Magazine for Engineers by Engineers

O-Engineers
Dec-2018

Learning and Guiding

17th
Edition
 Editorial Note

From this month, we are adding one more section in

our magazine, which we named "Carpediem research
corner", i hope our readers like this section and will
give their valuable feedback for further improvement
and development. We also want to add new section
about global warming, which is the main challenge
for our current and future generation, our leaders are
not paying deserved attention on this core issue, but
we need to understand we are in process of converting
our dear earth to near dirt. we need to learn the safety
measures to protect our future generation. In 2006-
07, we saw hike in environmental protection talk, but
nowadays it is like fools words. if we are not thinking
about the prevention from green house gases, soon we
all become the mask nation and potential victims of
polluted climate. think and contribute, before it's too
late.
 Feedback

*. Keep it up. (Alexei Germakov)

*. Good to see editorial contribution from diversified

professionals, i hope this will provide diversity and make
machine better and better. Nice articles like always enjoyed
psychology of engineer and smart earth fault localization
articles. Hope i will soon write some articles.
(Engr. Niaz Hussain Panhwar)

*. I like sarcasm of Engr. Ruthaba Shaikh in her article

about engineer's psychology.
(Engr. Ovais Ali)

*. Ali's articles are good, technical and to the point with

valid references.
(Engr. Hina aftab)

*. Please publish only completed articles.

(Engr. Muhammad Anees)
 Table of
AC High voltage Air Break Disconnector
Switch Routine Test According to IEC
62271-102 Standard-Page-1
Arc Flash Risk Assessment, An important
Analysis to perfom on ETAP-Page-13
XXM Water Flood Medium Voltage
Panels check-up/inspection and
maintenance-Practical Example-Page-21

Power quality improvement technique

and load sharing in Embedded generation
based Smart Grid-Page-41

Modern Power Distribution Analysis and

Simulation with PSCAD-Page-47
Contents
Carpediem
Research Corner
Page-55

Voices of Engineers
Page-77

Engineer of the month

Page-79

Book for this month

Page-80
AC High voltage Air Break
Disconnector Switch
Routine Test According to
IEC 62271-102 Standard
Engr Ali Sepehri
The function of air-break disconnectors in high
voltage power systems is to provide electrical and
visible isolation of one part of the system. The isolation
generally takes two forms:

*. Isolation related to normal day-to-day operation

of the power system. For example, shunt reactors
required only during light load periods are switched
out using circuit breakers and then isolated by
disconnectors during peak load periods.

*. Isolation related to repair or maintenance on

transmission lines or station equipment such as
transformers, circuit breakers and so on.

High voltage air-break disconnectors and earthing

switch come in a variety of types and mounting
arrangements.The four most commonly used types
are:

• Vertical break type

• Centre side break type
• Double side break type
• Pantograph type
3
The high voltage disconnector and earthing switch
routine tests are for the purpose of revealing faults
in material or construction. They do not impair the
properties and reliability of a test object. The routine
tests shall be made wherever reasonably practicable
at the manufacturer's works on each apparatus
manufactured, to ensure that the product is in
accordance with the equipment on which the type
tests have been passed. By agreement, any routine
test may be made on site.

The following items are the routine testing items of

high voltage disconnector switch according to IEC
62271-1,IEC 62271-102 Standards:

1-Dielectric test on the main circuit:

A dry, short-duration power-frequency with 50 or 60

Hz voltage test shall be applied.The test voltage shall
be that specified in column 2 of the following tables ,
according to the relevant IEC standards.In these values,
the altitude factor should be considered.

When the insulation of disconnector and earth switch

is provided only by solid-core insulators and air at
4
ambient pressure, the power-frequency voltage
withstand test may be omitted if the dimensions
between the conductive parts – between phases, across
open switching devices and between conductive
parts and the frame – are checked by dimensional
measurements.

6
When dielectric test applied on earthing switches, the
test voltage shall be applied with the earthing switch in
the open position in these condition:

– between adjacent insulated terminals with the bases

earthed.

– between all the insulated terminals connected

together and the bases earthed.

2-Dielectric test on auxiliary and control circuits in

operating mechanism:

A:Inspection of auxiliary and control circuits, and

verification of conformity to the circuit diagrams and
wiring diagrams:

The nature of the materials, the quality of assembly,

the finish and, if necessary, the protective coatings
against corrosion shall be checked. A visual inspection
is also necessary to check the satisfactory installation
of the thermal insulation.The conductors and cables
and heaters(resistance check)shall be checked for
proper routing.

8
B:Functional tests:

A functional test of all low-voltage circuits(such

relays,contactor,interlocking magnet) shall be made to
verify the proper functioning of auxiliary and control
circuits in conjunction with the other parts of the
disconnector switch . interlocking cassette must be
checked.

C:Verification of protection against electrical shock:

Protection against direct contact with the main circuit

and safe accessibility to the auxiliary and control
equipment parts liable to be touched during normal
operation shall be checked by visual inspection.

D:Dielectric tests:

Only power frequency tests shall be performed.The test

voltage shall be 1 kV or 2 kv with a duration of 1 s with
50 or 60 HZ frequency.

3-Measurement of the resistance of the main circuit:

For the routine test, the d.c. voltage drop or resistance

9
of each pole of the main circuit shall be measured under
conditions as nearly as possible similar, with regard to
ambient air temperature and points of measurement,
to those under which the corresponding type test was
made.The measured resistance shall not exceed 1,2 ×
Ru, where Ru is equal to the resistance measured before
the temperature-rise test.

10
4-Design and visual checks:

The disconnector and earthing switches shall be

checked to verify its compliance with the purchase
specification.

5-Mechanical operating tests:

Operating tests are made to ensure that the

disconnectors or earthing switches show the specified
operating behaviour within the specified voltage and
supply pressure limits of their operating mechanisms.
During these tests, which are performed without
voltage on, or current flowing through the main circuit,
it shall be verified that the disconnectors or earthing
switches open and close correctly when their operating
mechanisms are energized.

This item also must be chek:

*angle of operating mechanism out put shaft.

