or switching over voltage.
Depending on the type of the transformer, there are two kinds of devices able to detect
internal faults affecting an oil filled transformer.
The Buchholz dedicated to the transformers equipped with an air breathing conservator
(see Fig. B16a).
The buchholz is installed on the pipe connecting the tank of he transformer to the conservator
(see Fig. B16b). It traps the slow emissions of gasses and detect the flow back of oil due to the
internal over pressures
res
[a] Functioning principle [b] Transformer with conservator
Fig. B16: Breathing transformer protected by buchholz
 The DGPT (Detection of Gas, Pressure and Temperature, see Fig. B18) for the integral filled
transformers (see Fig. B17). This type of transformer is manufactured up to around10 MVA. The
DGPT as the buchholz detects the emissions of gasses and the internal over pressures. In
addition it monitors the temperature of the oil.
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Fig. B17: Integral filled transformer
[a] Transformer protection [b] Contacts of the DGPT (cover

relay (DGPT) removed)
Fig. B18: DGPT (Detection of Gas, Pressure and Temperature) protection relay for integral filled
transformers
Concerning the monitoring of gas and temperature the buchholz and the DGPT provide two
levels of detection:
A low level used to generate an alarm to advise the maintenance staff,
A high level to trip the switching device installed on the primary side of the transformer (circuit
breaker or load break switch associated with fuses).
In addition, both the buchholz and the DGPT are suitable for oil leakages detection.
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Overloads and internal faults in dry type transformers

(see Fig. B19 and Fig. B20)
The dry type transformers are protected against overheating due to possible downstream
overloads by a dedicated relay monitoring thermal sensors embedded in the windings of the
transformer (see Fig. B20).
The internal faults, mainly inter turns and phase to earth short circuits occurring inside a dry
type transformers are cleared either by the circuit breaker or the fuses installed on the primary
side of the transformer. The tripping of the circuit breakers when used is ordered by the phase
to phase and phase to earth over current protections.
Inter turns faults need a dedicated attention:
They generally generate moderate line over currents. As an example when 5 % of a HV winding
are short circuited the line current of the transformer does not exceed 2 In, for a short circuit
affecting 10 % of the winding the line current is limited around 3 In.
Fuses are not appropriate to clear properly such currents
Dry type transformers are not equipped with additional protection devices such as DGPT
dedicated to internal faults detection.
Hence, internal faults generating low level of line over current may not be safely cleared by
fuses. Protection by means of over current relay with adequate characteristic and settings is
preferred (Schneider Electric VIP relay range for example).
Fig. B19: Dry type transformer
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Fig. B20: Thermal relay for protection of dry type transformer (Ziehl)
Selectivity between the protective devices upstream and downstream of

the transformer
It is a common practice to ensure the selectivity between the MV circuit breaker or fuses
installed on the primary side of a transformer and the LV circuit breaker.
The characteristics of the protection ordering the tripping or the MV circuit breaker or the
operating curves of the fuses when used must be such as in case of downstream fault the LV
circuit breaker only trips. The MV circuit breaker must remain closed or the fuse must not blow.
The tripping curves of MV fuses, MV protection and LV circuit breakers are given by graphs
giving the operating time as a function of the current.
The curves are in general inversetime type. LV circuit breakers have an abrupt discontinuity
which defines the limit of the instantaneous action.
Typical curves are shown in Fig. B21.
Selectivity between LV circuit breaker and MV fuses

(see Fig. B21 and Fig. B22)
All parts of the MV fuse curve must be above and to the right of the LV CB curve.
In order to leave the fuses unaffected (i.e. undamaged), the two following conditions must be
satisfied:
All parts of the minimum prearcing fuse curve must be shifted to the right of the LV CB curve
by a factor of 1.35 or more.
Example: where, at time T, the CB curve passes through a point corresponding to 100 A, the
fuse curve at the same time T must pass through a point corresponding to 135 A, or more, and
so on.
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All parts of the fuse curve must be above the CB curve by a factor of 2 or more
Example: where, at a current level I the CB curve passes through a point corresponding to 1.5
seconds, the fuse curve at the same current level I must pass through a point corresponding to
3 seconds, or more, etc.
The factors 1.35 and 2 are based on the maximum manufacturing tolerances given for MV fuses
and LV circuit breakers.
In order to compare the two curves, the MV currents must be converted to the equivalent LV
currents, or viceversa.
Fig. B21: Selectivity between MV fuse operation and LV circuit breaker tripping, for transformer
protection
Fig. B22: MV fuse and LV circuit breaker configuration
Selectivity between LV circuit breaker and MV circuit breaker

 All parts of the minimum MV circuit breaker curve must be shifted to the right of the LV
CB curve by a factor of 1.35 or more:
 Example: where, at time T, the LV CB curve passes through a point corresponding to 100
A, the MV CB curve at the same time T must pass through a point corresponding to 135
A, or more, and so on.
 All parts of the MV CB curve must be above the LV CB curve. The time difference
between the two curves must be 0.3 s at least for any value of the current.
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The factors 1.35 and 0.3 s are based on the maximum manufacturing tolerances given for MV
current transformers, MV protection relay and LV circuit breakers.
Chapter 3
Power Systems Model
Transmission Line Protection

