Formulas for IPhO 7.

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β II General recommendations 4. Motion of a rigid body. a) vA cos α =
Version: July 4, 2018 cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β vB cos β; ~vA , ~vB — velocities of pts. A and
tan(α ± β) = (tan α + tan β)/(1 ∓ tan α tan β) 1. Check all formulas for veracity: a) examine B; α, β — angles formed by ~vA , ~vB with line
I Mathematics cos2 α = 1+cos 2α
, sin2 α = 1−cos 2α dimensions; b) test simple special cases (two AB. b) The instantaneous center of rotation (6=
2 2
cos(α+β)+cos(α−β) parameters are equal, one param. tends to 0 center of curvature of material pt. trajectories!)
1. Taylor series (truncate for approximations): cos α cos β = 2 , ... or ∞); c) verify the plausibility of solution’s can be found as the intersection pt. of perpendic-
cos α + cos β = 2(cos 2 + cos α−β
α+β
2 ), . . . .
X (n) n
F (x) = F (x0 ) + F (x0 )(x − x0 ) /n! qualitative behaviour. ulars to ~vA and ~vB , or (if ~vA , ~vB ⊥ AB) as the
Special case — linear approximation:
8. An angle inscribed in a circle is half of the 2. If there is an extraordinary coincidence in intersection pt. of AB with the line connecting
central angle that subtends the same arc on the problem text (e.g. two things are equal) endpoints of ~vA and ~vB .
F (x) ≈ F (x0 ) + F 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ) the circle. Conclusions: hypotenuse of a right then the key to the solution might be there.
Some examples for |x|  1: triangle is the diameter of its circumcircle; if
5. Non-inertial reference frames:
3. Read carefully the recommendations in the ~v2 = ~v0 + ~v1 , ~a2 = ~a0 + ~a1 + ω 2 R~ + ~aCor
sin x ≈ x, cos x ≈ 1 − x2 /2, ex ≈ 1 + x the angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, problem’s text. Pay attention to the problem’s Note: ~aCor ⊥ ~v1 , ω ~ ; ~aCor = 0 if ~v1 = 0.
ln(1 + x) ≈ x, (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx it is a cyclic quadrilateral. formulation — insignificant details may carry
6∗ . Ballistic problem: reachable region
2. Perturbation method: find the solution itera- 9.
1
p Surface area of a triangle = 2 aha = pr = vital information. If you have solved for some
y ≤ v02 /(2g) − gx2 /2v02 .
tively using the solution to the ”non-perturbed” p(p − a)(p − b)(p − c) = abc/4R. time unsuccessfully, then read the text again —
For an optimal ballistic trajectory, initial and
(directly solvable) problem as the 0th approxi- 10. Triangle’s centroid: intersection point of perhaps you misunderstood the problem.
final velocities are perpendicular.
mation; corrections for the next approximation medians, divides medians to 2:1. 4. Postpone long and time-consuming math- 7. For finding fastest paths, Fermat’s and Huy-
are calculated on the basis on the previous one. 11∗ . Vector approach to geometry problems. ematical calculations to the very end (when
gens’s principles can be used.
3. Solution of the linear differential equation 12. Taking derivatives: everything else is done) while writing down all
the initial equations which need to be simplified. 8. To find a vector (velocity, acceleration), it
with constant coefficients ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0: (f g)0 = f g 0 + f 0 g, f [g(x)]0 = f 0 [g(x)]g 0 is enough to find its direction and a projection
y = A exp(λ1 x) + B exp(λ2 x), (sin x)0 = cos x, (cos x)0 = − sin x 5. If the problem seems to be hopelessly diffi- to a single (possibly inclined) axes.
(e ) = ex , (ln x)0 = 1/x, (xn )0 = nxn−1
x 0 cult, it has usually a very simple solution (and a
where λ1,2 is the solution of the characteristic simple answer). This is valid only for Olympiad
2
equation aλ + bλ + c = 0 if λ1 6= λ2 . If the (arctan x)0 = 1/(1 + x2p )
problems, which are definitely solvable. IV Mechanics
solution of the characteristic equation is com- (arcsin x)0 = −(arccos x)0 = 1/ 1 − x2
plex, while a, b and c are real numbers, then 13. Integration: the formulas are the same as 6. In experiments a) sketch the experimental 1.For a 2D equilibrium of a rigid body: 2
λ1,2 = γ ± iω and scheme even if you don’t have time for measure- eqns. for force, 1 eq. for torque. 1 (2) eq. for
for derivatives, but with swapped left-hand-side
ments; b) think, how to increase the precision of force can be substituted with 1 (2) for torque.