*measuring torque of operating mechanism output.

*operating mechanism motor current.

11
*operating times.

– 10 close-open operating cycles at the minimum(85%)

supply voltage.

– 10 close-open operating cycles at the maximum (110%)

supply voltage.

–50 close-open operating cycles at the nominal (100%)

supply voltage.

During these operating cycles the operating

characteristics such as operating time and maximum
energy consumption shall be recorded or evaluated.
With disconnectors having manual mechanisms only, the
maximum forces shall be recorded. Satisfactory operation
of the auxiliary contacts and position indicating devices
(if any) shall be verified.

After these tests, no parts of the disconnector or earthing

switch shall be damaged.For disconnectors and earthing
switches with a rated voltage of 52 kV and above, the
mechanical operating routine tests may be performed on
sub-assemblies.

The main circuit resistance shall be measured before and

after the mechanical endurance test.the resistance shall
not vary by more than 20 % from the value measured
before the test.

12
 Arc Flash Risk
Assessment, An
important Analysis to
perfom on ETAP

Engr. Syed Atif Naseem

Arcing faults may occur during switching events
and short circuit in the network. There is a number
of techniques and technologies that can be used to
investigate and mitigate arc flash exposures. These
include the IEEE Standard 1584-2002 to calculate
incident energy in AC systems and the most recent
version of NFPA-70E, 2015 to apply the PPE category
method. On the other hand, the NFP A 70E defines
specific rules for determining the electrical risk
assessment and corresponding PPE required for
personnel to work in a certain zone or with equipment
which can be applied for both AC and DC systems.
The protection system design and coordination helps
to avoid nuisance trips and perform a critical role to
protect people who work on energized equipment in
industrial facilities.
According to NESC, an arc flash occurs due to rapid
release of energy caused by short circuit between
conductors or between conductors and ground. Arc
flash is basically not a direct short circuit between the
two conductors, it is in fact an arc created in the air after
the occurrence of short circuit. Air acts as a conductor
during the arc flash that develops problems for the
utility companies that have linemen working on energi-
15
-ed equipment. The accidents that occur in power
utility companies are majorly due to arc flashes rather
than due to electrocution.
Arcing fault current can be easily created due to poor
electrical contact, worn out insulation and carelessness.
There is no way to eliminate arc fault hazard while
working on an energized line, but we can decrease the
amount of energy dissipated from an arc flash that will
reduce the harm to the lineman.
The primary purpose of studying the system analysis
of arc flashes is the injuries that occur as a result of
it. During an arc flash, the temperature can reach up
to a maximum of 35000 Fahrenheit that is actually 4
times greater than the sun. Molten metal is blasted
forward from terminal material upon contact that
can consequently cause severe injuries. A shockwave
is produced that can throw away humans. The light
produced due to an arc flash can cause blindness as it
contains ultra violet rays in it. Moreover, the sound
pressure is too much that can damage ear drums of
anyone who is in close proximity.

Factors on which survival depend from an arc flash:

a. Clearing time- time in which the protective device
clears the arc flash.
16
b. Magnitude- amount of arc fault current created.
c. Distance- length between the worker and where the
arc flash has occurred
d. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)- cloths wore
by workers for protection from any potential identified
hazard.
IEEE STD 1584-2002
IEEE 1584-2002 is titled “IEEE Guide for Performing
Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations,” and provides a
methodology for calculating prospective arc flash
hazards. Based on test data, the IEEE 1584 committee
developed empirical equations to calculate arc flash
incident energy for AC systems.
The IEEE 1584 calculation method has empirical
equations for conversion of calculated bolted ( zero
impedance ) faults to estimated arcing fault currents.
Due to the resistance of the arc, arcing current will be
less than a zero impedance fault at the same location.
The lower the system voltage, the greater impact the arc
resistance has on the calculated arcing current.
For low voltage systems ( < 1 kV ), the arc current is
given by

17
For medium voltage systems (>1 kV), the arc current is
given by

Estimate of Normalized Incident Energy

The normalized incident energy, based on 0.2 second
arc duration and 610 mm distance from the arc, is given
by Equation (2.3)

Estimate of Incident Energy

The normalized incident energy is used to obtain the
estimated incident energy. The following Equation (
2.4 ) is based on data normalized for an arc time of 0.2
second and a distance from the possible arc point to the
person of 610 mm

Arc Flash Analysis

ETAP Arc Flash Analysis provides multiple capabilities
for faster and easier performance. ETAP Arc Flash
Analysis allows you to identify and analyze high risk
arc flash areas in your electrical system, and it also
allows simulation of several different methods used by
18
engineers to mitigate and lower high incident energy.
This integrated program enables you to create multiple
scenarios to determine which configuration produces
the highest incident energy. In addition, it provides
several methods to print professional quality reports
and arc flash labels. We perform the arc flash analysis on
given SLD and get the following result as shown in fig 1.

Figure-1
19
Engineering Controls To Avoid Arc Flash
• Effect Of Varying FCT (Fault Clarence Time)
• Effect Of % Impedance Variation of transformer
• Effect Of Grounding
• Effect Of Feeder Loading.
Conclusion
Arc flash is a destructive phenomenon that could cause
loss of precious lives and belongings. Repercussions of
Arc flash incidents include substantial harm to workers,
including severe burn injuries and even death. This single
line diagram deals to guarantee the safety of workforce who
work on or adjacent electrical equipment voltage relative to
13.8 kilovolts or less. The major concern of the analysis was
to make the system secure i.e. suggesting “Safety by design”
and emphasizing over its implementation gradually.
Through engineering controls, it was observed that by
decreasing both Fault Clearance Time (FCT) and Incident
energy can decrease the Arc Flash incident energy up
to an acceptable level so that proper Personal protective
equipment could be worse by worker and accurate arc flash
labels could be placed on Equipment. Proper protection and
Multiple Mitigation techniques were adopted like effect of
varying FCT, effect of %Z variation, effect of feeder loading,
effect of transformer’s grounding impedance and Effect of
feeder loading to minimized the incident energy.
20
XXM Water Flood Medium
inspection and mainten
m Voltage Panels check-up/
nance-Practical Example

