SPE-192942-MS

An Innovative Workflow for the Petrophysical Characterization of Tight Gas

Reservoirs in Argentina

Rafael Zambrano, Schlumberger; Daniel Parra and Lucia Lamberghini, Pan American Energy; Pablo Saldungaray
and Laurent Mosse, Schlumberger

Copyright 2018, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 12-15 November 2018.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
The formation evaluation of low-porosity tight gas reservoirs in Argentina presents several well-known
challenges in the estimation of main petrophysical properties as porosity, clay fraction, permeability, and
water saturation. The main goal is to accurately quantify these petrophysical properties with a consistent
and reliable petrophysical model. The next task is to reveal the key petrophysical responses that represent
the link between petrophysics and production.
The present work describes the main petrophysical challenges faced and an innovative workflow used
in the Lindero Atravesado field with clear examples to illustrate the effectiveness of this approach. The
workflow involves measurements such as advanced elemental gamma ray spectroscopy, multifrequency
dielectric dispersion, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The advanced elemental gamma ray
spectroscopy has been key for the creation of a robust mineralogical model, and to derive the matrix
properties used to obtain an accurate porosity free of matrix and gas effects with the combination of NMR
porosity. The dielectric dispersion provides a direct estimation of water volume, which, in turn, helps
to adjust the conventional method of water saturation from resistivity. The good correlation between the
petrophysical properties estimated from the proposed workflow and the core analysis, demonstrates the
benefits of using the advanced log measurements. The final step of the workflow consists in the definition
of poro-fluid facies determined with a new methodology, called NMR factor analysis, that is based on the
extraction of multimodal information from the NMR T2 distribution to determine the optimal number of
dominant modes (factors) that allow describing the reservoir. Production logging results showed a good
relationship between the poro-fluid facies and reservoir productivity.

Introduction
The Lindero Atravesado block, operated by Pan American Energy (PAE), is in the Neuquén basin in
Argentina, 1,000 km south of the city of Buenos Aires city and 30 km from the city of Neuquén (Fig. 1, left
panel). The area comprises 530 km2 (approximately 131,000 acres) and has a total of 229 wells drilled, with
94 of these wells targeting the Grupo Cuyo tight gas formations of interest. Production started in the block
2 SPE-192942-MS

in February 1974 from conventional formations, Sierras Blancas, Quintuco and Lotena reservoirs, which
are shallower than the Grupo Cuyo tight sands formations.

Figure 1—Location (left panel) and stratigraphic column (right panel) of the Lindero Atravesado block.

Grupo Cuyo was the first stage of a generalized flood of the basin, and its fill, mainly clastic, is composed
by Lajas and Punta Rosada formation sandstones. These sandstones are the reservoir for the hydrocarbon
generated in the Los Molles Formation (organic-rich shale). A stratigraphic column of Lindero Atravesado
block shows the transition from marine deposits of inner basin (Los Molles formation) to shore deposits
(coastal-deltaic, Lajas formation). It is overlaid by the prograding fluvial deposits of Punta Rosada formation
(Fig. 1, right panel).
The permeability can be classified in microdarcy permeability range (0.001to 0.1 md) and the porosity
is in the low-porosity range (less than 12%, average 8%).
The development of Grupo Cuyo is PAE's first unconventional development, where it was possible to
increase gas production in the block, reaching 3.45 × 103 m3/d by mid-2016 (Lamberghini et al., 2017).

Challenges of Petrophysical Evaluation

The uncertainties of the petrophysical evaluation in the tight gas reservoirs in Argentina are no different
than those already known in this type of reservoir in other parts of the world. This section will detail the
main challenges encountered during the petrophysical evaluation of Lajas and Punta Rosada formations in
the Lindero Atravesado block.

