Culture of ancient Rome

“Roman society” redirects here. For the learned society, rate of urbanization of 32%, the same rate of urbaniza-
see Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. tion of England in 1800. Most Roman towns and cities
The culture of ancient Rome existed throughout the had a forum, temples and the same type of buildings, on
a smaller scale, as found in Rome. The large urban pop-
ulation required an endless supply of food which was a
complex logistical task, including acquiring, transporting,
storing and distribution of food for Rome and other ur-
ban centers. Italian farms supplied vegetables and fruits,
but fish and meat were luxuries. Aqueducts were built to
bring water to urban centers and wine and oil were im-
ported from Hispania, Gaul and Africa.
There was a very large amount of commerce between
the provinces of the Roman Empire, since its transporta-
tion technology was very efficient. The average costs of
transport and the technology were comparable with 18th-
century Europe. The later city of Rome did not fill the
space within its ancient Aurelian walls until after 1870.
The majority of the population under the jurisdiction
of ancient Rome lived in the countryside in settlements
with less than 10 thousand inhabitants. Landlords gen-
Wall painting (1st century AD) from Pompeii depicting a multi- erally resided in cities and their estates were left in the
generational banquet care of farm managers. The plight of rural slaves was
generally worse than their counterparts working in urban
almost 1200-year history of the civilization of Ancient aristocratic households. To stimulate a higher labor pro-
Rome. The term refers to the culture of the Roman Re- ductivity most landlords freed a large number of slaves
public, later the Roman Empire, which at its peak cov- and many received wages. Some records indicate that “as
ered an area from Lowland Scotland and Morocco to the many as 42 people lived in one small farm hut in Egypt,
Euphrates. while six families owned a single olive tree.” Such a rural
Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, environment continued to induce migration of population
its famed seven hills, and its monumental architec- to urban centers until the early 2nd century when the ur-
ture such as the Flavian Amphitheatre (now called the ban population stopped growing and started to decline.
Colosseum), the Forum of Trajan, and the Pantheon. Starting in the middle of the 2nd century BC, private
The city also had several theaters, gymnasia, and many Greek culture was increasingly in ascendancy, in spite
taverns, baths, and brothels. Throughout the territory of tirades against the “softening” effects of Hellenized
under ancient Rome’s control, residential architecture culture from the conservative moralists. By the time of
ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Ro-
the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences man young (sometimes even the girls); chefs, decorators,
on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palace secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers all came from the
is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in Greek East. Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic land-
the city center, packed into insulae (apartment blocks). scape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, or were
The city of Rome was the largest megalopolis of that time, imitated in Roman sculpture yards by Greek slaves. The
with a population that may well have exceeded one mil- Roman cuisine preserved in the cookery books ascribed
lion people, with a high end estimate of 3.6 million and a to Apicius is essentially Greek. Roman writers disdained
low end estimate of 450,000. A substantial proportion of Latin for a cultured Greek style. Only in law and gov-
the population under the city’s jurisdiction lived in innu- ernance was the Italic nature of Rome’s accretive culture
merable urban centers, with population of at least 10,000 supreme.
and several military settlements, a very high rate of ur- Against this human background, both the urban and rural
banization by pre-industrial standards. The most urban- setting, one of history’s most influential civilizations took
ized part of the Empire was Italy, which had an estimated

