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How Does a Transistor Work | Transistor Basics about:reader?url=http://www.electronics-radio.com/articles/electronic...
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How Does a Transistor Work | Transistor Basics
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An easy to understand overview and tutorial about transistor basics and how a transistor
works, with links to pages with more in depth analysis.
Transistor Tutorial Includes:

Transistor basics Gain: Hfe, hfe & Beta Transistor specifications Transistor and diode numbering
codes Choosing replacement transistors
Transistors are at the very core of today's electronics technology. The development of the transistor has
resulted in many changes to the world.
The introduction of the transistor has enabled many technologies we take for granted today: everything
from portable transistor radios, through to cellular phones, and computers, remote operation, the
functionality we take for granted in current day automobiles, etc . . . . All these and many more everyday
items have all been made possible by the invention of the transistor.
Plastic leaded transistor selection
Today, transistor are available in many forms. There is the basic transistor in a leaded form or as a surface
mount transistor. But transistors are also widely used within integrated circuits. Most digital ICs use field
effect technology, but many analogue ICs use bipolar technology to provide the required performance.
Transistor development
Semiconductor technology is now well established but it has been used for over a hundred years. The first
semiconductor effects were noticed back in the early 1900s when the first wireless or radio sets were being
1 of 5 9/29/2016 3:59 AM
used. Various ideas were being investigated as detectors. Thermionic valve or vacuum tube technology was
introduced in 1904, but these devices were expensive, and also required powering by a battery. Soon
afterwards the Cat's Whisker detector was discovered. This consisted of a thin wire placed onto one of a
number of types of material. These materials are known today as semiconductors and form the basis of
modern electronics technology.
Note on Transistor History:
The bipolar transistor was invented by three researchers working at Bell Labroratories: John Bardeen,
Walter Brattain, and William Schockley. They had been working on an idea that used a field effect to
control the current in a semiconductor, but they were unable to make the idea work. They turned their
focus onto another possibility and made a three terminal device using two closely spaced point contacts on
a wafer of germanium. This idea worked and they were able to demonstrate it provided gain in late 1949.
Read more about Bipolar Transistor History
Old OC71 transistor
After the basic idea was developed, it took some time before semiconductor technology was adopted, but
once it was, it took off in a major way as we know today.
What is a bipolar transistor
A bipolar transistor needs to be differentiated from a field effect transistor. A bipolar transistor gains its
name from the fact that it uses both holes and electrons in its operation. Field effect transistors are unipolar
devices using one or either type of charge carrier.
A bipolar transistor, or more exactly a bipolar junction transistor, BJT, has two diode junctions which are
back to back. The bipolar transistor has three terminals, named the emitter, base and collector.
The transistor amplifies current - bipolar transistors are current devices, unlike thermionic valves vacuum
tubes, and FETs which are voltage devices. The current flowing in the base circuit affects the current
flowing between the collector and the emitter.
2 of 5 9/29/2016 3:59 AM
. . . . More in-depth bipolar junction transistor theory.
Basic transistor structure
The transistor is a three terminal device and consists of three distinct layers. Two of them are doped to give
one type of semiconductor and the there is the opposite type, i.e. two may be n-type and one p-type, or two
may be p-type and one may be n-type.. They are arranged so that the two similar layers of the transistor
sandwich the layer of the opposite type. As a result transistor are designated either P-N-P (PNP) types of
N-P-N (NPN) types according to the way they are made up.
Collector Collector
N P
P N
N P
Emitter Base Emitter Base
Transistor basic structure and circuit symbols
The names for the three electrodes widely used but their meanings are not always understood:
Base: The base of the transistor gains its name from the fact that in early transistors, this electrode
formed the base for the whole device. The earliest point contact transistors had two point contacts
placed onto the base material. This base material formed the base connection . . . and the name stuck.
Emitter: The emitter gains its name from the fact that it emits the charge carriers.
Collector: The collector gains its name from the fact that it collects the charge carriers.
For the operation of the transistor, it is essential that the base region is very thin. In today's transistors the
base may typically be only about 1µm across. It is the fact that the base region of the transistor is thin that is
the key to the operation of the device
. . . . More in-depth details of transistor structure & fabrication.
3 of 5 9/29/2016 3:59 AM
Transistor basics: operation
A transistor can be considered as two P-N junctions placed back to back. One of these, namely the base
emitter junction is forward biased, whilst the other, the base collector junction is reverse biased. It is found
that when a current is made to flow in the base emitter junction a larger current flows in the collector
circuit even though the base collector junction is reverse biased.
For clarity the example of an NPN transistor is taken. The same reasoning can be used for a PNP device,
except that holes are the majority carriers instead of electrons.
When current flows through the base emitter junction, electrons leave the emitter and flow into the base.
However the doping in this region is kept low and there are comparatively few holes available for
recombination. As a result most of the electrons are able to flow right through the base region and on into
the collector region, attracted by the positive potential.
Collector N Base current results

from recombination of
electrons with holes in
Base P base region
Emitter N
Electron flow
Basic transistor operation