y = Ceγx sin(ωx + ϕ0 ). and rhs. (inverse operation!), e.g.
the results; c) write down (as a table) all your Torque is often better — “boring” forces can
Z
4. Complex numbers xn dx = xn+1 /(n + 1). direct measurements. be eliminated by a proper choice of origin. If
z = a + bi = |z|eiϕ , z̄ = a − ib = |z|e−iϕ Special case forces are applied only to 2 points, the (net)
Z of the substitution method:
b III Kinematics force application lines coincide; for 3 points, the
|z|2 = z z̄ = a2 + b2 , ϕ = arg z = arcsin f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b)/a.
|z| 3 lines meet at a single point.
Rez = (z + z̄)/2, Imz = (z − z̄)/2 1. For a point or for a translational motion of 2. Normal force and friction force can be com-
14. Conic sections: a11 x2 + 2a12 xy + a22 y 2 + a rigid body (integral → area under a graph):
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 a1 x + a2 y + a0 = 0 with a11 = a22 — circle; Z Z bined into a single force, applied to the contact
eiϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ x
d~ point under angle arctan µ with respect to the
iϕ −iϕ iϕ −iϕ
with a11 ·(a11 a22 −a212 ) > 0 — ellipse, . . . < 0 — ~v = , ~
x= ~v dt (x = vx dt etc.)
cos ϕ = e +e , sin ϕ = e −e hyperbola, with a11 a22 = a212 — parabola. El- dt normal force.
2 2i
d2 ~ 3. Newton’s 2nd law for transl. and rot. motion:
Z
5. Cross and dot products of vectors are dis- lipse: l1 + l2 = 2a, α1 = α2 , A = πab; hy- d~v x
~a = = 2 , ~v = ~adt ~ = m~a, M ~ = I~ ~ = ~r × F ~ ).
tributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac. perbola: l1 − l2 = 2a, α1 + α2 = 0; parabola: dt Z dt F ε (M
~
Z Z
l + h = const, α1 = α2 . v For 2D geometry M and ~
ε are essentially scalars
~a · ~b = ~b · ~a = ax bx + ay by + . . . = ab cos ϕ t= vx−1 dx = a−1
x dvx , x =
x
dvx
15. Numerical methods. Newton’s iterative ax and M = F l = Ft r, where l is the arm of a force.
|~a × ~b| = ab sin ϕ; ~a × ~b = −~b × ~a ⊥ ~a, ~b method for finding roots f (x) = 0: If a = Const., then previous integrals can be 4. Generalized coordinates. Let the system’s
~a × ~b = (ay bz − by az )~ex + (az bx − bz ax )~ey + . . . xn+1 = xn − f (xn )/f 0 (xn ). found easily, e.g. state be defined by a single parameter ξ and
~a × [~b × ~c] = ~b(~a · ~c) − ~c(~a · ~b). Trapezoidal
Z b rule for approximate integration: x = v0 t + at2 /2 = (v 2 − v02 )/2a. its time derivative ξ˙ so that the pot. energy
Mixed prod. (volume of parallelep. def. by 3 b−a ˙2
f (x)dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + . . . 2. Rotational motion — analogous to the trans- Π¨ = Π(ξ) and kin. en. K = µξ /2; then
vec.): 2n µξ = −dΠ(ξ)/dξ. (Hence for transl. motion:
a lational one: ω = dϕ/dt, ε = dω/dt;
(~a, ~b, ~c) ≡ (~a · [~b × ~c]) = ([~a × ~b] · ~c) = (~b, ~c, ~a). +2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )] 2
force is the derivative of pot. en.)
16. Derivatives and integrals of vectors: differ- ~a = ~τ dv/dt + ~nv /R
6. Cosine and sine laws: 5. If the X system consists
X of massX points mi :
entiate/integrate each component; alternatively 3. Curvilinear motion — same as point 1, but ~rc = mi~ri / mj , P~ = mi~vi
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos ϕ differentiate by applying the triangle rule for the vectors are to be replaced by linear velocities, X X
a/ sin α = b/ sin β = 2R difference of two infinitesimally close vectors. accelerations and path lengths. ~ =
L mi~ri × ~vi , K = mi vi2 /2
 Z
Iz =
X
mi (x2i + yi2 ) = (x2 + y 2 )dm. mom. of one of the bodies with respect to the V Oscillations and waves VI Geometrical optics.
impact point, d) total energy (for elastic colli- Photometry.