1
2 1 SOCIAL STRUCTURE

shape, leaving behind a cultural legacy that survives in In the comitia centuriata the Romans were divided ac-
part today. cording to age, wealth and residence. The citizens in
each tribe were divided into five classes based on property
and then each group was subdivided into two centuries by
age. All in all, there were 373 centuries. Like the assem-
1 Social structure bly of tribes, each century had one vote. The Comitia
Centuriata elected the praetors (judicial magistrates), the
Main article: Social class in ancient Rome censors, and the consuls.
The comitia tributa comprised thirty-five tribes from
The center of the early social structure, dating from the Rome and the country. Each tribe had a single vote. The
time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the family, Comitia Tributa elected the Quaestors (financial magis-
which was not only marked by blood relations but also by trates) and the patrician Curule Aedile.
the legally constructed relation of patria potestas. The Over time, Roman law evolved considerably, as well as
Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he social views, emancipating (to increasing degrees) family
was the master over his wife (if she was given to him members. Justice greatly increased, as well. The Romans
sub manu, otherwise the father of the wife retained pa- became more efficient at considering laws and punish-
tria potestas), his children, the wives of his sons (again if ments.
married sub manu which became rarer towards the end of
the Republic), the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen Life in the ancient Roman cities revolved around the
(liberated slaves, the first generation still legally inferior Forum, the central business district, where most of
to the freeborn), disposing of them and of their goods at the Romans would go for marketing, shopping, trading,
will, even having them put to death. banking, and for participating in festivities and cere-
monies. The Forum was also a place where orators would
Slavery and slaves were part of the social order. The express themselves to mould public opinion, and elicit
slaves were mostly prisoners of war. There were slave support for any particular issue of interest to them or oth-
markets where they could be bought and sold. Roman law ers. Before sunrise, children would go to schools or tutor-
was not consistent about the status of slaves, except that ing them at home would commence. Elders would dress,
they were considered like any other moveable property. take a breakfast by 11 o'clock, have a nap and in the after-
Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services noon or evening would generally go to the Forum. Going
rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their free- to a public bath at least once daily was a habit with most
dom. Generally mutilation and murder of slaves was pro- Roman citizens. There were separate baths for men and
hibited by legislation, although outrageous cruelty contin- women. The main difference was that the women’s baths
ued. were smaller than the men’s, and did not have a frigidar-
Apart from these families (called gentes) and the slaves ium (cold room) or a palaestra (exercise area).
(legally objects, mancipia i.e. “kept in the [master’s] Different types of outdoor and indoor entertainment, free
hand”) there were Plebeians that did not exist from a legal of cost, were available in ancient Rome. Depending on
perspective. They had no legal capacity and were not able the nature of the events, they were scheduled during day-
to make contracts, even though they were not slaves. To time, afternoons, evenings, or late nights. Huge crowds
deal with this problem, the so-called clientela was created. gathered at the Colosseum to watch events like gladiators,
By this institution, a plebeian joined the family of a patri- combats between men, or fights between men and wild
cian (in a legal sense) and could close contracts by medi- animals. The Circus Maximus was used for chariot rac-
ation of his patrician pater familias. Everything the ple- ing.
beian possessed or acquired legally belonged to the gens.
He was not allowed to form his own gens. Life in the countryside was slow but lively, with numerous
local festivals and social events. Farms were run by the
The authority of the pater familias was unlimited, be it in farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take
civil rights as well as in criminal law. The king’s duty was a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying the splendor
to be head over the military, to deal with foreign politics of nature and the sunshine, including activities like fish-
and also to decide on controversies between the gentes. ing, hunting, and riding. On the other hand, slave labor
The patricians were divided into three tribes (Ramnenses, slogged on continuously, for long hours and all seven days,
Titientes, Luceres). and ensuring comforts and creating wealth for their mas-
During the time of the Roman Republic (founded in 509 ters. The average farm owners were better off, spending
BC) Roman citizens were allowed to vote. These included evenings in economic and social interactions at the village
patricians and plebeians. Women, slaves, and children markets. The day ended with a meal, generally left over
were not allowed to vote. from the noontime preparations.
There were two assemblies, the assembly of centuries
(comitia centuriata) and the assembly of tribes (comitia
tributa), which were made up of all the citizens of Rome.
1.2 Food 3

1.1 Clothing footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore
heavy boots. Women wore closed shoes of colors such
Main article: Clothing in ancient Rome as white, yellow, or green.
In ancient Rome, the cloth and the dress distinguished
The bulla was a locket-like amulet worn by children.
When about to marry, the woman would donate her bulla
(sometimes called partha) to the household gods, along
with her toys, to signify maturity and womanhood.
Men typically wore a toga, and women wore a stola.
The woman’s stola was a dress worn over a tunic, and was
usually brightly colored. A fibula (or brooch) would be
used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A
palla, or shawl, was often worn with the stola.

1.2 Food

Main articles: Ancient Roman cuisine and Grain supply

to the city of Rome

Since the beginning of the Republic until 200 BC, ancient

Romans had very simple food habits. Simple food was
generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted
of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat
left over from the dinner the night before. Breakfast was
called ientaculum, lunch was prandium, and dinner was
called cena. Appetizers were called gustatio, and dessert
was called secunda mensa (or second table). Usually, a
nap or rest followed this.
The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table.
Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was
designed, called a triclinium. Fingers were used to take
foods which were prepared beforehand and brought to the
diners. Spoons were used for soups.