Operation shown for NPN transistor
Only a small proportion of the electrons from the emitter combine with holes in the base region giving rise
to a current in the base-emitter circuit. This means that the collector current is much higher.
The ratio between the collector current and the base current is given the Greek symbol Β. For most small
signal transistors this may be in the region 50 to 500. In some cases it can be even higher. This means that
the collector current is typically between 50 and 500 times that flowing in the base. For a high power
transistor the value of Β is somewhat less: 20 is a fairly typical value.
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More Electronic Components:

Resistors Capacitors Diodes Transistor FET Thyristor / SCR Connectors Valves / Tubes
Return to Components menu . . .
5 of 5 9/29/2016 3:59 AM
Transistor History | Electronics+Radio about:reader?url=http://www.electronics-radio.com/articles/history/tran...
Transistor History | Electronics+Radio
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- history of the development of the transistor - how it was developed, the main names of
Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley.
History of the Valve / Tube Includes:
Transistor history Invention Development
The transistor history tells of a development that took many years. It built on many years of theoretical
research into semiconductors.
First semiconductor diodes arrived and these were able to deliver improved performance over thermionic
predecessors in some areas.
However the transistor history is a testament to the perseverance of the researchers who were finally
rewarded with the first semiconductor amplifying device.
Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley were the names that are remembered within the transistor history, but
there were many others along the way, who also contributed to the final invention of the bipolar transistor.
Old OC71 transistor
1 of 4 9/29/2016 4:12 AM
Transistor history foundations
The first foundations in the transistor history were set in place many years before. Even in the nineteenth
century it had been observed that a class of materials had some unusual electrical properties. These
semiconductors had a negative coefficient of resistivity, they were able to rectify electrical currents and they
exhibited a photoelectric effect.
Another early use of semiconductors was for the "cat's whiskers" which were detectors used in radio sets.
Although they were cheap, there were notoriously unreliable.
Although there was comparatively little interest in semiconductors at this stage of the transistor history
before the Second World War, but some developments did occur. Copper oxide and selenium rectifiers
started to be used, particularly in applications like battery chargers. The photoelectric effect was also
exploited in photographic exposure meters. However their use was relatively limited.
However some development of semiconductor devices occurred in the 1920s and 1930s, most of the
theoretical research into the sub-molecular physics was directed towards thermionic technology. This was
because even small advances in this field would produce large rewards and a handsome return on
investment.
Diode developments
One of the major motivators in the history of the transistor and the development of semiconductor
technology in general was the Second World War. One of the greatest advantages which Britain held over
Germany was the use of Radar. Operating on relatively high frequencies the need for high performance high
frequency components became even more acute. Semiconductor technology was a major key to
performance at the higher frequencies being used.
Old OA10 diode
Experts in all fields associated with the development of semiconductors from the UK and USA were quickly
assembled. Work started on producing point contact diodes.
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As the work progressed semiconductor diode technology made many strides forwards. Teams on both sides
of the conflict made developments which gave devices which a far superior performance to anything that
was available before the war.
Transistor work starts
As hostilities started to draw to a close, Bell Laboratories realised that there were major possibilities for
semiconductor technology. In the spring of 1945 a major meeting was called to discuss the future research
into them - this was a pivotal point in the transistor history. Later that year authorization was granted for
research to proceed to seek "new knowledge that could be used in the development of completely new and
improved components".
As a result a solid state physics group was set up under William Shockley and Stanley Morgan. Shockley
also headed up the semiconductor sub-group which was to include Brattain and Bardeen to make up the
trio who invented the transistor.
Transistor trio
The three main characters involved in the transistor history were:
William Shockley: He was born in London in 1910 of American parents. He only remained in
England for three years after which his parents returned with him to the U.S.A., settling near San
Francisco. Here he gained his first degree from the California Institute of Technology after which he
moved to the Massachussetts Institute of Technology to gain his Ph.D. in 1936.
After leaving University Shockley joined Bell Laboratories, initially working on electron diffraction.
In 1955 he moved on from Bell Labs to set up his own company called Shockley Semiconductors in
his home town of Palo Alto. This company attracted many other semiconductor experts. With the
influx of expertise several other companies started up in the area. One backed by the Fairchild
Camera and Instrument Company was started in 1957 by a number of Shockley's old employees.
This all had a snowball effect and before long this small area had the highest concentration of
semiconductor experts in the U.S.A.. Silicon Valley was born.
Walter Brattain: He spent his first few years in China, moving to Washington State when his
parents returned home. He took his first degree at Whitman College in Washington State, moving to
the University of Minnesota to gain his Ph.D..
After leaving university Brattain applied to Bell Laboratories but they turned his application down.
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Instead he went to work for the National Bureau of Standards. Brattain soon applied again to Bell,
and at the second attempt he was successful. After joining Bell he initially worked on copper oxide
and semiconductor rectifiers, giving him a good grounding in semiconductor technology. Brattain
remained at Bell until his retirement in 1967. During his retirement he held the post of Visiting
Professor at Whitman College until his death in 1987.
John Bardeen: He was the only one of the trio to be born in the U.S.A.. He was born in Wisconsin
in May 1908. Taking his first degree at the University of Wisconsin, he moved on to Princeton for his
Ph.D.. After taking up a fellowship at Harvard and a teaching post at Minnesota University he joined
the solid state physics group at Bell Laboratories in the Autumn of 1945.
In 1956 he received a Nobel Prize along with Shockley and Brattain for his work on the transistor,
but by this time he was involved in research into superconductors. It was in this area that he felt he
made his greatest achievements, and in 1972 he was awarded a second Nobel prize for this work.
In addition to his Nobel Prizes he received a number of other awards, including a gold medal from
the Soviet Academy for Science. Bardeen died at the age of 82 at the beginning of February 1991.
With the preparatory work done, and the team assembled, the transistor history moves onto the actual
invention of the transistor.
More History:
Radio history timeline History of the radio Ham radio history Coherer Crystal radio Magnetic
detector Spark transmitter Morse telegraph Valve / tube history Transistor Integrated circuit
Return to History menu . . .
4 of 4 9/29/2016 4:12 AM
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Transistor Theory | Bipolar Junction Transistor Theory
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The theory of operation of the bipolar junctions transistor involves many elements. We have
aimed to simplify it, but give a correct summary.