Engr. Qazi Arsalan Hamid

Scope or task of Project:
XXM Water Flood Medium Voltage Panels check-up/
inspection and maintenance

Duration:
every 3 monthly check up, 6 monthly PM and trouble-
shooting activity on call basis

Direct inspection of the primary contacts is not

possible as they are enclosed in vacuum containers.
The operating mechanisms are similar to the breakers
discussed earlier and may be maintained in the same
manner. The following maintenance checks/Tests are
suggested for the primary contacts:

· Hipot Test

· Timing Test

· Contact Resistance Testing

· Manual Operation Check

· Continuity Check

23
Please Note: in all maintenance tests, VCB Trolley must
be rack out

Hipot Test:
Hipot Test is short name of high potential (high voltage)
Test and it is also known as Dielectric Withstand Test. A
Hipot test checks for “good isolation.”
Hipot test makes surety of no current will flow from one
point to another point.
Hipot test is the opposite of a continuity test.
Continuity Test checks surety of current flows easily
from one point to another point while Hipot Test checks
surety of current would not flow from one point to
another point (and turn up the voltage really high just to
make sure no current will flow).
The hipot test is a nondestructive test that determines
the adequacy of electrical insulation for the normally
occurring over voltage transient. This is a high-voltage
test that is applied to all devices for a specific time in
order to ensure that the insulation is not marginal.
Hipot tests are helpful in finding nicked or crushed
insulation, stray wire strands or braided shielding,
conductive or corrosive contaminants around the
conductors, terminal spacing problems, and tolerance
errors in cables. Inadequate creepage and clearance
24
distances introduced during the manufacturing process.
The production-line hipot test, however, is a test of the manufacturing
process to determine whether the construction of a production unit is
about the same as the construction of the unit that was subjected to type
testing. Some of the process failures that can be detected by a production-
line hipot test include, for example, a transformer wound in such a way
that creepage and clearance have been reduced.
Such a failure could result from a new operator in the winding
department.
HIPOT test is applied after tests such as fault condition, humidity, and
vibration to determine whether any degradation has taken place.
Other examples include identifying a pinhole defect in insulation or
finding an enlarged solder footprint.
As per IEC 60950, The Basic test Voltage for Hipot test is the 2X
(Operating Voltage) + 1000 V
The reason for using 1000 V as part of the basic formula is that the
insulation in any product can be subjected to normal day-to-day transient
over voltages.
Experiments and research have shown that these over voltages can be as
high as 1000 V.

Test method for HIPOT Test

Hipot testers usually connect one side of the supply to safety ground
(Earth ground). The other side of the supply is connected to the
conductor being tested. With the supply connected like this there are two
25
places a given conductor can be connected: high voltage or ground.
When you have more than two contacts to be hipot tested you connect
one contact to high voltage and connect all other contacts to ground.
Testing a contact in this fashion makes sure it is isolated from all other
contacts.
If the insulation between the two is adequate, then the application of a
large voltage difference between the two conductors separated by the
insulator would result in the flow of a very small current. Although this
small current is acceptable, no breakdown of either the air insulation or
the solid insulation should take place. Therefore, the current of interest is
the current that is the result of a partial discharge or breakdown, rather
than the current due to capacitive coupling.

Time Duration for HIPOT Test

The test duration must be in accordance with the safety standard being
used. The test time for most standards, including products covered under
IEC 60950, is 1 minute.
A typical rule of thumb is 110 to 120% of 2U + 1000 V for 1–2 seconds.

Current Setting for HIPOT Test

Most modern hipot testers allow the user to set the current limit.
However, if the actual leakage current of the product is known, then the
hipot test current can be predicted.
The best way to identify the trip level is to test some product samples and
establish an average hipot current. Once this has been achieved, then the
26
leakage current trip level should be set to a slightly
higher value than the average figure.
Another method of establishing the current trip level
would be to use the following mathematical formula:
E(Hipot) / E(Leakage) = I(Hipot) / 2XI(Leakage)
The hipot tester current trip level should be set high
enough to avoid nuisance failure related to leakage
current and, at the same time, low enough not to
overlook a true breakdown in insulation.

Test Voltage for HIPOT Test

The majority of safety standards allow the use of
either ac or dc voltage for a hipot test.
When using ac test voltage, the insulation in question
is being stressed most when the voltage is at its peak,
i.e., either at the positive or negative peak of the sine
wave.
Therefore, if we use dc test voltage, we ensure that the
dc test voltage is under root 2 (or 1.414) times the ac
test voltage, so the value of the dc voltage is equal to
the ac voltage peaks.
For example, for a 1500-V-ac voltage, the equivalent
dc voltage to produce the same amount of stress on
the insulation would be 1500 x 1.414 or 2121 V dc.
27
Step for HIPOT Testing
· Only electrically qualified workers may perform
this testing.
· Open circuit breakers or switches to isolate the
circuit or Cable that will be hi-pot tested.
· Confirm that all equipment or Cable that is not to
be tested is isolated from the circuit under test.
· The limited approach boundary for this hi-pot
procedure at 1000 volts is 5 ft. (1.53m)so place barriers
around the terminations of cables and equipment under
test to prevent unqualified persons from crossing this
boundary.
· Connect the ground lead of the HIPOT Tester
to a suitable building ground or grounding electrode
conductor. Attach the high voltage lead to one of the
isolated circuit phase conductors.
· Switch on the HIPOT Tester. Set the meter to
1000 Volts or pre decide DC Voltage. Push the “Test”
button on the meter and after one minute observe the
resistance reading. Record the reading for reference.
At the end of the one minute test, switch the HIPOT
Tester from the high potential test mode to the voltage
measuring mode to confirm that the circuit phase
conductor and voltage of HIPOT Tester are now reading
zero volts.
28
· Repeat this test procedure for all circuit phase conductors
testing each phase to ground and each phase to each phase.