Toga-clad statue, restored with the head of the emperor Nerva

one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn
by plebeians (common people) like shepherds was made
from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn
by patricians was of linen or white wool. A magistrate
would wear the tunica angusticlavi; senators wore tunics
with purple stripes (clavi), called tunica laticlavi. Military
tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians.
Eggs, thrushes, napkin, and vessels (wall painting from the House
The many types of togas were also named. Boys, up until of Julia Felix, Pompeii)
the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which
was a toga with a crimson or purple border, also worn by Wine in Rome did not become common or mass-
magistrates in office. The toga virilis, (or toga pura) or produced until around 250 B.C. It was more commonly
man’s toga was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify produced around the time of Cato the Elder who men-
their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by tri-
tions in his book De Agri Cultura that the vineyard was
umphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on thethe most important aspect of a good farm.[1] Wine was
battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning. considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and oc-
Even footwear indicated a person’s social status. Patri- casions by all classes and was quite cheap; however, it was
cians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown always mixed with water. This was the case even dur-
4 2 LANGUAGE

ing explicit evening drinking events (comissatio) where parting education. School was mostly for boys, however
an important part of the festivity was choosing an ar- some wealthy girls were tutored at home, but could still
biter bibendi (Judge of Drinking) who was, among other go to school sometimes.
things, responsible for deciding the ratio of wine to water
in the drinking wine. Wine to water ratios of 1:2, 1:3, or
1:4 were commonly used. Many types of drinks involving
grapes and honey were consumed as well. Mulsum was
2 Language
honeyed wine, mustum was grape juice, mulsa was hon-
eyed water. The per-person-consumption of wine per day Main articles: Latin and Languages of the Roman Em-
in the city of Rome has been estimated at 0.8 to 1.1 gal- pire
lons for males, and about 0.5 gallons for females. Even The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic
the notoriously strict Cato the Elder recommended dis-
tributing a daily ration of low quality wine of more than
0.5 gallons among the slaves forced to work on farms.
Drinking non-watered wine on an empty stomach was re-
garded as boorish and a sure sign of alcoholism whose
debilitating physical and psychological effects were al-
ready recognized in ancient Rome. An accurate accusa-
tion of being an alcoholic—in the gossip-crazy society of
the city bound to come to light and easily verified—was
a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals
employed by some of Rome’s greatest orators like Cicero
and Julius Caesar. Prominent Roman alcoholics include
Mark Antony, Cicero’s own son Marcus (Cicero Mi-
nor) and the emperor Tiberius Claudius Nero whose sol-
diers gave him the unflattering nickname Biberius Caldius Fragmentary military diploma from Carnuntum; Latin was the
Mero (lit. boozer of pure wine, Sueton Tib. 42,1). Cato language of the military throughout the Empire
the Younger was also known as a heavy drinker, fre-
quently found stumbling home disoriented and the worse language in the Indo-European family. Several forms of
for wear in the early hours of morning by fellow citizens. Latin existed, and the language evolved considerably over
time, eventually becoming the Romance languages spo-
During the Imperial period, staple food of the lower class
ken today.
Romans (plebeians) was vegetable porridge and bread,
and occasionally fish, meat, olives and fruits. Sometimes, Initially a highly inflectional and synthetic language, older
subsidized or free foods were distributed in cities. The forms of Latin rely little on word order, conveying mean-
patrician’s aristocracy had elaborate dinners, with parties ing through a system of affixes attached to word stems.
and wines and a variety of comestibles. Sometimes, danc- Like other Indo-European languages, Latin gradually be-
ing girls would entertain the diners. Women and children came much more analytic over time and acquired conven-
ate separately, but in the later Empire period, with per- tionalized word orders as it lost more and more of its case
missiveness creeping in, even decent women would attend system and associated inflections. Its alphabet, the Latin
such dinner parties. alphabet, is based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is in
turn derived from the Greek alphabet. The Latin alpha-
bet is still used today to write most European and many
1.3 Education other languages.
Most of the surviving Latin literature consists almost en-
Main article: Roman school tirely of Classical Latin. In the eastern half of the Roman
Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire; Greek was
Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 the main lingua franca as it had been since the time of
BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the Alexander the Great, while Latin was mostly used by the
next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to Roman administration and its soldiers. Eventually Greek
learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By would supplant Latin as both the official written and spo-
the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, ken language of the Eastern Roman Empire, while the
grammar and literature, followed by training for public various dialects of Vulgar Latin used in the Western Ro-
speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt man Empire evolved into the modern Romance languages
and good orators commanded respect; to become an ef- still used today.
fective orator was one of the objectives of education and The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin
learning. Poor children could not afford education. In throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved
some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for im- and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting
3.1 Literature 5