There are several different elements that govern the bipolar junction transistor theory.
Transistor theory of operation
A bipolar transistor can be operated in one of four different regimes dependent upon the bias levels on the
two diodes in the transistor.
Of the four regimes, the active or normal mode where the emitter base junction is forward biased and the
collector base junction is reverse biased is the most important. It is in this operating mode that the
transistor is able to provide current gain.
Operational modes for a bipolar transistor

Operational mode Emitter base junction Collector base junction
Active / normal Forward Reverse

Cutoff Reverse Reverse
Saturation Forward Forward
Inverse Reverse Forward
Transistor theory & energy band diagram
The energy band diagram reveals an important aspect of the transistor theory of operation.
InE
EC IrB
InC
EF IrD
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InC
EF IrD
EV
Ip
EF
Transistor energy band diagram for normal operational mode
The diagram reveals some of the major current components. The emitter base junction the forward current
consists of electron and hole diffusion current InE and Ip as well as the recombination currents in the
depletion region IrD and in the base IrB.
LE LB
IE xE xB IC
n p n
-
IB Depletion region +
+
-
Transistor regions-in active mode operation
It is possible to calculate the current components if we assume that the doping levels are uniform.
q Dnni Vbe
InE=q ADnni2NAxBexp(qVbekT)InE = exp
NAxB
q Dpni Vbe
Ip=q ADpni2NDExEexp(qVbekT)Ip = exp
NDExE
2 of 3 9/29/2016 4:07 AM
æ VBE ö
IrD=Irexp(qVBE2kT)IrD = Irexp ÷
ç
è2 ø
Where:
NDE = the donor concentration in the emitter
xB = neutral base
xE = neutral emitter
InE = standard pn junction diffusion current
Ip = standard junction diffusion current
Important transistor theory parameters
Some of the important transistor theory equations are given below:
Emitter injection efficiency:
InE
γ=InEIE =
IE
Base transport factor:
InC
α=InCInE =
InE

3 of 3 9/29/2016 4:07 AM
Transistor Structure | Transistor Fabrication about:reader?url=http://www.electronics-radio.com/articles/electronic...
Transistor Structure | Transistor Fabrication
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Essential details of the structure of typical bipolar transistors with explanations to help
understand how they work.