· When testing is completed disconnect the HIPOT Tester

from the circuits under test and confirm that the circuits are
clear to be re-connected and re-energized.

· To PASS the unit or Cable under Test must be exposed to

a minimum Stress of pre decide Voltage for 1 minute without
any Indication of Breakdown. For Equipments with total area
less than 0.1 m2, the insulation resistance shall not be less than
400 MΩ. For
Equipment with total area larger than 0.1 m2 the measured
insulation resistance times the area of the module shall not be
less than 40 MΩ-sqr meter.

Safety precautions during HIPOT Test

During a HIPOT Test, There may be at some risk so to
minimize risk of injury from electrical shock make sure
HIPOT equipment follows these guidelines:
1. The total charge you can receive in a shock should not
exceed 45 uC.
2. The total hipot energy should not exceed 350 mJ.
3. The total current should not exceed 5 mA peak(3.5 mA
rms)
29
4. The fault current should not stay on longer than 10
mS.
5. If the tester doesn’t meet these requirements
then make sure it has a safety interlock system that
guarantees you cannot contact the cable while it is being
hipot tested.

Timing Test:
Circuit breakers are one of the important and critical
part of electric power system. Circuit breakers are the
backbone of electrical protection system. Because of
their key importance, they must be checked periodically.
Circuit breaker timing test is among different
maintenance tests which should be performed regularly.
It measures the mechanical operating time of the circuit
breaker. This test is always important because delay in
operation of circuit breaker can have disastrous effects
on the equipment when fault occurs.
Closing time: The time interval between energizing
the coils of the breaker (when CB contacts are in open
position) and the instant when the contacts touch each
other.
Opening time: It is opposite to that of closing time. It is
the time interval between energizing the trip coil (CB
contacts are in open position) and the instant when
30
contacts separate from each other.

Importance of timing test of circuit breaker

As it has already been discussed earlier that circuit has a key role to play
in the protection system. The correct operation time of circuit breaker is
important due to the following reasons;

Minimum damage during fault. When fault occurs, relay senses

the abnormal condition and gives a trip command to the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker after receiving trip signal, energizes the trip coil
and open its contacts thus detaches the faulty part of system from rest
of system. The circuit breaker takes some time to do the process. The
equipment’s installed in the power system are designed such that they
withstand high current (other abnormal condition) for very limited time.
If the circuit breaker failed to operate in that limited time, the equipment
may be damaged or destroyed. Therefore it is very important that circuit
breaker must operate in specific minimuk time (operation time) in order
to minimize damage. This feature makes it very important to check the
operation time of circuit breaker periodically.

Relay coordination. Circuit breakers are installed at different

positions to provide protection to power system. It is recommended that
only faulty part of power system should be detached while the other
should remain intact. It is only possible that breaker near to the fault
should be tripped while breaker away from load and near to source
31
should remain intact. This is called relay coordination. The timing of the relay are
set in such a way that breaker near the fault should trip first. However if the breaker
fails to operate in its specific time, the breaker away from fault (near to source) will
trip hence healthy part of system will also be detached. So correct operation time is
necessary for the relay coordination.

Equipment for CB timing test

Different measuring devices can used to perform timing test of circuit breaker. First-
generation devices were based on oscillography mode of record curves and currently
are not used. Second generation testing methods based on digital timers with time-
pulse conversion e.g. Circuit-breaker timer.
The equipment which is widely used nowadays for performing timing test of circuit
breaker is the Circuit breaker (CB) analyzer. The major probes and connection points
are shown in the following figure.

32
Circuit breaker timing test procedure and
Connections
To perform breaker timing test, following connections
are required.
· Connection to the input & output of each phase of
circuit breaker from circuit breaker analyzer.
· DC supply to the tripping coil of the circuit breaker
from external source.
· Connection to the tripping circuit of breaker from
CBA.
Following figure shows the typical connection diagram.

As it can be seen from the figure that connection to

incoming of each phase of breaker is provided from
CBA via red, yellow and blue wires while outgoing is
connected with black wire. Positive (+) and Negative
(-) sign shows the connection of external battery to the
33
triggering circuit.
When the connections are done, note the state of the
circuit breaker from breaker state indicator (on or
off). Press the ready button, the circuit breaker will be
operated and the time will be displayed on the screen.
Results of the timing test of circuit breaker can be
printed using thermal printer, downloaded directly
to USB via USB port and displayed on PC via USB
interface. Repeat the process for closing and opening of
circuit breaker.

Accepted Results
The exact correct operation time of circuit breaker is
provided by the manufacturer. It can be mentioned on
the nameplate of circuit breaker.
However as a rule of thumb, operating time of circuit
breaker should fall in the following ranges
HT breakers (above 11kV) Opening time = 1-2 cycles
(20 – 40 ms)
Closing time = 2-5 cycle ( 40 to 100ms)
LT breakers (11kV or below) opening time = 2-3 cycles
(40 to 60ms)
Closing time = 3-6 cycles (60 to 120ms)
These are just estimated values which can be regarded as
acceptable operation time.
34
Contact Resistance Test Procedure
Contact resistance test is performed for Circuit breakers
which are very important entity of Electrical power
system. It plays a key role in protection of electrical
equipment. It conducts current during normal
condition. However in faulty condition, it interrupts the
power/current by opening its contacts. When the fault
is removed, continuity of electrical system is restored
by making contact of circuit breaker. For this to happen
reliably and smoothly, the contacts of circuit breaker
should be in good condition. There should make and
break properly. There should be no carbon or any other
unwanted material on its surface. The contacts should
be properly lubricated.
With the passage of time, contacts of circuit breaker
worn out. Since the contacts of circuit breaker are not
visible therefore contact resistance testing is necessary
to check condition of contacts of circuit breaker. It is
also necessary to select correct circuit breaker so that
the contacts lasts longer. Proper selection is explained in
article, how to select circuit breaker

Damage to contacts of circuit breaker.