6. In a frame where the mass center’s velocity sions); in case of friction, kin. en. is conserved 1. Damped oscillator:
is ~vc (index c denotes quantities rel. to the mass only along the axis ⊥ to the friction force. Also: ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω02 x = 0 (γ < ω0 ). 1.
Fermat’s principle: waves path from point
center): e) if the sliding stops during the impact, the Solution of this equation is (cf. I.2.): A to point B is such that the wave travels the
p
~ =L
L ~ c + MΣ R~ c × ~vc , K = Kc + MΣ vc2 /2 final velocities of the contact points will have x = x0 e−γt sin(t ω02 − γ 2 − ϕ0 ). least time.
~ =P ~c + MΣ~vc equal projections to the contact plane; f) if slid- 2. Snell’s law:
P
ing doesn’t stop, the momentum delivered from
2. Eq. of motion
P for a system of coupled oscil-
7. Steiner’s theorem is analogous (b — distance one body to the other forms angle arctan µ with
lators: ẍi = j aij xj . sin α1 / sin α2 = n2 /n1 = v1 /v2 .
of the mass center from rot. axis): I = Ic + mb2 . 3. A system of N coupled oscillators has N
the normal of the contact plane. 3. If refraction index changes continuously,
8. With P~ and L ~ from pt. 5, Newton’s 2nd law:
17. Every motion of a rigid body can be repre- different eigenmodes when all the oscillators then we imaginarily divide the media into lay-
F~Σ = dP~ /dt, M ~ Σ = dL/dt
~ oscillate with the same frequency ωi , xj =
sented as a rotation around the instantaneous ers of constant n and apply Snell’s law. Light
9∗ . Additionally to pt. 5, the mom. of inertia center of rotation C (in terms of velocities of xj0 sin(ωi t + ϕij ), and N eigenfrequencies ωi ray can travel along a layer of constant n, if
rel. to the z-axis through the mass center can the body points). NB! Distance of a body point (which can be multiple, ωi = ωj ). General solu- the requirement of total internal reflection is
be found as Iz0 = i,j mi mj [(xi − xj )2 + (yi − tion (with 2N integration constants Xi and φi ) marginally satisfied, n0 = n/r (where r is the
P
P from C 6= to the radius of curvature of the
is a superposition of all the eigenmotions : curvature radius).
yj )2 ]/2MΣ . trajectory of P . X
10.
P Mom. of inertia rel. to the origin θ = 18. Tension in a string: for a massive hang- xj = Xi xj0 sin(ωi t + ϕij + φi ) 4. If refraction index depends only on z, the
mi~ri2 is useful for calculating Iz of 2D bodies ing string, tension’s horizontal component is i photon’s mom. px , py , and en. are conserved:
or bodies with central symmetry using 2θ = constant and vertical changes according to the 4. If a system described with a generalized kx , ky = Const., |~k|/n = Const.
Ix + Iy + Iz . string’s mass underneath. Pressure force (per coordinate ξ (cf IV-2) and K = µξ˙2 /2 has an
11. Physical pendulum with a reduced length unit length) of a string resting on a smooth equilibrium state at ξ = 0, for small oscilla- 5. The thin lens equation (pay attention to
˜
l: surface is determined by its radius of curvature tions Π(ξ) ≈ κξ 2 /2 [where κ = Π00 (0)] so that signs):
ω 2 (l) = g/(l and tension: N = T /R. Analogy: surface ten- ω 2 = κ/µ. 1/a + 1/b = 1/f ≡ D.
q + I/ml), sion pressure p = 2σ/R; to derive, study the
˜
ω(l) = ω(l − l) = g/˜ l, ˜ l = l + I/ml
5. The phase of a wave at pt. x, t is ϕ = 6. Newton’s eq. (x1 , x2 — distances of the
pressure force along the diameter. kx − ωt + ϕ0 , where k = 2π/λ is a wave vec- image and the object from the focal planes):
12. Coefficients for the momenta of inertia: 19. Liquid surface takes equipot. shape (ne- tor. The value at x, t is a0 cos ϕ = <a0 eiϕ . The x1 x2 = f 2 .
cylinder 12 , solid sphere 25 , thin spherical shell glecting σ); in incompr. liquid, p = p0 − w, phase velocity is vf = νλ = ω/k and group 7. Parallax method for finding the position of
2 1 1 1 w—vol. dens. of pot. en. (for a gas, see X-6).