Bipolar transistor fabrication and their structure has come a long way since the first transistors were made.
Today’s transistors are made using sophisticated processes and the transistor structure enables them to
have very high levels of performance.
The original transistor made by Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley consisted of two very closely spaced
contacts on a germanium base. The structure of this transistor consisted of two point contacts on a
germanium base area.
Today the transistors are made in a variety of ways and have a variety of different structures. They may be
diffused, epitaxially grown or they may use a mesa construction.
Whatever the construction method, the base layer is kept very thin. It is typically less than 1µm for high
current gain.
For most bipolar junction transistors, the current flow is in a vertical plane although a lateral structure is
possible if needed.
In terms of doping levels within the transistor structure, the emitter doping is generally the highest. This
provides the highest injection efficiency. Next is the base doping. Finally the collector is given the lowest
doping level so that the neutral base function is a weak function of the collector base voltage.
The typical doping profile for a transistor structure shows the different regions for the transistor with their
1 of 2 9/29/2016 4:10 AM
Transistor Structure | Transistor Fabrication about:reader?url=http://www.electronics-radio.com/articles/electronic...
doping levels.
20
10
-3
n
Net doping concentration (cm )
19
10
18
10 p
n
17
10
16
10
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Depth
(micro metres)
Typical doping profile for standard silicon transistor (NPN)
As can be seen from the transistor structure diagram, the emitter doping is very much higher than ether the
base of collector regions.
Although it is possible for transistors to operate with emitter and collector reversed, the performance will
be inferior. As a result of the incorrect doping levels. Also the collector is made larger and able to have its
heat conducted away more easily as this is the region of the transistor structure where most heat is
dissipated.

2 of 2 9/29/2016 4:10 AM
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Transistor Gain | Hfe hfe Beta
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Transistor current gain is one of the important specifications for a transistor – three figures
are often seen: Beta Β, Hfe and hfe, each of which is slightly different.

In any circuit, the current gain of the transistor will be of paramount importance.
The transistor gain is normally specified in terms of Hfe, hfe, or the Greek letter Beta Β.
When designing any transistor circuit, it is necessary to ensure there is sufficient gain to enable the circuit
to operate correctly.
BC547 Plastic leaded transistor
Normally current gain specifications for transistors normally have a very wide tolerance, and therefore
circuits need to be able to accommodate this. However the minimum transistor gain must be sufficient to
support the correct operation.
Transistor gain & Beta, Β
This is the forward current gain for the transistor when operated in a common emitter mode.
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PNP NPN
Ic - Ic +
Ib Ib
- +
Ie
+
Ie -
+ -
NB:Current directions shown flowing into the devices, are

accommodated by appropriate polarities in the equations
Basic transistor current flows
Although it is not strictly exact, the equation below is more than accurate enough for all practical
calculations. This transistor gain equation is the one that is seen in most instances.
. . . . More in-depth transistor gain equations and theory.
Transistor hfe
Transistor Hfe, hfe are often seen quoted as the current gain. This can lead to some confusion.
The reason for using hfe is that it refers to way of measuring the input and output parameters of a
transistor.
Z parameters are one of the basic parameters used when treating a circuit as a black box. However as a
transistor exhibits a low input impedance and a high output impedance a form of parameter known as h or
hybrid parameters are used.
Hfe is the forward transfer characteristic, i.e. transistor gain when used in the common emitter mode.
Hfe is exactly the same as the transistor Beta, Β - it is just a little more correct to use it in datasheets.
DC & small signal transistor gain
The transistor gain varies slightly when measured for DC and for small signal variations.
The notations for the two figures are slightly different. Often ΒDC is used for the DC gain, and ΒAC is used
2 of 3 9/29/2016 3:56 AM
for the AC gain which may also be referred to as the transistor small signal gain.
Similarly for hfe. Hfe with a capital H is used for the DC gain, where as the AC or small signal gain is
denoted by hfe with a small letter h.
Transistor gain summary
The various notations for transistor gain can be summarised as below.
Beta; Β: This is the basic notation for the forward current gain of a transistor.
hfe: This is the current gain for a transistor expressed as an h parameter (hybrid parameter). The
letter f indicates that it is a forward transfer characteristic, and the letter e indicates it is for a common
emitter configuration. The small letter h indicates it is a small signal gain. h fe and small signal Beta are
the same.
Hfe: The Hfe parameter differs from hfe in that it is the h parameter for the DC or large signal steady
state forward current gain.
The different abbreviation used for the transistor gain, Hfe, hfe & Beta are all widely used, although the
parameters Hfe, hfe tend to be more widely used in datasheets.