Transmission lines can vary in length from several hundred feet to several hundred miles, and in
voltage (line-to-line) from 46KV to 750KV.
Construction of Transmission line

Construction can be simple, such as a single wood pole with insulators atop a crossarm, with little
spacing between the conductors and from the conductors to ground. At the other end of the scale
are metal lattice structures with bundled conductors (2 or more conductors per phase) with large
spacing between conductors and between conductors and ground.
FAULT
“Faults come uninvited and seldom go away voluntarily.”
Fault Types:
 Single line-to-ground
 Line-to-line
 Three Phase
 Line-to-line-to-ground
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What Can Go Wrong?

Some causes of faults:
 Trees Fallings Down on Transmission Lines
 Lightning
 Animals (birds, squirrels, snakes)
 Weather (wind, snow, ice)
 Natural Disasters (earthquakes, floods)
 Faulty equipment (switches, insulators, clamps, etc.)
How Do We Protect Transmission Lines?
A. Overcurrent
o Instantaneous Overcurrent relay
o Inverse time Overcurrent Relay
o Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
o Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
o Very Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
B. Directional Overcurrent (Reactance)
C. Distance (Impedance)
o Mho’s Relay
A. Overcurrent Protection Relay

The overcurrent relay is defined as the relay, which operates only when the value of the
current is greater than the relay setting time. It protects the equipment of the power system
from the fault current.
Depending on the time of operation the overcurrent relay is categorized into following types.
 Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

 Inverse time Overcurrent Relay
 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Very Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Extremely Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Instantaneous Overcurrent relay
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
 The relay has no intentional time delay for operation. The contacts of the relay are closed
instantly when the current inside the relay rises beyond the operational value. The time
interval between the instant pick-up value and the closing contacts of the relay is very less.
 The most significant advantage of the instantaneous relay is that it has low operating time.
It starts operating instantly when the value of current is more than the relay setting. This
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relay operates only when the impedance between the source and the relay is less than that
provided in the section.
 The most important feature of the relay is their speed of operation. The relay protects the
system from earth fault and also used for protecting the system from circulating current.
The instantaneous overcurrent relay is placed in the outgoing feeder.
Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay
 The relay operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the energize quantities. The operating time of relay
decreases with the increases in the current. The operation of the relay depends on the
magnitude of the current
 The characteristic curve for the relay is shown in the figure below. The relay will not
operate when the value of current is less than the pick value. The relay is used for the
protection of the distribution lines. The inverse time relay is of three types.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay
 The relay whose operating time is approximately proportional to the fault current is known
as the IDMT relay. The operating time of the relay is maintained by adjusting the time
delay setting. The IDMT relay uses the electromagnetic core because it can easily saturate
for the current having larger magnitude than pick up current. The relay is used for the
protection of the distribution line.
Very Inverse Relay
 The inverse characteristic of the relay is more than the IDMT. Such type of relay is used
in the feeder and on long transmission lines. The relay is used in the places where there the
magnitude of the short-circuit current fall rapidly because of the large distance from the
source. It is used for sensing the fault current which is free from the fault location.
Extremely Inverse Relay
 The characteristic time of the relay is extremely large as compared to the IDMT and the
Very inverse relay. This relay is used for protecting the cable, transformer, etc. The relay
can operate instantly when the pickup value of the current is more than the relay setting
time. The relay provides faster operation even under the fault current. It is used for sensing
the overheating of the machines.
 The inverse time relay is used in the distribution networks and the power plants. The relay
gives the fast operation in the fault conditions because of their fault time characteristic.
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Reactance Relay
The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay consists of two elements an overcurrent element and a
current-voltage directional element. The current element developed positive torque and a current-voltage
developed directional element which opposes the current element depending on the phase angle between
current and voltage.
Reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional limitation. The directional element is arranged to
develop maximum negative torque when it’s current lag behinds its voltage by 90°. The induction cup or
double induction loop structures are best suited for actuating reactance type distance relays.
Construction of Reactance Relay

The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while the restraining torque will be
proportional to VI cos (Θ – 90°). The desired maximum torque angle is obtained with the help of resistance-
22
capacitance circuits, as illustrated in the figure. If the control effect is indicated by –k3, the torque equation
becomes
Where Θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point net torque is zero, and hence
The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K3 = 0.
Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay

The operating characteristic of a reactance relay is shown in the figure below. X is the reactance of the
protected line between the relay location and the fault point, and R is the resistance component of the
impedance. The characteristic shows that the resistance component of the impedance has no consequence
on the working of the relay, the relay reacts solely to the reactance component. The point below the
operating characteristic is called the positive torque region.
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If the value of τ, in the general torque equation, expressed below is made any other 90º, a straight line
characteristic will still be obtained, but it will not be parallel to R-axis. Such a relay is called an angle
impedance relay.
This type of relay is not capable of selecting whether the fault has taken place in the section where the relay
is located, or it has taken place in the adjoining section when used on the transmission line. The directional
unit used with the reactance relay will not be same as used with the impedance type relay because the
restraining reactive volt-ampere, in that case, will be nearly equal to zero.
Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a directional unit that is inoperative under load conditions.
Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground relay for ground fault because its reach is not affected by
fault impedance.
Distance Protection Relay

Distance protection relay is the name given to the protection, whose action depends on the distance
of the feeding point to the fault. The time of operation of such protection is a function of the ratio
of voltage and current, i.e., impedance. This impedance between the relay and the fault depends
on the electrical distance between them. The principal type of distance relays is impedance relays,
and reactance
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Working Principle
Distance protection relay principle differs from other forms of protection because their
performance does not depend on the magnitude of the current or voltage in the protective circuit
but it depends on the ratio of these two quantities. It is a double actuating quantity relay with one
of their coil is energized by voltage and the other coil is energized by the current. The current
element produces a positive or pick-up torque while the voltages element has caused a negative
and reset torque.
Operation of Relay
The relay operates only when the ratio of voltage and current falls below a set value. During the
fault the magnitude of current increases and the voltage at the fault point decreases. The ratio of
the current and voltage is measured at the point of the current and potential transformer. The
voltage at potential transformer region depends on the distance between the PT and the fault.
If the fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser, and if the fault is farther, measured voltage is
more. Hence, assuming constant fault impedance each value of the ratio of voltage and current
measured from relay location comparable to the distance between the relaying point and fault point
along the line. Hence such protection is called the distance protection or impedance protection.
Zones of Protection
Distance zone is non-unit protection, i.e., the protection zone is not exact. The distance protection
is high-speed protection and is simply to apply. It can be employed as a primary as well as backup
protection. It is very commonly used in the protection of transmission lines.
 Zone 1: this is set to protect between 80% of the line length AB and operates without any
time delay. This “under-reach” setting has been purposely chosen to avoid “over-reaching”
into the next line section to ensure selectivity since errors and transients can be present in
the voltage and current transformers. Also manufacturing tolerances limit the measurement
accuracy of the relays.
 Zone 2: this is set to protect 100% of the line length AB, plus at least 20% of the shortest
adjacent line BC and operates with time delay t2. (≈0.5s) It not only covers the remaining
%20 of the line, but also provides backup for the next line section.
 Zone 3: this is set to protect 100% of the two lines AB, BC, plus about 25% of the third
line CD and operates with time delay t3. (≈1.5s)
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Application of Distance Protection Relay

Distance protection relay is widely spread employed for the protection of high-voltage AC
transmission line and distribution lines. They have replaced the overcurrent protection because of
the following reasons.
Distance relays are used for both phase fault and ground fault protection, and they provide higher
speed for clearing the fault. It is also independent of changes in the magnitude of the short circuits,
current and hence they are not much affected by the change in the generation capacity and the
system configuration. Thus, they eliminate long clearing times for the fault near the power sources
required by overcurrent relay if used for the purpose.
 It provides faster protection as compared to overcurrent relay.

 It has a permanent setting without the need for readjustments.
Distance protection schemes are commonly employed for providing the primary or main protection
and backup protection for AC transmission line and distribution line against three phase faults,
phase-to-phase faults, and phase-to-ground faults.
Mho Relay
A mho Relay is a high-speed relay and is also known as the admittance relay. In this relay operating torque
is obtained by the volt-amperes element and the controlling element is developed due to the voltage element.
It means a mho relay is a voltage controlled directional relay.
Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay

The operating characteristic of the mho relay is shown in the figure below. The diameter of the circle is
practically independent of V and I, except at a very low magnitude of the voltage and current when the
spring effect is considered, which causes the diameter to decrease. The diameter of the circle is expressed
by the equation as ZR= K1 / K2 = ohmic setting of the relay
26
The relay operates when the impedance seen by the relay within the circle. The operating characteristic
showed that circle passes through the origin, which makes the relay naturally directional. The relay because
of its naturally directional characteristic requires only one pair of contacts which makes it fast tripping for
fault clearance and reduces the VA burdens on the current transformer.
The impedance angle of the protected line is normally 60º and 70º which is shown by line OC in the figure.
The arc resistance R is represented by the length AB, which is horizontal to OC from the extremity of the
chord Z. By making the τ equal to, or little less lagging than Θ, the circle is made to fit around the faulty
area so that the relay is insensitive to power swings and therefore particularly applicable to the protection
of long or heavily loaded lines.
For a given relay the τ is constant, and the admittance phasor Y will lie on the straight line. The
characteristic of mho relays on the admittance diagram is, therefore, a straight line and is shown in the
figure below.
Mho relay is suitable for EHV/UHV heavily loaded transmission lines as its threshold characteristic in Z-
plane is a circle passing through the origin, and its diameter is ZR. Because of this, the threshold
characteristic is quite compact enclosing faulty area compactly and hence, there is lesser chance to operate
during power swing and also it is directional.
27
28
Chapter 4
Objective of Distribution System Protection