· Due to the making and breaking of contacts at
high speed and pressure, the contacts can be damaged.
35
· Due operation of breaker, sparking occurs which
can depreciate the contacts.
· Sparking results in carbon formation which
accumulates on the surface of `contact and can increase
in its resistance.
· Due to increase in resistance of contacts, the I2R
losses increase. Rise in contact resistance illustrates
some abnormality in contacts of breaker therefore
contact resistance test is performed.

Apparatus for contact resistance testing

· To perform test according to standard contact
resistance test procedure, micro ohmmeter should be
used. It is shown in the figure

36
Micro ohmmeter must have the following provisions
· Should supply as high current as 200A.
· Should have the provision of varying current
· Current meter.
· Display resistance.
There are two types of leads or connection wires in
resistance test set. One set of leads is called current
leads and other is called sensing leads or voltage
leads. The purpose of current leads is to provide
high current while that of sensing leads is to provide
voltage.

Operating principle
The operating principle of this test depends upon
balancing bridge (like Wheatstone bridge) and
Ohms law. High current is injected and small
voltage is applied to measure contact resistance. The
internal structure of micro ohmmeter is beyond the
scope of this article.

Contact Resistance Test procedure

The following figure shows the connection diagram
to perform contact resistance testing. Current leads
are marked as C1 and C2 while potential or voltage
leads are designated as P1 and P2.
37
Connect the leads marked C1 and C2 to the outside
of the connection points and P1 and P2 to the inside
of C1/C2. This prevents reading the resistance of the
connection itself. Now follow the given procedure
· After making the connection, close the contacts of
circuit breaker.
· Turn on the test set.
· Start increasing current using current knob.
· Increase the current up to 100A. Value of
maximum current may vary according different
equipment.
· Press button of resistance to show resistance of
contacts.
· Check the value of resistance.
38
Results:
Following are the expected results which will verify the
healthy condition of the contacts.
· According to ANSI/NETA MTS-2011, difference
between the contacts of all three phases should not be
greater than 50%.
· The higher the current rating of the breaker, the
smaller the contact resistance. Size (w.r.t current rating)
of circuit breaker is inversely proportional to the contact
resistance.
· High tension breaker (HT 132kV or greater), the
contact resistance is less than 60 µohm. For LT breakers
(11kV or less) the contact resistance is around 100
µohm. These values are just rule of thumb. Exact values
are specified by manufacturer

Manual Operation Check

1. Manual Spring charge by hand and closing and
tripping may be done either electrically or Manual. .
2. Slow closing by hand, in this type of the VCB will
go in to ON position directly and tripping may done
electrically or manually.

Continuity test:
At contact close position and rack out position, we
39
conduct this test by multimeter

Reference Documents:
Concerned Company Quality & HSE manual.

40
 Power quality improvem
sharing in Embedded gen
ment technique and load
neration based Smart Grid

Engr. Syed Atif Naseem

Smart Grid, An interconnected network in which
distributed energy resources called as embedded
generation connected the centralized power generation
and shares the load power respectively where the line
represents the inductive characteristics. If the load is
non linear or the voltage sources are unbalanced and
distorted or even balanced, harmonics are present in
the network which increases the line losses as well
as deteriorate the health of power asset installed at
different location of the smart grid. In this regard,
power theory plays an important role for active filtering
of harmonics in the network which basically calculates
the compensating reference current of the system and
provide it to current controller of distributed energy
resources to improve the harmonics and reaches to
acceptable rate of under 5 % distortion.
In this regard, the first ever attempt made by Budeanu
in order to demonstrate the power component in
frequency domain to analyse the non sinusoidal
condition of current. Later on, Depenbrock used the
time domain approach to decompose the current in
to active and non reactive parts. Tidea a renowned
scientist and AKagi presented an instantaneous power
theory or PQ theory to decomposed the nonlinear load
43
current or unbalanced and distorted voltage source
current in to five parts and called it conservative power
theory (CPT) . The parts of current decomposition
includes active current, reactive current, scattered
active current, scattered reactive current and current
generation. The three parts of decomposed current
i.e scattered generation, reactive generation and
current generation is called void current have basically
harmonics present and need to filter out after getting the
reference compensating current and control through PI
controller present in the current controller of DERs as
shown in fig 1.

Recently, an improved form of conservative power

theory has been established and called as enhanced
instantaneous power theory which decomposed the
distorted current in more than six parts and provide the
opportunity to individually control this parts along with
void current in order to get reference compensating
current for non linear load or unbalanced/ distorted
voltage source normally called as weak grid. Fig 1
represent the enhanced instantaneous power theory
based current controller which are connected with
DERs to remove harmonic in smart grid.

44
Fig. 1 EIPT based
current controller
to decomposed
current and
determine
compensating
reference current.

45
When two distributed energy resources is connected to centralized power generation, load power
sharing can be possible through droop control. Load power sharing through droop control among
distributed renewable energy sources does not required communication path. However droop
control has a draw back for load power sharing in DERS and a trade off between power sharing
accurate and voltage and frequency regulation, slow transient response and impedance mismatch
of DERs. So the promising alternative is to decomposed the current and determine the current
reference and through supervisor controller share the distributed load in the present of non linear
load in smart grid as shown in fig mention below.

From the above discussion, It is concluded that Enhanced instantaneous power theory must be
applied in smart grid for proper power load sharing as well as improved the power quality of the
network under non linear load as well as balanced, unbalanced and distorted voltage sources.

46
Modern Power Distr
Simulation w
ribution Analysis and
with PSCAD

Engr. Qazi Arsalan hamid

Distribution line is a line or system for distributing
power from a transmission system to a consumer that
operates at less than 69 kV

Distribution system is divided into two different

voltage levels, called primary distribution and secondary
distribution systems. A distribution system starts right
after the step-down transformer with
Voltage levels less than 46 kV.