into a number of distinct Romance languages beginning

in around the 9th century. Many of these languages,
including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and
Spanish, flourished, the differences between them grow-
ing greater over time.
Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in
origin—Britannia was a Roman province, but the Ro-
man presence in Britain had effectively disappeared by
the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions—English today
borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words.
Old English borrowings were relatively sparse and drew
mainly from ecclesiastical usage after the Christianiza-
tion of England. When William the Conqueror invaded
England from Normandy in 1066, he brought with him
a considerable number of retainers who spoke Anglo-
Norman French, a Romance language derived from
Latin. Anglo-Norman French remained the language of
the English upper classes for centuries, and the number of
Latinate words in English increased immensely through Mosaic depicting a theatrical troupe preparing for a performance
borrowing during this Middle English period. More re-
cently, during the Modern English period, the revival of
authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and
interest in classical culture during the Renaissance led to
tragedy.
a great deal of conscious adaptation of words from Clas-
sical Latin authors into English. During the reign of the early emperors of Rome there
was a golden age of historical literature. Works such
Although Latin is an extinct language with very few
as the 'Histories' of Tacitus, the 'Gallic Wars' by Julius
contemporary fluent speakers, it remains in use in
Caesar and 'History of Rome' by Livy have been passed
many ways. In particular, Latin has survived through
down through generations. Unfortunately, in the case of
Ecclesiastical Latin, the traditional language of the
Livy, much of the script has been lost and it is left with a
Roman Catholic Church and one of the official lan-
few specific areas: the founding of the city, the war with
guages of the Vatican City. Although distinct from both
Hannibal, and its aftermath.
Classical and Vulgar Latin in a number of ways, Ec-
clesiastical Latin was more stable than typical Medieval Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His
Latin. More Classical sensibilities eventually re-emerged Aeneid was produced at the request of Maecenas and tells
in the Renaissance with Humanist Latin. Due to both the the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settle-
prevalence of Christianity and the enduring influence of ment of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius,
the Roman civilization, Latin became western Europe’s in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate
lingua franca, a language used to cross international bor- science in an epic poem. Some of his science seems re-
ders, such as for academic and diplomatic usage. A deep markably modern, but other ideas, especially his theory
knowledge of classical Latin was a standard part of the of light, are no longer accepted. Later Ovid produced
educational curriculum in many western countries until his Metamorphoses, written in dactylic hexameter verse,
well into the 20th century, and is still taught in many the meter of epic, attempting a complete mythology from
schools today. Although it was eventually supplanted in the creation of the earth to his own time. He unifies his
this respect by French in the 19th century and English in subject matter through the theme of metamorphosis. It
the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, was noted in classical times that Ovid’s work lacked the
legal, and scientific terminology, and in academia in gen- gravitas possessed by traditional epic poetry.
eral. Catullus and the associated group of neoteric poets pro-
duced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which ex-
perimented with poetic forms challenging tradition. Cat-
3 The Arts ullus was also the first Roman poet to produce love poetry,
seemingly autobiographical, which depicts an affair with
a woman called Lesbia. Under the reign of the Emperor
3.1 Literature
Augustus, Horace continued the tradition of shorter po-
Main article: Roman literature ems, with his Odes and Epodes. Martial, writing under
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced the Emperor Domitian, was a famed author of epigrams,
heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works cur- poems which were often abusive and censured public fig-
rently discovered are of historical epics telling the early ures.
military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, The genre of satire was traditionally regarded as a Ro-
6 3 THE ARTS

man innovation, and satires were written by, among oth- Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and
ers, Juvenal and Persius. Some of the most popular plays classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of real-
of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of ism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan pe-
Terence, a freed Roman slave captured during the First riods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent,
Punic War. created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements
A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman au- were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Ro-
thors in the early Republic was political or satirical in na- man victories.
ture. The rhetorical works of Cicero, a self-distinguished
linguist, translator, and philosopher, in particular, were 3.3 Music
popular. In addition, Cicero’s personal letters are con-
sidered to be one of the best bodies of correspondence Main article: Music of ancient Rome
recorded in antiquity.