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Transistor Specifications Explained | Electronics+Radio
electronics+radio
- summary or tutorial explaining the basic transistor specifications with definitions of the
different parameters and what they mean.

There is a huge number of transistors available which have been designed to fulfil a variety of different
applications. In order to define the parameters of a transistor there is a variety of different specifications
that are used. These transistor specifications define an aspect of the performance of a transistor.
Transistor manufacturers issue specification sheets for their transistors. These transistor specification
sheets may be available on the Internet, or they may be found in transistor manuals issued by the
manufacturers over the years. Today, most of the transistor data is available on the manufacturers' Internet
sites as paper based data books are expensive to produce and not as easy to disseminate.
2N3553 transistor in a TO39 metal can
When choosing a transistor using the transistor specification or data sheets, it is necessary to be able to
understand what the different transistor specifications mean.
Transistor specification parameters
There are a number of standard parameters with abbreviations that are used to define the performance of a
transistor. The definitions of these parameters are outlined in the table below:
Term
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Term
The type number of the device is a unique identifier given to each type of transistor. There are three
Type international schemes that are widely used: European Pro-Electron scheme; US JEDEC (numbers
number start with 2N for transistors); and the Japanese system (numbers start with 2S). [see the page on
Transistor and Diode Numbering Codes].
There is a wide variety of case styles. They often start with TOxx for leaded devices or SOTxxx for
Case
surface mount devices.
There are two types of transistor: NPN and PNP. It is important to choose the correct type
Polarity
otherwise all the circuit polarities will be wrong.
The two main types of material used for transistors are germanium and silicon. Other materials are
used, but in very specialised transistors. A knowledge of the type of material used is important
Material
because it affects many properties, e.g. forward bias for the base emitter junction is 0.2 - 0.3 V for
germanium and ~0.6 V for silicon.
Collector to Emitter breakdown voltage. This is the maximum voltage that can be placed from the
collector to the emitter. It is normally measured with the base open circuit - hence the letter "0" in
VCEO the abbreviation. The value should not be exceeded in the operation of the circuit otherwise damage
may occur. Note that for circuits using inductors in the collector circuit, the collector voltage may
rise to twice the rail voltage.
Collector to base breakdown voltage. This is the maximum collector base voltage - gain it is
VCBO generally measured with the emitter left open circuit. This value should not be exceeded in the
operation of the circuit.
Collector current, normally defined in milliamps, but high power transistors may be quoted in
IC amps. The important parameter is the maximum level of collector current. This figure should not be
exceeded otherwise the transistor may be subject to damage.
The collector emitter saturation voltage, i.e. the voltage across the transistor (collector to emitter)
VCEsat when the transistor is turned hard on. It is normally quoted for a particular base and collector
current values.
Hfe This is the current gain of the transistor. It is effectively the same as b.
Frequency Transition - the frequency where current gain falls to unity. The transistor should
FT
normally be operated well below this frequency.
Total power dissipation for the device. It is normally quoted for an ambient external temperature of
Ptot 25C unless other wise stated. The actual dissipation across the device is the current flowing through
the collector multiplied by the voltage across the device itself.
Summary
Although there are many different elements to transistor specifications, and there is a huge variety of
transistors from which to choose, it is still relatively easy to choose a transistor when using a basic
knowledge of the different transistor specifications and parameters. Also the popular transistors tend to
appear in designs more often and for many general-purpose applications, it is very easy to use the transistor
specifications and parameters to make a choice. It only becomes more difficult when the applications
become more specialised. Here careful study needs to be made of all the transistor specifications to ensure
that the transistor will meet its requirements and work in the final circuit.
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Diode & transistor numbering codes about:reader?url=http://www.electronics-radio.com/articles/electronic...
Diode & transistor numbering codes
electronics+radio
- details and tables of the numbering or code systems used for transistors, diodes and FETs.