Load Modelling For residential loads, the higher

percentage at night is lighting, while for the annual
peaks, the majority of the load is related to hot days (or
depending on the region, very cold winter days).
The behavior of load changes with a change in the
electrical parameters of the feeder (i.e., voltage and
frequency)

ZIP coefficient Load Modelling

This model represents the active and reactive part of the
load as a function of voltage.
The polynomial expression known as the ZIP
coefficients model represents the variation (with
voltage) of a load as a composition of the three types of
constant loads Z,I , and P.Z ,I and P stand for constant
49
impedance, constant current, and constant power loads, respectively. The
expressions for active and reactive powers of the ZIP coefficients model
are

Typically, load surveys are performed on typical residential, commercial,

and industrial customers to find the proportions of load in different
categories as in ZIP In other words a load survey answers the following
questions:
1. what percentage of the load is constant impedance (Z)?
2. What percentage of the load is constant current (I)?
3. What percentage of the load is constant power (P)?

PSCAD-Load Modelling
In PSCAD, the load is modeled as a function of voltage magnitude
and frequency, where the load real and reactive power are considered

50
separately using the expressions:

Voltage Regulation
The process maintaining the voltage along a
distribution feeder within the bandwidth specified by
IMPLEMENTED OR ADOPTED STANDARDS, is
51
In a distribution feeder without active generation the
highest voltage is at the substation voltage regulator
(LTC). The lowest voltage is at the far away points from
the substation.
In the case of long feeders with a high amount of
load, the feeder can experience voltages less than the
minimum indicated by the standard. Voltage regulators,
which are autotransformers with multiple taps, are used
to regulate voltage at places with low voltage.

Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is simply a
tapped autotransformer that
works to either raise (boost)
or lower (buck) the voltage.
This device can be conside-
-red the most important de-
-vice in the single line diagram
in order to transfer energy to
a long distance. It has the res-
ponsibility of connecting two
points with different voltage
levels. Each transformer has
the following specified name
plate values: kilo Volt Ampere (kVA) rating, voltage
52
rating, impedance, no-load loss, and saturation
condition. Transformers in a distribution system can be
three-phase connected as a Y or delta. Also, they can be
formed as three separate single-phase transformers.
In a distribution system, the main transformer usually
contains an LTC. The secondary of the transformer with
tap changer has multiple taps.
Here, to expand on the idea of voltage regulators, we
start with a simple single-phase autotransformer. An
autotransformer is a transformer with single coil,
An autotransformer consists of a single winding which
serves as primary winding as well as secondary winding,
Below mention Figure shows a single-phase transformer
used as an autotransformer. Essentially by connecting a
point on the secondary of the single-phase transformer
to a point on the primary of the transformer, the
autotransformer is formed. The device is utilizing a
single coil to change voltage and transfer energy.

53
A key advantage to the autotransformer is higher output power.
The disadvantage is lower impedance, which means in higher
voltage applications it may have a high short-circuit current.
Autotransformers are often used when voltage transformation is
small and cost is a considerable concern. Despite the advantages
of voltage regulation, larger output power, elimination of
secondary windings, and power transformation energy transfer,
common drawbacks of using an autotransformer include
risks of high short-circuit currents (due to a much smaller
impedance) and complications due to the primary windings
not being completely insulated from the secondary. The special
autotransformer, called the voltage regulator, uses the same
principle of creating a direct electrical connection between
primary and secondary windings, except that it also maintains
the capability of changing the transformer turns ratio to meet
changing voltage demands. It is designed so that the connection
between the primary and secondary can change locations.
This is done by switching the high potential connection on
the secondary side between different connection points, called
“taps.” Switching between different taps creates a range of turn
ratios that can be utilized, thus allowing the voltage at the
secondary to be controllable and variable.

(to be continue..................................................................................)

54
Carpediem
Research
Corner
 Carpediem
Research Team
Automatic Car B
Battery Charger

Carpediem Research Desk

The device allows not only charging, but also
recovering batteries with sulfated plates by using
asymmetric current when charging in charge (5 A)
- discharge (0.5 A) mode for a full period of mains
voltage. The device also provides the ability to speed up
the process of charging, if necessary.

this device has a number of additional functions that

contribute to the convenience of their use. So, at the end
of the charge, the circuit will automatically disconnect
the battery from the charger. And if you try to connect
a faulty battery (with a voltage below 7 V) or a battery
with incorrect polarity, the circuit will not turn on in
charge mode, which will prevent the charger and the
battery from being damaged.

In case of a short circuit of terminals X1 (+) and X2 (-),

the fuse FU1 will blow during device operation.

The electrical circuit (Figure shown on next page)

consists of a current stabilizer on the transistor VT1, a
control device on the comparator D1, a thyristor VS1 for
fixing the state and a key transistor VT2 that controls
the operation of the relay K1.
59
60
When the device is turned on with the SA1 switch,
the HL2 LED will light up, and the circuit will wait
until we connect the battery to terminals X1, X2.
With the correct polarity of the battery connection, a
small current flowing through the VD7 diode and the
resistors R14, R15 to the base VT2 will be sufficient for
the transistor to open and the relay K1 will work.

When the relay is turned on, the transistor VT1 starts

to operate in the current stabilizer mode - in this case
the HL1 LED will be lit. The stabilization current is set
by the resistor values ​​in the emitter circuit VT1, and the
reference voltage for operation is obtained on the HL1
LED and the VD6 diode.

The current stabilizer operates on one half-wave of the

mains voltage. During the second half-wave diodes
VD1, VD2 are closed and the battery is discharged
through a resistor R8. Nominal R8 is chosen so that
the discharge current was 0.5 A. It was established
experimentally that the mode of charging with a current
of 5 A is optimal, and that of a discharge is 0.5 A.

While the discharge is in progress, the comparator

monitors the voltage on the battery, and if the value
61
exceeds 14.7 V (the level is set when adjusting with
resistor R10), it will turn on the thyristor. At the same
time, the LEDs HL3 and HL2 will begin to glow. The
thyristor short-circuits the base of the transistor VT2
through the diode VD9 to the common wire, which will
turn off the relay. Repeatedly, the relay will not turn on
until the RESET button (SB1) is pressed or the whole
circuit (SA1) is not disabled for a while.
For stable operation of the comparator D1, its power
is stabilized by a Zener diode VD5. In order for the
comparator to compare the voltage on the battery with
the threshold (set at input 2) only at the moment of
discharge, the threshold voltage from the diode VD3
and the resistor R1 rises while the battery is charging,
which will prevent it from tripping. When the battery is
discharged, this circuit is not involved in the work.