3 , rod 12 (rel. to endpoint 3 ), square 6 .
velocity vg = dω/dk. an image: find such a pos. for a pencil’s tip
13. Often applicable conservation laws: 20. Bernoulli law for incompr. fluid: 6. For linear waves (electromagn. w., small- that it wouldn’t shift with resp. to the image
energy (elastic bodies, no friction), 1 amplit. sound- and water w.) any pulse can be when moving perpendicularly the position of
p + ρv 2 + ρϕ = const; considered as a superpos. of sinusoidal waves; a your eye.
momentum (no net external force; can hold only 2
along one axis), in homog. field, the gravit. potential ϕ = gh. standing w. is the sum of two identical counter- 8. Geometrical constructions for finding the
angular momentum (no net ext. torque, e.g. the For gas of specific heat cp [J/kg], propagating w.: paths of light rays through lenses:
arms of ext. forces are 0 (can be written rel. to 1 2 ei(kx−ωt) + ei(−kx−ωt) = 2e−iωt cos kx. a) ray passing the lens center does not refract;
2 or 3 pts., then substitutes conservation of lin. v + cp T = const. b) ray k to the optical axis passes through the
mom.).
2 7. Speed of sound in a gas
focus;
21∗ .
p p p
Momentum continuity by straight stream- cs = (∂p/∂ρ)adiab = γp/ρ = v̄ γ/3.
14. Additional forces in non-inertial frames of lines: p + ρv 2 = const.
c) after refr., initially k rays meet at the focal
ref.: inertial force −m~a, centrifugal force mω 2 R~ 8. Speed of sound in elastic material cs = plane;
22∗ . Adiabatic invariant: if the relative change
p
and Coriolis force∗ 2m~v × Ω ~ (better to avoid it; E/ρ. d) image of a plane is a plane; these two planes
being ⊥ to the velocity, it does not create any of the parameters of an oscillating system is meet at the plane of the lens.
small during one period, the area of the loop
9. p (h  λ) water:
Sp. of waves in shallow
√
work).
drawn on the phase plane (ie. in p-x coordi- v= gh; in a string: v = T /ρlin . 9. Luminous flux Φ [unit: lumen (lm)] mea-
15. Tilted coordinates: for a motion on an nates) is conserved with a very high accuracy. 1+v /c sures the energy of light (emitted, passing a
inclined plane, it is often practical to align axes 10. Doppler’s effect: ν = ν0 1−ukk /css . contour, etc), weighted according to the sensi-
along and ⊥ to the plane; gravit. acceleration 23. For studying stability use a) principle of 11. Huygens’ principle: wavefront can be con- tivity of an eye. Luminous intensity [candela
has then both x- and y- components. Axes may minimum potential energy or b) principle of (cd)] is the luminous flux (emitted by a source)
structed step by step, placing an imaginary
also be oblique (not ⊥ to each other), but then small virtual displacement. per solid angle: I = Φ/Ω. Illuminance [lux (lx)]
wave source in every point of previous wave
with ~v = vx~ex + vy ~ey , vx 6= to the x-projection 24∗ . Virial theorem for finite movement: front. Results are curves separated by distance is the luminous flux (falling onto a surface) per
of ~v . a) If F ∝ |~r|, then hKi = hΠi (time averages); ∆x = cs ∆t, where ∆t is time step and cs is the unit area: E = Φ/S.
16. Collision of 2 bodies: conserved are a) net b) If F ∝ |~r|−2 , then 2 hKi = − hΠi. velocity in given point. Waves travel perpendic- 10. Gauss theorem for luminous flux: the flux
momentum, b) net angular mom., c) angular 25. Tsiolkovsky rocket equation ∆v = u ln M m. ular to wavefront. through a closed surface surrounding the point
 X
Ii2 Ri . 5. ~ = e(~v × B
~ + E),
~ F ~ = I~ × Bl.