The main objectives of distribution system protection are:
I. To minimize the duration of a fault

II. To minimize the number of consumers affected by the fault
The secondary objectives of distribution system protection are:
I. To eliminate safety hazards as fast as possible

II. To limit service outages to the smallest possible segment of the system
III. To protect the consumers’ apparatus
IV. To protect the system from unnecessary service interruptions and disturbances V.
To disconnect faulted lines, transformers, or other apparatus.
Overhead distribution systems are subject two types of electrical faults, namely, transient (or
temporary) faults and permanent faults. Depending on the nature of the system involved,
approximately 7590% of the total number of faults are temporary in nature. Usually transient
faults occur when phase conductors electrically contact other phase conductors or ground
momentarily due to trees, birds or other animals, high winds, lightning, flashovers, and so on.
Transient faults are cleared by a service interruption of sufficient length of time to extinguish
the power arc. Here, the fault duration is minimized and unnecessary fuse blowing is prevented
by using instantaneous or highspeed tripping and automatic reclosing of a relaycontrolled
power circuit breaker or the automatic tripping and reclosing of a circuit recloser. The breaker
speed, relay settings, and recloser characteristics are selected in a manner to interrupt the fault
current before a series fuse (i.e. the nearest sourceside fuse) is blown, which would cause the
transient fault to become permanent.
Permanent faults are those which require repairs by repair crew in terms of:
I. Replacing burneddown conductors, blown fuses, or any other damaged apparatus

II. Removing tree limbs from the line
III. Manually reclosing a circuit breaker or recloser to restore service
Here, the number of customers affected by a fault is minimized by properly selecting and
locating the protective apparatus on the feeder main, at the tap point of each branch, and at
critical locations on branch circuits. Permanent faults are cleared by fuse cutouts installed at
submain and lateral tap points. This practice limits the number of customers affected by a
29
permanent fault and helps locate the fault point by reducing the area involved. In general, the
only part of the distribution circuit not protected by fuses is the main feeder and feeder tie line.
The substation is protected from faults on feeder and tie lines by circuit breakers and/or
reclosers located inside the substation.
Most of the faults are permanent on an underground distribution system, thereby requiring a
different protection approach. Although the number of faults occurring on an underground
system is relatively much less than that on the overhead systems, they are usually permanent
and can affect a larger number of customers. Faults occurring in the underground residential
distribution (URD) systems are cleared by the blowing of the nearest sectionalizing fuse or
fuses. Faults occurring on the feeder are cleared by tripping and lockout of the feeder breaker.
Equipment
A wide variety of equipment is used to protect distribution networks. The particular type of
protection used depends on the system element being protected and the system voltage level,
and, even though there are no specific standards for the overall protection of distribution
networks, some general indication of how these systems work can be made.
The devices most used for distribution system protection are:
I. Overcurrent Relays
II. Reclosers
III. Sectionalizers
IV. Fuses
The coordination of overcurrent relays was dealt with in detail in class, and this report will cover
the other three devices referred to above.
Reclosers
A recloser is a device with the ability to detect phase and phasetoground overcurrent
conditions, to interrupt the circuit if the overcurrent persists after a predetermined time, and
then to automatically reclose to reenergise the line. If the fault that originated the operation
still exists, then the recloser will stay open after a preset number of operations, thus isolating
the faulted section from the rest of the system. In an overhead distribution system between 75
to 95 per cent of the faults are of a temporary nature and last, at the most, for a few cycles or
seconds. Thus, the recloser, with its opening/closing characteristic, prevents a distribution
circuit being left out of service for temporary faults. Typically, reclosers are designed to have up
to three openclose operations and, after these, a final open operation to lock out the
sequence. One further closing operation by manual means is usually allowed. The counting
mechanisms register operations of the phase or groundfault units which can also be initiated
30
by externally controlled devices when appropriate communication means are available. The
operating time/current characteristic curves of reclosers normally incorporate three curves, one
fast and two delayed, designated as A, B and C, respectively. Figure 1 shows a typical set of
time/current curves for reclosers. However, new reclosers with microprocessorbased controls
may have keyboardselectable time/current curves which enable an engineer to produce any
curve to suit the coordination requirements for both phase and groundfaults. This allows
reprogramming of the characteristics to make an arrangement to a customer's specific needs
without the need to change components.
Figure 1: Time/Current Curves for Reclosers