Music was a major part everyday life in ancient Rome.

3.2 Visual art
Main article: Roman art
Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influ-
ences, particularly in the practice of political painting.
In the 3rd century BCE, Greek art taken as booty from
wars became popular, and many Roman homes were dec-
orated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from
the remains at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cul-
tures spanning the Roman world.
Many private and public events were accompanied by
music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades
and manoeuvres. In a discussion of any ancient music,
however, non-specialists and even many musicians have
to be reminded that much of what makes our modern mu-
sic familiar to us is the result of developments only within
the last 1000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, har-
mony, and even the instruments we use would not be fa-
miliar to Romans who made and listened to music many
centuries earlier.
Some of the instruments used in Roman music are the
Tuba, Cornu, Aulos, Askaules, Flute, Panpipes, Lyre,
Lute, Cithara, Timpani, Aulos, Auloi, Drums, Hydraulis
and the Sistrum.

3.4 Architecture
Main article: Roman architecture
In its initial stages, the ancient Roman architecture re-

The Colosseum in Rome

flected elements of architectural styles of the Etruscans

The so-called Primavera of Stabiae, perhaps the goddess Flora
An early Roman style of note was “Incrustation”, in which
the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble col-
ored marble. Another style consisted of painting interiors
as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants,
animals, and buildings.
and the Greeks. Over a period of time, the style was mod-
ified in tune with their urban requirements, and civil engi-
neering and building construction technology became de-
veloped and refined. The Roman concrete has remained
a riddle,[2] and even after more than two thousand years
some ancient Roman structures still stand magnificently,
like the Pantheon (with one of the largest single span
domes in the world) located in the business district of to-
day’s Rome.
 7

The architectural style of the capital city of ancient Rome spent a deal of time there.
was emulated by other urban centers under Roman con-
trol and influence,[3] like the Verona Arena, Verona, Italy;
Arch of Hadrian, Athens, Greece; Temple of Hadrian,
Ephesos, Turkey; a Theatre at Orange, France; and at
5 Religion
several other locations, for example, Lepcis Magna, lo-
cated in Libya.[4] Roman cities were well planned, effi- Main article: Religion in ancient Rome
ciently managed and neatly maintained. Palaces, private
dwellings and villas, were elaborately designed and town The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious,
planning was comprehensive with provisions for differ- and attributed their success as a world power to their col-
ent activities by the urban resident population, and for lective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with
countless migratory population of travelers, traders and the gods. According to legendary history, most of Rome’s
visitors passing through their cities. Marcus Vitruvius religious institutions could be traced to its founders, par-
Pollio, a 1st-century BCE Roman architect’s treatise “De ticularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of
architectura,” with various sections, dealing with urban Rome, who negotiated directly with the gods. This ar-
planning, building materials, temple construction, public chaic religion was the foundation of the mos maiorum,
and private buildings, and hydraulics, remained a classic “the way of the ancestors” or simply “tradition”, viewed
text until the Renaissance. as central to Roman identity.
The priesthoods of public religion were held by members
of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to
4 Sports and entertainment "separation of church and state" in ancient Rome. Dur-
ing the Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC), the same men
The ancient city of Rome had a place called the Cam- who were elected public officials served as augurs and
pus, a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers, which pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led polit-
was located near the Tiber river. Later, the Campus ically active lives. Julius Caesar became Pontifex Max-
became Rome’s track and field playground, which even imus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the
Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries
Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar grounds were de- as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman
veloped in several other urban centers and military settle- expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman
ments. triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the
victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness
In the campus, the youth assembled to play, exercise, and to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his
indulge in appropriate sports, which included jumping, spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just
wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when
swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power,
countryside, pastimes also included fishing and hunting. many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment
Females did not participate in these activities. Ball play- of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success.
ing was a popular sport and ancient Romans had several
ball games, which included Handball (Expulsim Ludere), Roman religion was thus practical and contractual, based
field hockey, catch, and some form of Football. on the principle of do ut des, “I give that you might give.”
Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice
Board games played in ancient Rome included dice
of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, al-
(Tesserae or tali), Roman chess (Latrunculi), Ro- though Latin literature preserves learned speculation on
man Checkers (Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and
the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs.
ludus duodecim scriptorum and tabula, predecessors of Even the most skeptical among Rome’s intellectual elite
backgammon. such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source
There were several other activities to keep people en- of social order.
gaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical perfor- For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life.[6]
mances, public executions and gladiatorial combat. In the Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and
Colosseum, Rome’s amphitheatre, 60,000 persons could libations to the family’s domestic deities were offered.
be accommodated. There are also accounts of the Colos- Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs
seum’s floor being flooded to hold mock naval battles for and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was
the public to watch. structured around religious observances. In the Imperial
In addition to these, Romans also spent their share of time era, as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to
in bars and brothels, and graffiti[5] carved into the walls religious festivals and games (ludi).[7] Women, slaves,
of these buildings was common. Based on the number and children all participated in a range of religious ac-
of messages found on bars, brothels, and bathhouses, it’s tivities. Some public rituals could be conducted only
clear that they were popular places of leisure and people by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome’s
8 6 PHILOSOPHY