~
P
sources of intensity Ii is Φ = 4π Ii ; single- ing 5 plane waves (for left- and rightwards- P = |U ||I| cos(arg Z) = F
source-case: at a distance r, E = I/r2 . propagating waves before the device, in the dev. 6. From the Gauss’s and circulation laws:
and after the dev.) and tailoring these at the
6. √ times: τRC = RC, τLR =
Characteristic σ Iµ0
11. An experimental hint: if a grease stain on L/R, ωLC = 1/ LC. Relaxation to stationary charged wire: E = 2πε 0r
, DC: B = 2πr ;
a paper is as bright as the surrounding paper, region boundaries. σ
charged surface E = 2ε0 , current sheet B =
current distribution exponential, ∝ e−t/τ .
then the paper is equally illuminated from both 11. Coherent electromagnetic waves: electric µ0 j
7. Energy conservation for electric circuits: 2 ;
sides. fields are added; vector diagram can be used, inside a sphere (or infinite cylindrical surface)
angle between vectors is ∆W + Q = U q, where q is charge which has
pthe phase shift; NB! crossed a potential drop U ; work of emf is of homogeneous surface charge E = 0, inside a
dispersion: n = n(ω) = ε(ω) (usually µ ∼ = 1). cylindrical surface current k to the axes B = 0,
VII Wave optics Energy flux density (en. per unit area and time): A = Eq.
inside a ball (d = 3), cylinder (d = 2) or layer
1. Diffraction — method based on Huygens’ I = cnε0 E 2 = nµc 0 B 2 (E, B — RMS values). 8. WC = CU 2 /2, WL = LI 2 /2.
(d = 1) of homogeneous ρ or ~j:
principle: if obstacles cut the wavefront into 12. Malus’ law: for linearly polarized light 9. E = −dΦ/dt = −d(LI)/dt, Φ = BS.
10. Nonlinear elements: graphical method — E~ = ρ ~r; B ~ = 1 ~j × ~r
fragment(s), the wavefront can be divided into I = I0 cos2 ϕ, where ϕ is the angle between the dε0 dµ0
small pieces which serve as imaginary point-like polarization planes. find the solution in U -I coordinates as an inter-
(~r — radius vector from the centre).
light sources; the wave amplitude at the observ. 13. λ/4-plate: phase shift π/2 between linearly section point of a nonlinear curve and a line rep-
site will be the sum over the contributions of polarized components. resenting Ohm/Kirchoff laws. In case of many 7. Long solenoid: inside B = Inµµ0 , outside
these sources. intersection points study stability — some solu- 0; flux Φ = N BS and (with n = Nl ) induc-
14. Brewster’s angle: reflected and refracted tions are usually unstable. tance L = Φ/I = V n2 µµ0 . Short solenoid
2. Two slit interference (the slit width rays are ⊥; reflected ray is completely polarized;
d  a, λ): angles of maxima ϕmax = incidence angle tan ϕ = n. 11. Make use of short- and long-time limits. Bk = Inµµ 4π
0Ω
(Ω — solid angle).
B
arcsin(nλ/a), n ∈ Z; I ∝ cos2 (k a2 sin ϕ), where For tobservation  τRC or τLR , quasiequilibrium 8. Measuring magnetic field with a Rsmall coil
15. Diffr. with optical elements: no need to is reached: IC ≈ 0 (wire is “broken” near C) and ballistic galvanometer: q = E
k = 2π/λ. R dt =
calculate optical path lengths through lenses, and EL ≈ 0 (L is effectively short-circuited). For N S∆B/R.
3. Single slit: angles of minima ϕmin = prisms etc.: work simply with images. Particu-
arcsin(nλ/d), n ∈ Z, n 6= 0. NB! the central lar conclusion: biprism gives the same diffr. as tobservation  τRC or τLR , the charge leakage 9. Potential energy ofZ a system of charges:
maximum is double-wide. I ∝ sin2 (k d2 sin ϕ)/ϕ. a double slit. of C and current drop in L are small, ∆Q  Q X qi qj 1
and ∆I  I: C is “short-circuited” and L is Π=k = ϕ(~r)dq, dq = ρ(~r)dV.