Lithology
For the lithology characterization in Lajas and Punta Rosada formation, petrographic description and X-
ray diffraction analysis (XRD) were done on core and side wall core samples. Three main type of rocks
are described: lithic sandstone, lithic feldspathic sandstone, and conglomeratic rocks. In all of them, the
lithic clasts are related to vitreous tuffs. The fractions of XRD analysis for these rocks must be taken
with caution due to the presence of vitreous tuffs described in the petrographic report. Vitreous tuffs are
composed of amorphous aluminosilicates, which can be difficult or impossible to quantify by the XRD
analysis. Considering this, the XRD mineral fractions must be regarded as qualitative. The XRD samples
taken in the reservoir intervals indicate the presence of quartz; orthoclase; plagioclase; several clay minerals;
SPE-192942-MS 3

and other minor components as calcite, dolomite, and pyrite (Fig. 2, left panel). Among the clay minerals,
illite is the main clay type, followed by chlorite and the illite/smectite family (Fig. 2, right panel).

Figure 2—Average XRD weight fractions all minerals (left panel) and clay minerals (right panel).

The clay volume (VCL) estimation in these complex environments depend on the method used for
the analysis. The XRD shows that clay minerals and orthoclase, both radioactive, are present in similar
proportions. Therefore, the use of total gamma ray (GR) as VCL indicator would overestimate the clay
volume. The use of thorium to quantify the clay fraction is also unreliable due to the presence of zircon in
the Grupo Cuyo, as reported by Naipauer et al. (2017). The estimation of VCL from the neutron-density
method in tight gas reservoirs can be inaccurate due the matrix effects on both measurements, and because
of the gas effects.
The feldspar fraction (orthoclase and plagioclase) in the reservoir zones is important, around 30% in
weight fraction, and must be considered in the mineralogical model. To characterize the feldspar minerals
is a challenging task, and it is even more difficult is to split the two types of feldspars with basic logs.

Porosity
The most common porosity sources available for the formation evaluation of Lindero Atravesado wells
have been the density log, thermal neutron porosity, and magnetic resonance porosity. The matrix and gas
effects on those measurements must be considered and corrected during the evaluation to finally obtain a
reliable total porosity.
Montagna et al. (2011) described the impact of matrix density variability in the density porosity
calculation (Eq. 1) in the tight gas reservoirs in Lajas formation.

(1)

where ϕd is the density porosity, and ρma, ρb, and ρf refer to the matrix, bulk, and fluid (liquid and gas)
densities, respectively.
The matrix density estimated from induced GR spectroscopy (Herron and Herron 2000) along the entire
interval (including reservoir and nonreservoir intervals) shows variability, and is significantly higher than
the quartz density value (2.65 g/cm3) (Fig. 3, left panel). In addition, the right panel in Fig. 3 shows an
appreciable variability in the matrix density measured in cores and sidewall core samples from different
wells. The apparent difference in shape between the two distributions is attributable to the selection of
reservoir section in the core sampling.
4 SPE-192942-MS

Figure 3—Matrix density log obtained from GR spectroscopy tool in different wells.
Quartz (2.65 g/cm3) and limestone (2.71 g/cm3) values are shown as reference (left panel).
Matrix density from core and sidewall core samples in different wells (right panel).