In the manufacture of construction of the transistor

VT1 is installed on the radiator area of ​​at least 200
square centimeters.

Power circuits from terminals X1, X2 and transformer

T1 are made with a wire with a cross section of at least
0.75 square millimeters.

62
The circuit uses capacitors C1 of type K50-24 for 63
V, C2 - K53-4A for 20 V, trimmer R10 of type SP5-2
(multiturn), fixed resistors R2 ... R4 of type C5-16MB,
R8 of type PEV-15 the rest are of type C2-23. Relay K1
is suitable for any, with an operating voltage of 24 V and
an allowable current through the contacts 5 A; tumblers
SA1, SA2 type T1, button SB1 type KM1-1.

To adjust the charger, you need a constant voltage

source with adjustment from 3 to 15 V. It is convenient
to use the wiring diagram shown in figure given below.

Setting start with the selection of the nominal resistor

R14. To do this, we supply 7 V from the power supply
unit A1 and by changing the nominal value of the
resistor R14, we achieve that the relay K1 operates at a
voltage of at least 7 V. the circuit to its original state after
turning on the thyristor must press the button SB1). You
may also need to select a resistor R1.
63
Last but not least we set up a current stabilizer. To do this, in the open circuit
of the collector VT1 at the point "A" temporarily set the dial ammeter with
a scale of 0 ... 5 A. By selecting a resistor R4, we obtain readings using an
ammeter 1.8 A (for current amplitude 5 A) and then with SA2 tune R4, a
value of 3.6 A (for a current amplitude of 10 A).

The difference in the indication of the switch ampermeter and the actual
current is due to the fact that the ammeter averages the measured value
during the period of the mains voltage, and the charge is made only during
half the period.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the final adjustment of the stabilizer

current is best performed on a real battery in a steady state - when the VT1
transistor warms up and the effect of an increase in current due to a change in
the transition temperature in the transistor is not observed. At this setting can
be considered complete.

As the battery charges, the voltage on it will gradually increase, and when
it reaches 14.7 V, the circuit will automatically shut off the charge circuit.
Automation will also disable the charging process in the event of any other
unforeseen effects, for example, if the breakdown VT1 or the disappearance
of the mains voltage. Auto-off mode can also be triggered if there is poor
contact in the circuits from the charger to the battery. In this case, press the
RESET button (SB1).

64
Wireless App
partment bell

Carpediem Research Desk

We offer a simple electronic call
device that transmits a signal over
the air.
The receiving node for such a transmitter is any FM
radio tuner tuned to 87.9 MHz. The frequency of the
transmitter can be easily rebuilt over the entire width
of the range by varying the ratio of capacitors C4 and
C6 to insignificant limits, and also slightly stretching
and compressing the turns of the inductance L1. This
should be done carefully, since even a small change
in the distance between the turns of coil L1 (as well
as the capacitance of capacitors C4 and C6 relative to
that shown in the diagram) leads to a change in the
frequency of the transmitter signal. Therefore, when
setting up the device, it is easier to tune the FM receiver
frequency to the transmitter signal than vice versa.

The generator on the popular KR1006VI1 microcircuit

automatically starts when the supply voltage is applied.
The frequency of the generator pulses depends on the
capacitance of the capacitor C1 and the resistance of the
resistor R3. With the elements indicated on the diagram,
the frequency of alternation of the output Pulses will be
approximately 400 Hz.
67
Slightly it can be adjusted by trimming resistor R1. The operation of the
pulse generator can be checked without additional devices by connecting to
the output of the DA1 chip (pin 3) and the common wire of any telephone
capsule with a winding resistance of at least 50 Ohms. It will make a sound.

It is important that the elements of the device are mounted by printed wiring
and their conclusions have a minimum length. Transmitter power is small
and is only 0.01 watts. This is quite enough to transmit a radio signal over a
distance of 50 m.

The most optimal operation of the transmitter is carried out at the node
supply voltage of +5 V. The power source should be autonomous or stabilized
with a down-output transformer. Current consumption 28 ... 30mA. An
increase in the supply voltage changes the operating mode of the transistor
68
VT1, which adversely affects the output amplitude and the power of the transmitter, and hence the distance
of reliable signal reception. Therefore, the working point of the offset of the transistor VT1 can be corrected
by changing the resistance of the resistor R5.

Since the output signal from pin 3 of the DA1 chip is very large in amplitude, a regulator is inserted in
the circuit. Variable resistor R4 (type SPO-1) serves as a regulator of the output level of the low-frequency
generator, assembled on the chip DA1. When setting up a node, it is necessary to set the level of the
generator output signal so that the signal received by the portable receiver is listened without distortion like
“step” or “echo”. Isolation capacitor C3 (type KM-6B) does not allow the DC component of the voltage from
the generator to the input of the transistor transmitter. An antenna is connected to the C5 capacitor, which
is a segment of a multicore mounting unshielded wire with a cross section of 1.2 mm and a length of 20 cm.
This wire antenna can be laid around the knot elements in a spiral, inside the unshielded housing.

The elements of the device are installed compactly in an unshielded plastic case, which is located, if
possible, away from network wiring.

Details. Button SA1 is a standard bell button installed at the entrance to the apartment. All permanent
resistors type MLT-0.125. Capacitors type KM-6B. Transistor VT1 can be replaced KT368A, KT355A,
KT355B. Coil L1 contains 5 turns of wire PEV-1 with a diameter of 0.5 mm, wound frameless or on a
wooden frame with a diameter of 5 mm. For the frame, a simple wooden pencil (with a graphic rod
removed) or a reel of old-fashioned threads is suitable.