4. Diffraction grating: the main maxima are 16∗ . Optical fibres: Mach-Zehnder interfer- “broken”. i>j
rij 2
the same as in pt. 2, the width of the main ometer is analogous to a double-slit diffraction;
maxima — the same as for pt. 3 with d being circular resonator — to Fabry-Pérot interferom- 12. If L 6= 0, then I(t) is a continuous function. 10. Force between parts of a uniformly charged
the net grating length. Spectral resolving power eter; Bragg filters work similarly to the X-ray 13. Through a superconducting contour, mag- sphere or cylindrical surface: substitute force
λ netic flux Φ = Const. In particular, with no due to charges with force due to hydrostatic
∆λ = nN , where n is the order number of the case. Single-mode fibres: ∆n/n ≈ 21 (λ/d)2 .
main max. and N — the number of slits. external B, LI = Const. pressure.
5. Resolving power of a spectral device: ∆λ λ
= 14. Mutual inductance: magnetic flux through 11. If all the charges are at the distance R (eg.
L VIII Circuits a contour Φ1 = L1 I1 + L12 I2 (I2 — current in at the center of an inhomogeneously charged
λ , where L is the optical path difference be-
tween the shortest and longest beams. 1. U = IR, P = U I √ contour). Theorems: L12 = L21 ≡ M ;
a second sphere or ring), ϕ = kQ/r.
6. Resolving power of a prism: ∆λ λ
= a dn . R =
X
Ri , R−1 =
X −1
Ri
M ≤ L1 L2 . 12. To find the net charge (or potential) in-
dλ series k duced by external charges, use the superpos.
7. Angular distance when two pts. are resolved
2. pr.: “smear” the charges to make the problem
in an ideal telescope (lens): ϕ = 1.22λ/d. For
Kirchoff’s
Xlaws: IX Electromagnetism
symmetric.
X
that angle, the center of one point falls onto the I = 0, U =0
node contour
1. F = kq1 q2 /r2 , Π = kq1 q2 /r — Kepler’s 13. Conductor shields charges and electric
first diffr. min. of the other point. laws are applicable (Ch. XII). fields, eg. charge distribution inside a hollow
8. Bragg theory: a set of k ion planes of a crys- 3. To reduce the number of eqns. for pt 2: ~ S~ = 0,
method of node potentials; method of loop cur- 2. Gauss’s
H
law: Bd sphere cannot be seen from outside (it seems
tal reflects X-rays if 2a sin α = kλ; a — distance I I as if there is a conducting ball carrying a total
between neighb. planes, α — glancing angle. rents; equivalent circuits (any 3-terminals ⇒ ∆ ~ ~ ~ = −4πGM.
εε0 EdS = Q, ~g dS charge Q)
9. Reflection from optically denser dielectric or Y ; 2-term. with emf ⇒ r and E in series).
4. Resistance of infinite chain: use self- 3. Circulation theorem 14. Capacitances: C = εε0 S/d (plane),
media: phase shift π. For semi-transparent thin 4πεε0 r(sphere), 2πεε0 l(ln R/r)−1 (coaxial).
films, φ→ + φ← = π; φ→ and φ← — phase similarity; resistance between neighbour nodes I I
~
Bdl
I
shifts between reflected and trasmitted waves of infinite grid: generalized method of electrical ~ ~
Edl = 0 (= Φ̇), = I, ~g d~l = 0. 15. Dipole moment:
µµ0 X
(arrows denote the direction of incidence). images. d~e = qi~ri = ~lq, d~µ = I S.
~
10. Fabry-Pérot interferometer: two k semi- 5. AC: apply pts. 1–4 while substituting R 4. Magnetic field caused by current element: 16. Energy and torque of a dipole:
with Z: ~
transp. mirrors with large reflectivity r (1−r 
ν 2a
~ = µµ0 I dl × ~er ;
dB W = −d~ · E~ (B),
~ M~ = d~ × E ~ (B).
~
1). Resolving power ∆ν ≈ λ(1−r) . Trans- ZR = R, ZC = 1/iωC, ZL = iωL; 4π r2
mission spectrum can be found by introduc- ϕ = arg Z, Ueff = |Z|Ieff hence, at the center of circular I: B = µ2r 0I
17. Dipole field: ϕ = kd~ · ~er /r ; E, B ∝ r−3 .
2
18. Forces acting on a dipole: F = (E ~ d~e )0 ,
F = (B ~ d~µ ) ; interaction between 2 dipoles:
0
F ∝ r−4 .
19. Point charge as a magn. dipole: dµ ∝ Φ ∝
v⊥2
/B is an adiab. inv (see IV-20).