There are many thousands of different types of diode and transistor. These have different characteristics
according to the way they are designed and made. Some may be intended for high power applications, like
those used in power amplifiers of power supplies, whereas others may be intended for small signal
applications where low current consumption is an issue. Other types of transistor may be required for radio
frequency applications.
As there is a vast number of different types of transistor, each type is given a unique code so that it can be
identified and identical ones bought. In this way it is possible to specify a specific type of transistor by using
its type number or code.
Semiconductor numbering / coding schemes
There are many different ways of organising a numbering scheme. In the early days of thermionic valve
(vacuum tube) manufacture, each manufacturer gave a number to the types they manufactured. In this way
there were vast numbers of different numbers for devices many of which were virtually identical. It soon
became obvious that a more structured approach was required, so that the same device could be bought
regardless of the manufacturer.
The same is true for semiconductor devices, and manufacturer independent numbering schemes are used
for both diodes and transistors. In fact there are two main semiconductor numbering schemes in use:
1. Pro-electron numbering scheme This diode and transistor numbering scheme was originated in
Europe and is widely used for transistors developed and manufactured here.
2. JEDEC numbering scheme This diode and transistor numbering scheme was originated in the
USA and it is widely used for diodes and transistors that originate from North America.
Using these diode and transistor numbering schemes it is possible to look at the part number and identify
certain properties it will possess and what applications it may be used for. In particular, the Pro-electron
1 of 3 9/29/2016 3:49 AM
diode and transistor numbering scheme makes it possible to broadly identify the capabilities of the
transistor. For example parameters such as the transistor being intended for low frequency power, RF, etc
can be determined.
The JEDEC semiconductor numbering system details far less, being intended to be purely a numbering
system. From the number it can be determined how many PN junctions are in the device.
Pro-Electron Numbering or Coding System
First Letter Second Letter Subsequent Characters

Specifies Specifies type of device
semiconductor
material
A Germanium Diode - low power or The characters following the

A
signal first two letters form the serial
B Silicon
number of the device. Those
Diode - variable
Gallium B intended for domestic use have
C capacitance
Arsenide three numbers, but those
Transistor - audio intended for commercial or
Compound C
R frequency, low power industrial use have letter
materials
Transistor - audio followed by two numbers, i.e.
D A10 - Z99.
frequency, power
E Tunnel diode
Transistor - high
F
frequency, low power
G Miscellaneous devices
Diode - sensitive to
H
magnetism
Transistor - high
L
frequency, power
N Photocoupler
P Light detector
Q Light emitter
Switching device, low

R power, e.g. thyristor,
diac, unijunction
Transistor - switching
S
low power
2 of 3 9/29/2016 3:49 AM
Switching device, low

T power, e.g. thyristor,
triac
Transistor - switching,
U
power
Surface acoustic wave

W
device
X Diode multiplier
Y Diode rectifying
Diode - voltage
Z
reference
This a BC107 is a low power audio transistor and a BBY10 is variable capacitance diode for industrial or
commercial use.
JEDEC Numbering or Coding System
First Number Second Letter Subsequent

numbers
1 = Diode Serial
number
2 = Bipolar
of
transistor
N device
3 = FET
Thus a deveice with the numbering code 1N4148 is a diode and a 2N706 is a transistor.
Summary
The Pro-electron transistor and diode numbering or coding system provides more information about the
device, than the JEDEC system. However both of these diode and transistor numbering schemes are widely
used and enable the same device types to be made by a number of manufacturers. This enables equipment
manufacturers to buy their semiconductors from a number of different manufactures and know that they are
buying devices with the same characteristics.

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Choosing Transistor Replacements | Electronics+Radio
electronics+radio
When repairing a circuit, or even building a new one it is often not possible to find the exact
part - we tell you how to choose a suitable replacement.