The disadvantage of this scheme is the single-tone character of the signal. It is possible to supplement the
device circuit with a discontinuous signal generator or use as a sound generator a microassembly of the type
UM08 with recording a musical fragment of a melody.
69
Sound Effect
Generator

Carpediem Research Desk

We offer to your attention a scheme that can amuse
children. It can generate the sounds of a police car siren,
trills of birds, the sounds of spaceships, etc. In addition,
the circuit can be used in doorbells or used in alarms.
This scheme is easy to make and it contains inexpensive
components.

The circuit consists of four parts: a binary counter, a

digital-to-analog converter (DAC), a voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO) and an audio output amplifier. The
speed with which the meter counts depends on the
frequency of the GUN at its output, and the frequency
of the GUN in turn is determined by the counter. This
feedback loop forms the output signal.

According to the scheme shown in the figure, the initial

frequency of the generator, collected on the elements
IC2a and
​​ IC2b is given by potentiometer VR1 and
capacitor C1. At the beginning of the generator operates
at a relatively low frequency, the frequency gradually
increases with increasing voltage at the output of the
DAC.
DAC is a group of resistors R1 ... R8, connected to the
output of the counter IC1, providing the base current of
the transistor TR1. When all the outputs of IC1 are set
71
to low, a small current will flow through the base of transistor TR1, hence the control voltage will
be low. As logical units appear at the outputs of the counter, the base current of the transistor TR1
will increase, and therefore the output frequency of the VCO will increase.
The VCO itself is assembled on elements IC2a, IC2b, TR1, diodes D2 ... D5, capacitor C1, resistors
R10 and VR1. The diode bridge operates primarily as a voltage controlled resistor.
The buffer amplifier is assembled on four IC2 elements connected in parallel, the output of
the amplifier is connected to the loudspeaker LS1 via a capacitor C2. The output signal level
is sufficient for experimental purposes, to obtain a higher volume, the output amplifier can be
replaced with a conventional ULF.
Connections on the diagram are made in the usual way, the wiring is not critical, but make sure
that the polarity of the power supply to the chips is properly connected. Pressing the button S1,
you will hear a sound that will depend on the position of the potentiometer VR1. To change the
effect, press the S1 button.
72
Simple Detector
Carpediem Research Desk
Our simplest indicator will answer the question.
He will warn not only about the level of radiation
background, but also help to check for contamination of
water, soil, food.
As you can see, the device is simple. Its basis is the
ionizing radiation sensor. It is a small cylindrical glass
flask filled with gas, with two electrodes at the ends. The
sensor is connected to the base of the VT1 transistor,
which controls the switching on of the HG1 neon bulb.

A high voltage of about 600 V is applied to its

electrodes. To get it, use the voltage doubler on the
diodes VD1, VD2 and capacitors C1, C2.
75
When there is no ionizing radiation, the resistance
between the sensor electrodes is infinity, the VT1
transistor is locked and the HG1 light does not glow.
But then a charged particle ran between the electrodes
and left an ionized channel in the gas filling the flask.
And he, as you know, conducts current. The transistor
will immediately open and briefly light the bulb. The
more charged particles run through the sensor, the
more often it will flash.
Now a few words about the details. In the indicator
circuit, you can use diodes of type KD103, transistors
KT605 with any letter index. Neon IN-6 or TN-0.2
lamps are suitable as the indicator itself. The ionizing
radiation sensor can be of any type, designed for a
working voltage of 360-540V - for example, SBM-21,
SBM-11, SBM-20, STS-20 or STS-5.
Structurally, the device is better to perform in the case
of hardboard or plastic. Opposite the place where the
sensor will be located, in the side of the case, provide a
small rectangular hole and close it with polyethylene.
The efficiency of the device is determined by the flashes
of a neon lamp. Remember that the circuit is powered
by high voltage! So when setting up and repair, do not
forget to disconnect the device from the network!

76
Voices of
Engineers

77
Professionals without tasks or goals(assigned or
aligned) grew weak in confidence and knowledge
with passage of time.
(Engr. Arsalan Hamid)

Linkedin is nowadays like a survey portal, where

anyone can post "if you want the job in electrical
industry, please hit like button", i suggest linkedin
that please remove like button from their website.
(Engr. Badar ul Hasan)

Lot of Teachers/Professors in our Universities need

to upgrade their knowledge skills.
(Engr. Shahzia Jonejo)

Siemens management kindly pay attention to the

pakistan-siemens chapter, nepotism and favourtism
is involved in recuitment, talent is suffering.
(Engr. Ataullah shaikh)

Why PHD scholarships are reserved for univerity

employees(exclusively) in pakistan.
(Engr. Ahmed Saeed)
78
 Engineer of the month
Talha is NUST graduate(also did Masters from Usman
institute Karachi) and presently Presently working
in Distribution Control Center (Operation Division)
in MAKKAH Electricity Dept. as SCADA Engineer
(Distribution Engineer C). Key responsibilities include:
• E-terraplatform EMP 2.3 administration including
SCADA Database Management using e-terra modeler
3.1.2, Electrical Power Network
world map graphics using Full
Graphics Builder 5.6, SCADA Archive
Management using e-terra archive 2.5
etc.
• Sinaut Spectrum v4.1.1
administration including Source
Database Management, Electrical
Power Network world map graphics, connectivity of
switching elements and bays at 13.8/33/110/380KV,
mapping IEC-101 to Sinaut Spectrum addresses etc.
He also served in Pakistan largest vertically integrated
utility K-Electric as Scada manager. He is contributing
lot in engineering but in silence mode, we appraise such
engineering professionals.
79
 Book for this month
Control and Optimization Methods for Electric Smart
Grids brings together leading experts in power, control
and communication systems, and
consolidates some of the most
promising recent research in
smart grid modeling, control and
optimization in hopes of laying
the foundation for future advances
in this critical field of study.
The contents comprise eighteen
essays addressing wide varieties
of control-theoretic problems for
tomorrows power grid.
Topics covered include control architectures for
power system networks with large-scale penetration
of renewable energy and plug-in vehicles, optimal
demand response, new modeling methods for electricity
markets, cyber-security,data analysis and wide-area
control using synchronized phasor measurements.

80
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