Coordination with other protection devices is important in order to ensure that, when a fault
occurs, the smallest section of the circuit is disconnected to minimise disruption of supplies to
customers. Generally, the time characteristic and the sequence of operation of the recloser are
selected to coordinate with mechanisms upstream towards the source. After selecting the size
and sequence of operation of the recloser, the devices downstream are adjusted in order to
achieve correct coordination. A typical sequence of a recloser operation for a permanent fault is
shown in Figure 2. The first shot is carried out in instantaneous mode to clear temporary faults
31
before they cause damage to the lines. The three later ones operate in a timed manner with
predetermined time settings. If the fault is permanent, the timedelay operation allows other
protection devices nearer to the fault to open, limiting the amount of the network being
disconnected.
Ground faults are less severe than phase faults and, therefore, it is important that the recloser
has an appropriate sensitivity to detect them. One method is to use CTs connected residually so
that the resultant residual current under normal conditions is approximately zero. The recloser
should operate when the residual current exceeds the setting value, as would occur during
ground faults.
Reclosers can be classified as follows:
I. Singlephase and threephase;

II. Mechanisms with hydraulic or electronic operation;
III. Oil, vacuum or SF6.
Singlephase reclosers are used when the load is predominantly singlephase. In such a case,
when a singlephase fault occurs the recloser should permanently disconnect the faulted phase
so that supplies are maintained on the other phases. Threephase reclosers are used when it is
necessary to disconnect all three phases in order to prevent unbalanced loading on the system.
Reclosers with hydraulic operating mechanisms have a disconnecting coil in series with the line.
When the current exceeds the setting value, the coil attracts a piston that opens the recloser
main contacts and interrupts the circuit. The time characteristic and operating sequence of the
recloser are dependent on the flow of oil in different chambers. The electronic type of control
mechanism is normally located outside the recloser and receives current signals from a CTtype
bushing. When the current exceeds the predetermined setting, a delayed shot is initiated that
finally results in a tripping signal being transmitted to the recloser control mechanism. The
control circuit determines the subsequent opening and closing of the mechanism, depending on
its setting. Reclosers with electronic operating mechanisms use a coil or motor mechanism to
close the contacts. Oil reclosers use the oil to extinguish the arc and also to act as the basic
insulation. The same oil can be used in the control mechanism.
Vacuum and SF6 reclosers have the advantage of requiring less maintenance.
32
Figure 2: Typical Sequence for Recloser Operation

Reclosers are used at the following points on a distribution network:
I. In substations, to provide primary protection for a circuit;

II. In main feeder circuits, in order to permit the sectioning of long lines and thus prevent
the loss of a complete circuit due to a fault towards the end of the circuit;
III. In branches or spurs, to prevent the tripping of the main circuit due to faults on the spurs.
When installing reclosers it is necessary to take into account the following factors:
I. System voltage.
II. Shortcircuit level.
III. Maximum load current.
IV. Minimum shortcircuit current within the zone to be protected by the recloser.
V. Coordination with other mechanisms located upstream towards the source, and
downstream towards the load.
VI. Sensitivity of operation for ground faults
The voltage rating and the shortcircuit capacity of the recloser should be equal to, or greater
than, the values that exist at the point of installation. The same criteria should be applied to the
current capability of the recloser in respect of the maximum load current to be carried by the
circuit. It is also necessary to ensure that the fault current at the end of the line being protected
is high enough to cause operation of the recloser.
Sectionalizers
A sectionalizer is a device that automatically isolates faulted sections of a distribution circuit
once an upstream breaker or recloser has interrupted the fault current and is usually installed
33
downstream of a recloser. Since sectionalizers have no capacity to break fault current, they
must be used with a backup device that has fault current breaking capacity. Sectionalizers
count the number of operations of the recloser during fault conditions. After a preselected
number of recloser openings, and while the recloser is open, the sectionalizer opens and
isolates the faulty section of line. This permits the recloser to close and reestablish supplies to
those areas free of faults. If the fault is temporary, the operating mechanism of the
sectionalizer is reset.
Sectionalizers are constructed in single or threephase arrangements with hydraulic or
electronic operating mechanisms. A sectionalizer does not have a current/time operating
characteristic, and can be used between two protective devices whose operating curves are
very close and where an additional step in coordination is not practicable.
Sectionalizers with hydraulic operating mechanisms have an operating coil in series with the
line. Each time an overcurrent occurs the coil drives a piston that activates a counting
mechanism when the circuit is opened and the current is zero by the displacement of oil across
the chambers of the sectionalizer. After a prearranged number of circuit openings, the
sectionalizer contacts are opened by means of pretensioned springs. This type of sectionalizer
can be closed manually. Sectionalizers with electronic operating mechanisms are more flexible
in operation and easier to set. The load current is measured by means of CTs and the secondary
current is fed to a control circuit which counts the number of operations of the recloser or the
associated interrupter and then sends a tripping signal to the opening mechanism. This type of
sectionalizer is constructed with manual or motor closing.
The following factors should be considered when selecting a sectionalizer:
I. System voltage.
II. Maximum load current.
III. Maximum shortcircuit level.
IV. Coordination with protection devices installed upstream and downstream.
The nominal voltage and current of a sectionalizer should be equal to or greater than the
maximum values of voltage or load at the point of installation. The short circuit capacity
(momentary rating) of a sectionalizer should be equal to or greater than the fault level at the
point of installation. The maximum clearance time of the associated interrupter should not be
permitted to exceed the shortcircuit rating of the sectionalizer. Coordination factors that need
to be taken into account include the starting current setting and the number of operations of
the associated interrupter before opening.
Fuses
A fuse is an overcurrent protection device; it possesses an element that is directly heated by the
passage of current and is destroyed when the current exceeds a predetermined value. A
34
suitably selected fuse should open the circuit by the destruction of the fuse element, eliminate
the arc established during the destruction of the element and then maintain circuit conditions
open with nominal voltage applied to its terminals, (i.e. no arcing across the fuse element).
The majority of fuses used in distribution systems operate on the expulsion principle, i.e. they
have a tube to confine the arc, with the interior covered with deionising fibre, and a fusible
element. In the presence of a fault, the interior fibre is heated up when the fusible element
melts and produces deionising gases which accumulate in the tube. The arc is compressed and
expelled out of the tube; in addition, the escape of gas from the ends of the tube causes the
particles that sustain the arc to be expelled. In this way, the arc is extinguished when current
zero is reached. The presence of deionising gases, and the turbulence within the tube, ensure
that the fault current is not reestablished after the current passes through zero point. The zone
of operation is limited by two factors; the lower limit based on the minimum time required for
the fusing of the element (minimum melting time) with the upper limit determined by the
maximum total time that the fuse takes to clear the fault.
There are a number of standards to classify fuses according to the rated voltages, rated
currents, time/current characteristics, manufacturing features and other considerations. For
example, there are several sections of ANSI/UL 1981982 standards that cover low voltage fuses
of 600 V or less. For medium and high voltage fuses within the range 2.3138 kV, standards such
as ANSI/IEEE C37.40, 41, 42, 46, 47 and 48 apply. Other organisations and countries have their
own standards; in addition, fuse manufacturers have their own classifications and designations.
In distribution systems, the use of fuse links designated K and T for fast and slow types,
respectively, depending on the speed ratio, is very popular. The speed ratio is the ratio of
minimum melt current that causes fuse operation at 0.1 s to the minimum melt current for 300
s operation. For the K link, a speed ratio (SR) of 68 is defined and, for a T link, 1013. Figure 3
shows the comparative operating characteristics of type 200 K and 200 T fuse links. For the 200
K fuse a 4400 A current is required for 0.1 s clearance time and 560A for 300s, giving an SR of
7.86. For the 200T fuse, 6500A is required for 0.1 s clearance and 520A for 300s; for this case,
the SR is 12.5.
35
Figure 3: Time/Current Characteristics of Typical Fuse Links: (a) 200K Fuse Link; (b)
200T Fuse Link
The following information is required in order to select a suitable fuse for use on the
distribution system:
I. Voltage and insulation level.