A similar matrix-dependent variability is present on the neutron porosity log (linear response
approximation in the Eq. 2),
(2)
where ϕn is the thermal neutron porosity corrected by matrix effect; ϕw, ϕg, and ϕt refer to water volume,
gas volume, and total porosity; and HIw, HIg, and HIma refer to the hydrogen index of water, gas and matrix
(effect of chemical composition, density, and hydroxyls).
If the matrix effects are removed from the density and neutron porosity equations, these porosities should
overlay in both wet reservoir and shale intervals, but they will separate showing a "gas crossover" in the
presence of gas or light oil due to the low hydrocarbon density and hydrogen index (HI) less than 1.
The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) total porosity is free of matrix effects, unlike the other porosity
sources, but is still affected by the low HI of gas. The NMR total porosity (ϕnmr) is represented on Eq. 3,
where Pw and Pg refer to water and gas polarizations:
(3)
In tight reservoirs, T1 of water is expected to be reduced by strong surface relaxation effects, and Pw is
usually 1 for the NMR sequence commonly used. Pg must be properly evaluated.
The gas effect on logs is an important factor to account for in tight gas reservoirs. The low density of gas
makes the density porosity to be overestimated, and the opposite effect is expected on the neutron porosity
and NMR porosity due to the low hydrogen index of gas.
Track 3 in Fig. 4 shows the comparison of three porosities. The NMR porosity (MRPCMR, green curve),
density porosity in limestone matrix (DPHILIM, red curve), and thermal neutron porosity in sandstone matrix
(TNPHSANEC, blue curve). The density porosity is displayed in a limestone instead of a sandstone matrix
because the average rock matrix density estimated from GR spectroscopy and core data is closer to limestone
than sandstone. In front of the shales, both the NMR porosity and density porosity are very close. This is
expected because Fig. 3 suggests shale grain density of about 2.72 g/cm3. The main difference is observed
in front of the reservoirs due to the presence of gas in the formation. The median value of those differences
is approximately 3 to 4 p.u., and maximum difference is 5 to 6 p.u. This uncertainty range is important in
8- to 10-p.u. reservoirs.
SPE-192942-MS 5

Figure 4—Matrix and gas effects on the porosity logs.

The thermal neutron porosity in a sandstone matrix is environmentally corrected, but it is not corrected
for the matrix effect. This effect is the principal cause of overestimated neutron porosity values, and even
more in front of the shales. This thermal neutron porosity response is due to several effects, including
presence of thermal neutron absorbers (such as boron and gadolinium) and additional hydrogens in the form
of hydroxyls (OH-) present in the molecular structure of the clays, weakly affecting the density and not
contributing to NMR porosity.

Permeability
Different equations exist for the absolute permeability estimation with openhole logs, each one with its pros
and cons. The two most widely used equations with NMR data are the Timur-Coates equation (Timur 1968;
Coates and Dumanoir 1973) and the so-called SDR (SDR from the Schlumberger-Doll Research laboratory)
(Kenyon et al. 1988a, 1988b). The advantage of both equations is the introduction of information about the
rock texture either with the free/bound fluid relationship for Timur-Coates equation or the T2 distribution
logarithm mean value for the SDR equation. Nevertheless, to "calibrate" these equations to core data, it
may be required to adjust the T2 cutoff value that defines the free and bound fluid volumes and to fine-tune
the exponents and multipliers in the equations that were defined for conventional reservoirs and may need
adjustment for tight gas reservoirs.
6 SPE-192942-MS

The intrinsic permeability equation described by Herron (1987) is based on the empirical model, which
relates the permeability to porosity using the mineralogy as input. The model uses mineralogical abundances
instead of specific surface area and a parameter that represents the textural maturity of the sediment. The
use of this equation in complex mineralogical reservoirs would require a robust mineralogical model. This
equation has provided permeability values in the expected magnitudes for the Lajas and Punta Rosada
formations.
Finally, the estimation of permeability based on the poro-perm relationship is widely used because it is
simple and convenient. Nevertheless, to obtain a representative K/ϕ regression requires sufficient sampling
and good quality core data, as well as an accurate porosity computation from logs.

Water Saturation
The uncertainty in Archie's parameters (a, m, n) values, formation water salinity and resistivity (Rw),
porosity estimation and the effect of the conductivity of clay minerals propagates to the uncertainty of
computed water saturation using conventional resistivity methods, as described by Montagna et al. (2011)
in tight gas reservoirs belonging to Grupo Cuyo.

Workflow Proposed for the Petrophysical Evaluation

The workflow proposed is based on the implementation of induced GR spectroscopy, NMR, and dielectric
dispersion measurements, complemented by advanced interpretation techniques that help to reduce the
uncertainty on the petrophysical properties and clarify the link between the petrophysics and well
production.