20. Electric and magnetic images: grounded
(superconducting for magnets) planes act as mir-
rors. Field of a grounded (or isolated) sphere
can be found as a field of one (or two) fictive
charge(s) inside the sphere. The field in a planar
waveguide (slit between metallic plates) can be
obtained as a superposition of electromagnetic
plane waves.
21. Ball’s (cylinder’s) polarization in homo-
geneous (electric) field: superpos. of homoge-
neously charged (+ρ and −ρ) balls (cylinders),
d ∝ E.
22. Eddy currents: power dissipation density
∼ B 2 v 2 /ρ; momentum given during a single
pass: F τ ∼ B 2 a3 d/ρ (where d — thickness; a
— size).
23. Inside a superconductor and for fast pro-
cesses inside a conductor B = 0 and thus I = 0
(current flows in surface layer — skin effect).
24. Charge in homog. magnetic field B~ = B~ez
moves along a cycloid with drift speed v =
E/B = F/eB; generalized mom. is conserved
p0x = mvx − Byq, p0y = mvy + Bxq,
as well as gen. angular mom. L0 = L + 12 Bqr2 .
25. MHD generator (a — length along the
direction of E):~
E = vBa, r = ρa/bc.
26. Hysteresis: S-shaped curve (loop) in B-
H-coordinates (for a coil with core also B-I-
coord.): the loop area gives the thermal energy
dissipation density per one cycle).
27. Fields in matter: D ~ = εε0 E
~ = ε0 E
~ +P
where P ~ is dielectric polarization vector (vol-
ume density of dipole moment); H ~ = B/µµ
~ 0 =
~ 0 − J, ~ where J~ is magnetization vector (vol-
B/µ
ume density of magnetic moment).
28. In an interface between two substances Et ,
Dn (= εEt ), Ht (= Bt /µ) and Bn are continu-
ous.
29. Energy density: W = 12 (εε0 E 2 + B 2 /µµ0 ).
30. For µ  1, fieldlines of B are attracted to
the ferromagnetic (acts as a potential hole, cf.
pt. 28).
31. ~ = E/ρ.
Current density ~j = ne~v = σ E ~ XI Quantum mechanics 7. Properties of an ellipse: l1 + l2 = 2a (l1 , l2
32. Lenz’s law: system responds so as to op- — distances to the foci), α1 = α2 (light from one
1. p~ = h̄~k (|~p| = h/λ), E = h̄ω = hν. focus is reflected to the other), S = πab.
pose to changes.
2. Interference: as in wave optics. 8. A circle and an ellipse with a focus at the
3. Uncertainty (as a math. theorem): circle’s center can touch each other only at the
X Thermodynamics h̄ h̄ 1
∆p∆x ≥ , ∆E∆t ≥ , ∆ω∆t ≥ . longer axis.
1. pV = mµ RT 2 2 2 ∗
For qualitative estimates by non-smooth shapes, 9 . Runge-Lenz vector (the ellipticity vector):
2. Internal energy of one mole U = 2i RT . h serves better (∆p∆x ≈ h etc). ~ × ~v
L
~
ε= + ~er = Const.
3. Volume of one mole at standard cond. is 4. Spectra: hν = E n − E m ; width of spectral GM m
22,4 l. lines is related to lifetime: Γτ ≈ h̄.
XIII Theory of relativity
4. Adiabatic processes: slow as compared to 5. Oscillator’s (eg. molecule)1en. levels (with
sound speed, no heat exchange: pV γ = Const. eigenfrequency ν0 ): EnP = (n+ 2 )hν0 . For many
1. Lorentz transforms (rotation of 4D
(and T V γ−1 = Const.). eigenfrequencies: E = i hni νi .
space-time of Minkowski geometry), γ =
5. γ = cp /cv = (i + 2)/i. 6. Tunnelling effect: barrier Γ with width l 1/p1 − v2 /c2 :
6. Boltzmann’s−µgh/RT
distribution: is peasily penetrable, if Γτ ≈ h̄, where τ =
x0 = γ(x − vt), y 0 = y, t0 = γ(t − vx/c2 )
ρ = ρ0 e = ρ0 e−U/kT . l/ Γ/m.
7. Maxwell’s distribution (how many molecules 7. Bohr’s model: En ∝ −1/n2 . In a (clas- p0x = γ(px − mv), m0 = γ(m − px v/c2 )
sically calculated) circular orbit, there is an 2. Length of 4-vector:
2
have speed v) ∝ e−mv /2kT .