II. Type of system.
III. Maximum shortcircuit level. IV. Load current.
The above four factors determine the fuse nominal current, voltage and short circuit capability
characteristics.
Criteria for Coordination of Time/Current Devices in Distribution

Systems
The following basic criteria should be employed when coordinating time/current devices in
distribution systems:
1. The main protection should clear a permanent or temporary fault before the backup
protection operates, or continue to operate until the circuit is disconnected. However, if
the main protection is a fuse and the backup protection is a recloser, it is normally
36
acceptable to coordinate the fast operating curve or curves of the recloser to operate
first, followed by the fuse, if the fault is not cleared.
2. Loss of supply caused by permanent faults should be restricted to the smallest part of the
system for the shortest time possible.
In the following sections criteria and recommendations are given for the coordination of
different devices used on distribution systems.
FuseFuse Coordination
The essential criterion when using fuses is that the maximum clearance time for a main fuse
should not exceed 75 per cent of the minimum melting time of the backup fuse, for the same
current level, as indicated in Figure 4. This ensures that the main fuse interrupts and clears the
fault before the backup fuse is affected in any way. The factor of 75 per cent compensates for
effects such as load current and ambient temperature, or fatigue in the fuse element caused by
the heating effect of fault currents that have passed through the fuse to a fault downstream but
were not sufficiently large enough to melt the fuse.
The coordination between two or more consecutive fuses can be achieved by drawing their
time/current characteristics, normally on loglog paper as for overcurrent relays. In the past,
coordination tables with data of the available fuses were also used, which proved to be an easy
and accurate method. However, the graphic method is still popular not only because it gives
more information but also because computerassisted design tools make it much easier to draw
out the various characteristics.
Figure 4: Criteria for Fuse‐Fuse Coordination: t1<0.75 t2
RecloserFuse Coordination
The criteria for determining recloserfuse coordination depend on the relative locations of
these devices, i.e. whether the fuse is at the source side and then backs up the operation of the
recloser that is at the load side, or vice versa. These possibilities are treated in the following
paragraphs.
37
Fuse at the Source Side