Mineralogical Model
Induced GR spectroscopy measurements (Radtke et al. 2012) provide sufficient information to build a robust
mineralogical model to be able to properly characterize Lajas and Punta Rosada formations.
Elemental concentrations from induced GR spectroscopy measurement are combined into mineralogical
fractions, for instance, clay model is based on the measured aluminum, iron, and potassium fractions.
Sodium and potassium fractions helps split potassium and sodium feldspars. The measured calcium is
mostly assigned to calcite. The precise magnesium measurement enables the split between calcite and
dolomite.
Carbonate fraction is low according to XRD data. Diagenetic analysis described the presence of calcite
as filler material in the pores and clasts replacement, and dolomite is found in traces.
An elemental log analysis platform is used to build the mineralogical model because it allows a robust
petrophysical analysis using induced GR spectroscopy data as input in a simultaneous equations solver.
Table 1 shows the input elemental fractions and minerals selected in the model. The endpoints are extracted
from Herron et al. (1993).

Table 1—Multimineral model, inputs and endpoints.

Illite Chlorite Quartz Orthoclase Plagioclase Calcite

Al (kg/kg) 0.105 0.096 0 0.1 0.118 0

Ca (kg/kg) 0 0 0 0 0.023 0.394

Fe (kg/kg) 0.048 0.208 0 0 0 0

Si (kg/kg) 0.248 0.14 0.4675 0.3 0.3 0

K (kg/kg) 0.045 0 0 0.102 0 0

Na (kg/kg) 0 0 0 0 0.0877 0
SPE-192942-MS 7

XRD data show that the main clay minerals are the illite and chlorite. From XRD clay fractions, a
theoretical clay bound water (CBW) can be computed using the typical wet clay porosity (WCLP) value
for different minerals, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2—WCLP theoretical values.

Mineral Wet Clay Porosity (p.u.)

Smectite 40
Illite 15
Chlorite 15
Kaolinite 5

Eq. 4 defines the transformation from the clay dry weight fractions to CBW:

(4)

where DWMi is the dry weight fraction of mineral i, RHMi is the density of mineral i and WCLPi refers to
the typical value of wet clay porosity of mineral i.
Tracks 1 and 2 from Fig. 5 show the comparison of dry weight clay fractions from XRD data (red dots)
and elemental analysis mineralogical model (black solid curves). The last track shows the NMR bound
fluid with cutoff at 3 ms (BFV3MS, green curve), referred as clay bound water volume (Straley 1997), CBW
estimations from XRD data using Eq. 4(red dots), and CBW from elemental analysis (solid black curve).
Core data was available in reservoir sections only. The good comparison of CBWs shows a consistent and
reliable elemental analysis clay model.

Figure 5—Comparison XRD and elemental analysis clay minerals fractions and corresponding CBW.
8 SPE-192942-MS

Porosity Correction
As mentioned above, the matrix and gas are the principal effects on the porosity measurements. To compute
an accurate total porosity, the first step is to correct the matrix effects on the apparent porosities and then
combine them to compute a final total porosity corrected for the gas presence.
To correct the density and thermal neutron porosity for matrix effects, corresponding matrix density
and grain thermal neutron values are required at each depth level; these values are used in their respective
porosity equations. Matrix properties can be estimated in two ways, either from the computed mineral
fractions and their corresponding density values, as shown in the Eq. 5, or solved as a linear combination
from the elemental concentrations (Herron and Herron 2000):

(5)

The advanced induced GR spectroscopy tool provides a robust and variable matrix density value that is
computed from the dry weight elements fractions, called RHGE (rho grain from elements). For the density
porosity correction (DPHIMC), the ρma from Eq. 1 is replaced by RHGE, as shown in Eq. 6:

(6)

where ρf, the fluid density, can be approximated to 1 g/cm3.

Fig. 6 illustrates common porosity sources. Note that the difference between thermal neutron porosity
and other porosity sources is due to the contribution of hydrogen index in form of hydroxyls which are
found in the molecular structure of clays.

Figure 6—Conceptual scheme of common porosity sources.