most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestal Vir- cestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every
gins, who tended Rome’s sacred hearth for centuries, until individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways
disbanded under Christian domination. Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and culti-
The Romans are known for the great number of deities vated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the
they honored. The presence of Greeks on the Italian Empire. Rejection of the state religion was tantamount
peninsula from the beginning of the historical period in- to treason. This was the context for Rome’s conflict with
fluenced Roman culture, introducing some religious prac- Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form
tices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. of atheism and novel superstitio.
The Romans looked for common ground between their From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers began
major gods and those of the Greeks, adapting Greek to condemn the diverse religions practiced throughout the
myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman Empire collectively as “pagan.”[12] In the early 4th cen-
art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, par- tury, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert
ticularly on the practice of augury, since Rome had once to Christianity, launching the era of Christian hegemony.
been ruled by Etruscan kings. The emperor Julian made a short-lived attempt to revive
Imported mystery religions, which offered initiates sal- traditional and Hellenistic religion and to affirm the spe-
vation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice cial status of Judaism, but in 391 under Theodosius I
for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on Nicene Christianity became the official state church of
one’s family rites and participating in public religion. The the Roman Empire, to the exclusion of all others. Pleas
mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the sen-
conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspi- ator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected, and Christian
cion as characteristic of "magic", conspiracy (coniura- monotheism became a feature of imperial domination.
tio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes Heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclu-
brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who sion from public life or persecution, but Rome’s original
seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity, as with religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influ-
the senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC. enced Christian forms,[13] and many pre-Christian beliefs
and practices survived in Christian festivals and local tra-
As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the ditions.
Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to ab-
sorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than
try to eradicate them,[8] since they believed that preserv-
ing tradition promoted social stability.[9] One way that 6 Philosophy
Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting
their religious heritage, building temples to local deities
that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Ro-
man religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record
the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, in-
cluding dedications made by Romans to local gods.[10] By
the height of the Empire, numerous international deities
were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even
the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis,
Epona, and gods of solar monism such as Mithras and
Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Be-
cause Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one
god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an is-
sue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic
systems.[11] The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed dif-
ficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise
and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to
intractable conflict.
In the wake of the Republic’s collapse, state religion
had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors.
Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the Academy of Plato
of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revival-
ism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the secu- Two major philosophical schools of thought that de-
rity of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of rived from Greek religion and philosophy that became
the emperor. So-called “emperor worship” expanded on prominent in Rome in the 1st and 2nd century AD was
a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the an- Cynicism and Stoicism which, according to Cora Lutz
were “fairly well merged” in the early years of the Roman