When the fuse is at the source side, all the recloser operations should be faster than the
minimum melting time of the fuse. This can be achieved through the use of multiplying factors
on the recloser time/current curve to compensate for the fatigue of the fuse link produced by
the cumulative heating effect generated by successive recloser operations. The recloser
opening curve modified by the appropriate factor then becomes slower but, even so, should be
faster than the fuse curve. This is illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Criteria for SourceSide Fuse and Recloser Coordination

The multiplying factors referred to above depend on the reclosing time in cycles and on the
number of the reclosing attempts. Some values proposed by Cooper Power Systems are
reproduced in Figure 6. It is convenient to mention that if the fuse is at the high voltage side of
a power transformer and the recloser at the low voltage side, either the fuse or the recloser
curve should be shifted horizontally on the current axis to allow for the transformer turns ratio.
Normally it is easier to shift the fuse curve, based on the transformer tap that produces the
highest current on the high voltage side.
38
Figure 6: k Factor for Source‐Side Fuse Link
Fuses at the Load Side

The procedure to coordinate a recloser and a fuse, when the latter is at the load side, is carried
out with the following rules:
1. The minimum melting time of the fuse must be greater than the fast curve of the recloser
times the multiplying factor, given in Figure 7 and taken from the same reference as
above;
2. The maximum clearing time of the fuse must be smaller than the delayed curve of the
recloser without any multiplying factor; the recloser should have at least two or more
delayed operations to prevent loss of service in case the recloser trips when the fuse
operates.
Figure 7: k Factor for the LoadSide Fuse Link

The application of the two rules is illustrated in Figure 8.
Better coordination between a recloser and fuses is obtained by setting the recloser to give two
instantaneous operations followed by two timed operations. In general, the first opening of a
recloser will clear 80 per cent of the temporary faults, while the second will clear a further 10
per cent. The load fuses are set to operate before the third opening, clearing permanent faults.
A less effective coordination is obtained using one instantaneous operation followed by three
timed operations.
39
Figure 8: Criteria for Recloser and Load‐Side Fuse Coordination
RecloserRecloser Coordination
The coordination between reclosers is obtained by appropriately selecting the amperes setting
of the trip coil in the hydraulic reclosers, or of the pickups in electronic reclosers.
Hydraulic Reclosers
The coordination margins with hydraulic reclosers depend upon the type of equipment used. In
small reclosers, where the current coil and its piston produce the opening of the contacts, the
following criteria must be taken into account:
I. Separation of the curves by less than two cycles always results in simultaneous operation;
II. Separation of the curves by between two and 12 cycles could result in simultaneous
operation;
III. Separation greater than 12 cycles ensures nonsimultaneous operation.
With large capacity reclosers, the piston associated with the current coil only actuates the
opening mechanism. In such cases the coordination margins are as follows:
I. Separation of the curves by less than two cycles always results in simultaneous operation;
II. A separation of more than eight cycles guarantees nonsimultaneous operation.
The principle of coordination between two large units in series is based on the time of
separation between the operating characteristics, in the same way as for small units.
40
ElectronicallyControlled Reclosers
Adjacent reclosers of this type can be coordinated more closely since there are no inherent
errors such as those that exist with electromechanical mechanisms (due to overspeed, inertia,
etc.). The downstream recloser must be faster than the upstream recloser, and the clearance
time of the downstream recloser plus its tolerance should be lower than the upstream recloser
clearance time less its tolerance. Normally, the setting of the recloser at the substation is used
to achieve at least one fast reclosure, in order to clear temporary faults on the line between the
substation and the load recloser. The latter should be set with the same, or a larger, number of
rapid operations as the recloser at the substation. It should be noted that the criteria of spacing
between the time/current characteristics of electronically controlled recloser are different to
those used for hydraulically controlled recloser.
RecloserRelay Coordination
Two factors should be taken into account for the coordination of these devices; the interrupter
opens the circuit some cycles after the associated relay trips, and the relay has to integrate the
clearance time of the recloser. The reset time of the relay is normally long and, if the fault
current is reapplied before the relay has completely reset, the relay will move towards its
operating point from this partially reset position.
For example, consider a recloser with two fast and two delayed sequence with reclosing
intervals of two seconds, which is required to coordinate with an inverse timedelay
overcurrent relay that takes 0.6 s to close its contacts at the fault level under question, and 16 s
to completely reset. The impulse margin time of the relay is neglected for the sake of this
illustration. The rapid operating time of the recloser is 0.030 s, and the delayed operating time
is 0.30 s. The percentage of the relay operation during which each of the two rapid recloser
openings takes place is (0.03 s/0.6 s) x 100 per cent= 5 per cent. The percentage of relay reset
that takes place during the recloser interval is (2 s/16 s) x 100 per cent 12.5 per cent.
Therefore, the relay completely resets after both of the two rapid openings of the recloser.
The percentage of the relay operation during the first timedelay opening of the recloser is (0.3
s/0.6 s) x 100 per cent=50 per cent. The relay reset for the third opening of the recloser12.5
per cent, as previously, so that the net percentage of relay operation after the third opening of
the recloser = 50 per cent 12.5 per cent = 37.5 per cent. The percentage of the relay operation
during the second time delay opening of the recloser takes place = (0.3 sec. /0.6 sec) x 100 per
cent = 50 per cent, and the total percentage of the relay operation after the fourth opening of
the recloser = 37.5 per cent + 50 per cent = 87.5 per cent.
From the above analysis it can be concluded that the relay does not reach 100 per cent
operation by the time the final opening shot starts, and therefore coordination is guaranteed.
41
RecloserSectionalizer Coordination
Since the sectionalizers have no time/current operating characteristic, their coordination does
not require an analysis of these curves.
The coordination criteria in this case are based upon the number of operations of the backup
recloser. These operations can be any combination of rapid or timed shots as mentioned
previously, for example two fast and two delayed. The sectionalizer should be set for one shot
less than those of the recloser, for example three disconnections in this case. If a permanent
fault occurs beyond the sectionalizer, the sectionalizer will open and isolate the fault after the
third opening of the recloser. The recloser will then reenergise the section to restore the
circuit. If additional sectionalizers are installed in series, the furthest recloser should be
adjusted for a smaller number of counts. A fault beyond the last sectionalizer results in the
operation of the recloser and the start of the counters in all the sectionalizers.
RecloserSectionalizerFuse Coordination
Each one of the devices should be adjusted in order to coordinate with the recloser. In turn,
the sequence of operation of the recloser should be adjusted in order to obtain the appropriate
coordination for faults beyond the fuse by following the criteria already mentioned.
42
4 References
T. Gonen, Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, CRC Press, 2008
J. J. Burke, Hard to Find Information about Distribution Systems, ABB Inc., 2002
J. M. Gers, Protection of Electricity Distribution Networks, the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London,
1998
J. J. Burke, “Characteristics of Fault Currents on Distribution Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Power

Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS103, No. 1, January 1984
Gibbs, W. J. (1958). Conformal Transformations in Electrical Engineering, Chapman and Hall,

London
Bewley, L. V. (1963). Two-dimensional Fields in Electrical Engineering, Dover, New York
Howatson, A. M. (1965). An Introduction to Gas Discharges, Pergamon, London. IEC 156 (1963).
Method for the determination of the electric strength of insulating oils
Lewis, T. J. (1955). High field electron emission from irregular cathode surfaces. J. Appl. Phys.,
26,1405-1410.
Loeb, L. B. (1965). Electrical Coronas, University of California Press, Berkeley. Mason, J. H
43

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Power System Protection

Power System Protection

Submitted to: Engr Yousaf Ali

AZHAR HASEEB 2015088

MUHAMMAD JAVED MALIK 2015275

HARIS JAMAL KHAN 2015138

Zones of Protection ................................................................................................................... 25

1. To eliminate safety hazards as fast as possible

The devices most used for distribution system protection are:

Stator Winding Faults:

Differential protection for generators:

Stator ground fault protection:

Stator inter turn fault protection:

Stator over heating protection:

UNDER/OVER FREQUENCY PROTECTION

Over frequency operation

Under frequency operation

UNDER/OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION

Under voltage protection

PROTECTION OF THE GENERATOR DUE TO UNBALANCE LOADING

 Measurement of the currents

Stresses generated by the supply

Stresses due to the load

 A low level used to generate an alarm to advise the maintenance staff,

Internal faults in oil filled transformers

 Micro arcs resulting from incipient faults in the winding insulation

 Phase to earth short circuit

 Phase to Phase short circuit.

[a] Functioning principle [b] Transformer with conservator

Fig. B16: Breathing transformer protected by buchholz

Fig. B17: Integral filled transformer

[a] Transformer protection [b] Contacts of the DGPT (cover

Overloads and internal faults in dry type transformers

Fig. B19: Dry type transformer

Selectivity between the protective devices upstream and downstream of

Selectivity between LV circuit breaker and MV fuses

Fig. B22: MV fuse and LV circuit breaker configuration

Selectivity between LV circuit breaker and MV circuit breaker

Transmission Line Protection

Construction of Transmission line

What Can Go Wrong?

A. Overcurrent Protection Relay

 Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

Very Inverse Relay

Extremely Inverse Relay

Construction of Reactance Relay

The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K3 = 0.

Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay

Distance Protection Relay

Application of Distance Protection Relay

 It provides faster protection as compared to overcurrent relay.

Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay

Objective of Distribution System Protection

I. To minimize the duration of a fault

The secondary objectives of distribution system protection are:

I. To eliminate safety hazards as fast as possible

I. Replacing burned­down conductors, blown fuses, or any other damaged apparatus

Figure 1: Time/Current Curves for Reclosers

I. Single­phase and three­phase;

Figure 2: Typical Sequence for Recloser Operation

I. Replacing burneddown conductors, blown fuses, or any other damaged apparatus

I. Singlephase and threephase;

Figure 5: Criteria for SourceSide Fuse and Recloser Coordination

Figure 7: k Factor for the LoadSide Fuse Link