When working with electronics equipment, either to design, build or repair it is sometimes necessary to
choose a replacement transistor. Either the type of transistor may not be to hand, or it may not be available.
Fortunately it is normally possible to use a replacement transistor type as there is often a considerable
degree of overlap between the specifications of different types of transistor, and by looking at the basic
specifications it is normally possible to choose the correct transistor replacements.
This explanation is focussed on bipolar transistors, but it is possible to apply similar logic to field effect
transistors to ensure that suitable replacements can be found.
When looking for suitable transistor replacements it is necessary to look at the main specifications for the
transistor. Once the transistor specifications and parameters have been ascertained, it is possible to check
for other replacement transistor types with similar parameters that will be able to operate within the circuit
in question.
When considering any possible replacement transistors, it is necessary to look at a variety of parameters.
These will include the basic parameters of the transistor operation performance. They will also include the
environmentally related parameters, and the physical parameters. All these need to be taken into account
when choosing a suitable replacement transistor.
Looking at the basic transistor parameters
When looking for a suitable transistor replacement some of the basic transistor parameters that need to be
considered include the following:
1. Semiconductor material used: Most transistors will either be germanium or silicon. Other types
are normally only used in very specialist applications. It is important to know what type the transistor
is because there is a difference in the base emitter forward bias voltage drop. For germanium it is
around 0.2 - 0.3 volts and for silicon it is around 0.6 volts. The circuit will be designed around a
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particular voltage drop.
2. Polarity: It is absolutely imperative to find out whether the transistor is either NPN or PNP variety.
Install the incorrect type and it experience the inverse of all the voltages it would expect and is likely to
be destroyed.
3. General application: Although it is not always necessary to exactly match the intended purpose
for the transistor, a variety of areas of its performance will be tailored to its intended applications.
Possible application types may include: switching, analogue, low power, RF amplifier, low noise, etc.
Put in the correct type and it may not perform well. For example a low power general-purpose
transistor is unlikely to work well in a switching application even if it has a high ft or frequency limit.
4. Package and pin-out: Transistors have many packages. It is often necessary to match the
replacement transistor package as closely as possible to enable the transistor to physically fit. Also the
package may give an indication of other parameters.
5. Voltage breakdown: It is necessary to make sure that the transistor is able to withstand the
voltages it is likely to see. Transistor parameters such as Vceo, etc need to be checked.
6. Current gain: , The current gain parameter of a transistor normally has a very wide spread. This is
normally quoted as Β or hfe. Although they are slightly different, for all circuit equivalences of this
nature these transistor parameters are the same. Choosing a replacement transistor with
approximately the same current gain is necessary. Normally it is not a problem to choose a
replacement transistor with a higher gain. Often a lower current gain may be acceptable.
7. Frequency limit: The upper frequency limit for a transistor is normally quoted as its ft. It is
normally important to ensure that the transistor can meet any frequency limits.
8. Power dissipation: It is necessary to ensure that the replacement transistor can dissipate
sufficient power. Often the package type is a good indication of this.
These are the main parameters that are of importance in most applications, but be on the look out for any
other transistor parameters that may need to be included in the selection of the replacement
transistor.Picking a replacement transistor
When choosing a suitable replacement transistor for use within an electronic circuit, there are several
stages that must be considered when making the choice. These can be progressed in a logical order to
narrow down the choice and enable the best alternative for the replacement transistor to be made.
Step by step instructions:
1. Choose a transistor of the same polarity: The first major selection criterion is whether the
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transistor is PNP or NPN.
2. Select a replacement transistor of the same material: Most transistors are either silicon or
germanium. As bias voltages and other features are different it is necessary to select a replacement
transistor with the same material.
3. Select the same functional type of transistor: Transistors are normally given an indication of
their application in the datasheets. The replacement should have the same application if possible.
4. Choose a replacement with the same package: Choosing a replacement transistor with the
same package and pin-out will mean that many of the characteristics including power capability are
the same. Ensuring with pin-out is the same (most but not all transistors have their leads in order -
EBC) will save many problems with fitting.
5. Select a replacement transistor with the same breakdown voltage: Ensure that figures for
VCEO and VCBO etc are at least as high as the original transistor.
6. Check it can take the current: Ensure that the replacement transistor can pass the required
current - it should have an ICmax greater than or equal to the original transistor.
7. Select a transistor with a similar Hfe: It is necessary to ensure that the current gain of the
replacement transistor is about the same as the original. Current gain values normally vary widely even
for transistors of the same type so some variation will be acceptable.
8. Select a replacement transistor with equivalent Ft: It is necessary to ensure that the
replacement transistor will be able to operate at the relevant frequencies, so a similar or slightly higher
Ft is advisable. Don't go for a transistor with a much higher Ft as this may increase the risk of
oscillation.
9. Choose a transistor with a similar power dissipation : It is necessary to ensure that the
replacement transistor can handle the power that it will dissipate within the circuit. Choosing a
replacement transistor with a similar can style will often mean that both transistors have a similar
power dissipation.
10. Check for any special features: While ensuring the features above are selected, there may be
some additional features that need to be considered. These are normally required when transistors are
used in specialist applications.
Once the choice of replacement transistor has been made, then it can be installed in the circuit, and the
performance checked. In most cases it will operate satisfactorily, but occasionally there may be a problem.
If this is the case, it is necessary to re-visit the way in which the choice of the replacement transistor was
made and see if any mistakes were made or look for other parameters that may affect the operation of the
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transistor circuit.
What if I can't find the original transistor details?
Sometimes it is very easy to find out the parameters of a particular transistor as it may be possible to find
them on the Internet or in a transistor data book. If this is not possible, either because the markings are not
visible, or the data cannot be found, then not all is lost. It is still possible to find out a lot about the
transistor from its package and also the circuit in which it is being used. In this way it is usually possible to
find a suitable replacement transistor. The step by step instructions below should help the essential
parameters of the transistor to be discovered.
Step by step instructions:
These instructions are set out in an approximate order of the most significant parameters first followed by
the less significant ones:
1. Is it a transistor? This may appear to be an obvious question, but occasionally some devices may
appear to be a transistor at first sight. It may be a field effect transistor, a Darlington transistor or even
some other form of device. Alternatively, sometimes small voltage regulators are contained in packages
similar to that of a transistor. Other devices may also appear in what may appear to be transistor
packages at first sight. Careful examination of the application will enable this to be verified.
2. Silicon or germanium: It is important to find out whether the transistor is silicon or germanium.
It may be possible to discover this in a number of ways. If the original transistor is still working then
this can be discovered by measuring the voltage across the base emitter junction when it is forward
biased. This should be about 0.2 to 0.3 volts for a germanium transistor and 0.6 volts for other
varieties. Alternatively it may be possible to ascertain the type by looking at other transistors in the
circuit. Often the same technology will be used throughout the equipment. This is not always true so
beware!
3. Power dissipation: This is often defined by the package in which the transistor is placed. Look at
the specifications for other transistors in the same packages and this will give a good guide. Those
packages designed for mounting on heatsinks will be more variable because they can often dissipate
more power dependent upon the heatsink. It is best to be more cautious with these packages.
4. Maximum voltage: An idea of the maximum voltage can be gained from the circuit in which it is
used. To be on the safe side, ensure the maximum operating voltage of the replacement transistor is at
least twice the rail voltage of the circuit in which it is operating
5. Current gain: The current gain of transistors is notoriously difficult to specify. High power
transistors often offer lower gains - older power transistor types may be as low as 20 - 50, whereas the
smaller transistors may offer gains anywhere between 50 and 1000.
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6. Maximum frequency: It is necessary to make sure that the replacement transistor is able to
operate at the required frequency. Look at the components in the circuit and the function of the circuit.
It is usually possible to estimate the frequency of operation. Then take this and choose a replacement
transistor that can easily operate at this frequency.
7. Anything else: Although most of the main points have been covered in the points above, it is always
best to be on the look out for other parameters that may affect the choice of transistor replacement.
This is particularly true for specialised circuits where some specific performance features may be
critical.
Summary
Choosing a replacement transistor is normally quite easy. There is a huge number of transistor types
available, and the specifications of many types of transistor overlap, making the choice of a replacement
transistor quite easy in many instances.
Being able to choosing a replacement transistor can be very useful if the exact transistor type is not
available easily. It is quite likely that a similar one may be available to hand, or possibly from a local
stockist. In either case, it is useful to be able to choose the replacement transistor with a good possibility of
it being able to work.