Empire. Cynicism taught that civilization was corrupt
and people needed to break away from it and its trap-
pings and Stoicism taught that one must give up all earthly
goods by remaining detached from civilization and help
others. Because of their negative views on civilization
and of their way of life, in where many of them just wore
a dirty cloak, carried a staff, and a coin purse, and slept
outdoors, they were the targets of the Roman aristocracy
and of the emperor and many were persecuted by the Ro-
man government for being “subversive”. The philosopher
Lucian attacked the Cynics in his book “The Philoso-
phies for Sale” in which he mocked the Cynics by stating
“First...stripping you of your luxury...I will put a cloak on
you...Next I will compel you to undergo pains and hard-
ships, sleeping on the ground, drinking nothing but wa-
ter...Leading this life you will say that you are happier
than the Great King...Frequent the most crowded market
place...and in [it] desire to be solitary and uncommunica-
tive...”
7 See also
• Ancient Rome
• Classical antiquity
• Gallo-Roman culture
• Mos maiorum
• Roman Britain
• Romanization
• Romanization of Hispania
• Sexuality in ancient Rome
• Social class in ancient Rome
• Theatre of ancient Rome
• Roman graffiti
8 References
[1] E.M. Jellinek, Drinkers and Alcoholics in Ancient Rome.
[2] The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete, By David
Moore, P.E., 1995, Retired Professional Engineer, Bu-
reau of Reclamation (This article first appeared in “The
Spillway” a newsletter of the US Dept. of the Interior,
Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region, Febru-
ary, 1993)
[3] “Roman Art and Architecture”. UCCS.edu. Archived
from the original on September 8, 2006. Retrieved July
14, 2013.
[4] Lepcis Magna - Window on the Roman World in North
Africa
9
[5] Harvey, Brian. “Graffiti from Pompeii”. Graffiti from
Pompeii. Retrieved February 23, 2016.
[6] Jörg Rüpke, “Roman Religion – Religions of Rome,” in A
Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 4.
[7] Matthew Bunson, A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Ox-
ford University Press, 1995), p. 246.
[8] “This mentality,” notes John T. Koch, “lay at the core of
the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Ro-
man Empire possible"; entry on “Interpretatio romana,”
in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio,
2006), p. 974.
[9] Rüpke, “Roman Religion – Religions of Rome,” p. 4;
Benjamin H. Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classi-
cal Antiquity (Princeton University Press, 2004, 2006),
p. 449; W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the
Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to
Donatus (Doubleday, 1967), p. 106.
[10] Janet Huskinson, Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity
and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), p.
261.
[11] A classic essay on this topic is Arnaldo Momigliano, “The
Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State,”
Classical Philology 81.4 (1986) 285–297.
[12] See Peter Brown, in Bowersock et al, Late antiquity: a
guide to the postclassical world, Harvard University Press,
(1999), for “pagan” as a mark of socio-religious inferiority
in Latin Christian polemic:
[13] Stefan Heid, “The Romanness of Roman Christianity,” in
A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp.
406–426; on vocabulary in particular, Robert Schilling,
“The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion”, Roman
and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press,
1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 110.
9 Bibliography
• Elizabeth S. Cohen, Honor and Gender in the Streets
of Early Modern Rome, The Journal of Interdisci-
plinary History, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Spring, 1992), pp.
597-625
• Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire
• Tom Holland, The Last Years of the Roman Republic
ISBN 0-385-50313-X
• Ramsay MacMullen, 2000. Romanization in the
Time of Augustus (Yale University Press)
• Paul Veyne, editor, 1992. A History of Private Life:
I From Pagan Rome to Byzantium (Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press)
• Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2008. Nachtleben im Alten
Rom (Primusverlag)
10 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2005. Die Weinkultur der

Römer
• J.H. D'Arms, 1995. Heavy drinking and drunken-
ness in the Roman world, in O.Murray In Vino Ver-
itas

10 External links
• An interactive Roman map

• Rome Reborn − A Video Tour through Ancient

Rome based on a digital model
 11

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Bain, Espoo, Storm Rider, Wendell, Alansohn, Chino, Mo0, Conocimiento, ChristopherWillis, 119, Wtmitchell, EAi, Jguk, Bloody~enwiki,
Fdewaele, Kelly Martin, Pekinensis, Simetrical, Woohookitty, Camw, PoccilScript, Jacobolus, Thomas Ruefner, Clemmy, Bkwillwm, Cb-
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tle, Ocatecir, Ckatz, MarkSutton, Kyoko, Neddyseagoon, H, DabMachine, Pauric, Iridescent, Alessandro57, Zmmz, Igoldste, Shoshonna,
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