8. Atm. pressure: if ∆p  p,pthen ∆p = ρg∆h. integer number of wavelengths λ = h/mv. s2 = c2 t2 − x2 − y 2 − z 2
9. p = 13 mnv̄2 = nkT , v̄ = 3kT /m, 8. Compton effect — if photon is scattered m0 c = m2 c2 − p2x − p2y − p2z
2 2
ν = vnS. from an electron, photon’s ∆λ = λC (1 − cos θ). 3. Adding velocities:
10. Carnot’s cycle: 2 adiabats, 2 isotherms. 9. Photoeffect: A + mv /2 = hν (A - work
2
w = (u + v)/(1 + uv/c2 ).
of exit for electrons). I-U -graph: photocurrent
η = (T1 − T2 )/T1 ; derive using S-T -coordinates.
starts at the counter-voltage U = −(hν − A)/e,
4. Doppler effect:
11. Heat pump, inverse Carnot: η = T1T−T 1
. ν 0 = ν0 (1 − v/c)/(1 + v/c).
p
2 saturates for large forward voltages.
12. Entropy: dS = dQ/T . 10. Stefan-Boltzmann: P = σT 4 . 5. Minkowski space can be made Euclidean
13. I law of thermodynamics: δU = δQ + δA if time is imaginary (t → ict). Then, for rot.
14. II law of thermodynamics: ∆S ≥ 0 (and XII Kepler laws angle ϕ, tan ϕ = v/ic. Express sin ϕ, and cos ϕ
ηreal ≤ ηCarnot ). via tan ϕ, and apply the Euclidean geometry
15. GasZwork (look also p. 10) 1. F = GM m/r2 , Π = −GM m/r. formulae.
i 2. Gravitational interaction of 2 point masses 6. Shortening of length: l0 = l0 /γ.
A= pdV, adiabatic: A = ∆(pV )
2 (Kepler’s I law): trajectory of each of them is an 7. Lengthening of time: t0 = t0 γ.
16. Dalton’s law: p = pi .
P ellipse, parabola or hyperbola, with a focus at 8. Simultaneity is relative, ∆t = −γv∆x/c2 .
17. Boiling: pressure of saturated vapour the center of mass of the system. Derive from
R.-L. v. (pt 9). 9. F~ = d~p/dt [= dtd (m~v), where m = m0 γ].
pv = p0 ; at the interface betw. 2 liquids:
pv1 + pv2 = p0 . 3. Kepler’s II law (conserv. of angular mom.): 10. Ultrarelativistic
p approximation:
p v ≈ c,
~, for a point mass in a central force field, radius p ≈ mc, 1 − v 2 /c2 ≈ 2(1 − v/c).
18. Heat flux P = kS∆T /l (k — thermal vector covers equal areas in equal times.
conductivity); analogy to DC circuits (P corre- 11∗ . Lorentz tr. for E-B: B~ ||0 = B~ || , E~ ||0 = E~ || ,
sponds to I, ∆T to U , k to 1/ρ). 4. Kepler’s III law: for two point masses at ~
orbits in r−2 -force field, revolution peri- E 0
~⊥ ~ ⊥ +~v × B
~ ⊥ ), B~⊥0 ~ ⊥ −~v × E⊥ ).
19. Heat capacity: Q = c(T )dT . Solids: for elliptic = γ(E = γ(B
R
ods relate as the longer semiaxes to the power c2
low temperatures, c ∝ T 3 ; for high T , c = 3N k, of 3 :
where N — number of ions in crystal lattice. 2
T12 /T22 = a31 /a32 .
20. Surface tension: 5. Full energy (K + Π) of a body in a gravity
U = Sσ, F = lσ, p = 2σ/R.
21. Stefan-Boltzmann law (gray body): P = field: E = −GM m/2a.
∗
marks an advanced material.
4
εσT .
6. For small ellipticities ε = d/a  1, trajec- Corrections/suggestions ⇒ kalda@ioc.ee.
22. Wien’s law: fmax = AkB T /h (A ≈ 2.8), tories can be considered as having a circular Composed by J. Kalda, translated by U. Visk
0 0
λmax = hc/A kB T (A ≈ 5) shapes, with shifted foci. and J.K.