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How Does a Transistor Work | Transistor Basics about:reader?url=http://www.electronics-radio.com/articles/electronic...

How Does a Transistor Work | Transistor Basics

Transistor Tutorial Includes:

Plastic leaded transistor selection

Note on Transistor History:

Read more about Bipolar Transistor History

Old OC71 transistor

What is a bipolar transistor

. . . . More in-depth bipolar junction transistor theory.

Basic transistor structure

. . . . More in-depth details of transistor structure & fabrication.

Transistor basics: operation

Collector N Base current results

Basic transistor operation

. . . . More in-depth bipolar junction transistor theory.

. . . . More in-depth bipolar junction transistor theory.

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Transistor History | Electronics+Radio

History of the Valve / Tube Includes:

Transistor history Invention Development

Old OC71 transistor

Transistor history foundations

Old OA10 diode

Transistor work starts

The three main characters involved in the transistor history were:

Transistor Theory | Bipolar Junction Transistor Theory

Transistor Tutorial Includes:

Transistor theory of operation

Operational modes for a bipolar transistor

Active / normal Forward Reverse

Transistor theory & energy band diagram

Transistor energy band diagram for normal operational mode

Transistor regions-in active mode operation

Important transistor theory parameters

Some of the important transistor theory equations are given below:

Emitter injection efficiency:

Base transport factor:

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Transistor Structure | Transistor Fabrication

Transistor Tutorial Includes:

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

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Transistor Gain | Hfe hfe Beta

Transistor Tutorial Includes:

BC547 Plastic leaded transistor

Transistor gain & Beta, Β

NB:Current directions shown flowing into the devices, are

. . . . More in-depth transistor gain equations and theory.

DC & small signal transistor gain

Transistor gain summary

The various notations for transistor gain can be summarised as below.

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Transistor Specifications Explained | Electronics+Radio

Transistor Tutorial Includes:

2N3553 transistor in a TO39 metal can

Transistor specification parameters

Diode & transistor numbering codes

Transistor Tutorial Includes:

Semiconductor numbering / coding schemes

Pro-Electron Numbering or Coding System

First Letter Second Letter Subsequent Characters

A Germanium Diode - low power or The characters following the