Grain thermal neutron estimation is an analogous concept to matrix density. A reliable mineralogical
model allows computing the grain thermal neutron in limestone matrix (TNGMLIM). Fig. 5 shows that the
clay types and fractions modeled are representative of the reservoir. Eq. 7 is used to transform the mineral
dry weight fractions into an estimation of grain thermal neutron in limestone matrix:
SPE-192942-MS 9

(7)

where TNMi is the thermal neutron value of dry mineral i in limestone matrix. The endpoints for the mineral's
thermal neutron values are found in Herron and Mattenson (1993), but to account for local variations of
thermal absorbers, it is common to adjust the clay endpoints.
Once the grain thermal neutron in limestone matrix (TNGMLIM) is obtained, the thermal neutron porosity
in limestone matrix (TNPHLIM) can be corrected for the matrix effect. The correction can be done via
equations 8 or 9:
(8)

(9)

The thermal neutron porosity shows a nonlinear response with the mineralogy. The accuracy of each
equation depends on lithology and formation porosity (Mosse et al. 2014). Similar results are obtained from
both equations for the Lajas and Punta Rosada formations. In this case the Eq. 8 is used.
Fig. 7 shows an example of porosity corrections. Track 1 compares the "raw" density (DPHISAN, red
dashed curve) and thermal neutron (TNPHSAN, blue dashed curve) porosities in sandstone matrix. It is
observed the typical neutron-density separation in front of shale intervals (brown shading) is mainly due to
the hydroxyls in the molecular structure of clays. On the other hand, the expected neutron-density crossover
due to gas presence in front of the reservoir zones is masked by the clay effect. Track 2 compares the
matrix corrected density (DPHI_MC, red solid curve) and thermal neutron (TNPH_MC, blue solid curve)
porosities. The purpose of these corrections is not only to get closer to the true porosity, but also to highlight
the light hydrocarbons or gas crossover effect in this complex lithology. Track 3 shows the comparison of
DPHI_MC and NMR total porosity (MRP_CMR, green solid curve). As in the previous comparison, the
porosities overlap in front of shales, reading the true porosity, and exhibit differences of porosity in front of
the reservoir zones due to gas effect on both measurements (yellow shading). The good overlap between the
NMR total porosity and the corrected thermal neutron porosity indicates that the hydroxyl effect has been
correctly removed from the thermal neutron porosity, thus achieving an NMR-like (i.e., a fluid hydrogen
index measurement) from thermal neutron porosity. The 50% depth of investigation of the thermal neutron
tool is about 4 to 5 in., whereas the NMR tool is sensitive to a small region centered at 1.1 in.; in presence
of gas, it is possible to have corrected thermal neutron porosity slightly lower than NMR porosity due to
invasion profile.
10 SPE-192942-MS

Figure 7—Porosity corrections by matrix effects.

The consistency in the three porosities in front of shales strongly supports the control on the matrix
parameters, and therefore is a good indication that the proposed mineralogical model is reasonably accurate
for the evaluated geological formations.
The next step is to correct porosities for the gas effect. Freedman et al. (1998) described a method based
on the combination of NMR total porosity and density porosity to derive a gas-corrected total formation
porosity, called the density-magnetic resonance (DMR) method, expressed in the Eq. 10 and 11:

(10)

(11)

The hydrogen index of water (HIw) is a function of salinity, pressure and temperature. It is important to
consider the water salinity effect for an accurate computation. Kleinberg and Vinegar (1996) showed the
relation of HIw and water salinity. On other hand, Gaymard and Poupon (1968) showed the relation between
hydrocarbon density (ρg) and hydrogen index of hydrocarbons (HIg). The charts Gen-7 and Gen-8 from
Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts (Schlumberger 2013) show the corresponding crossplots for the
estimation of fluid properties mentioned. The gas polarization Pg is a function of wait time (WT) and the
SPE-192942-MS 11

logitudinal relaxation time at reservoir conditions (T1g). The water or liquid phase density can be fixed to
1 g/cm3 as a first approximation.
A similar method can be implemented for the porosity gas correction using matrix-corrected thermal
neutron porosity instead of NMR total porosity. Fig. 8 shows the gas-corrected porosity from the DMR
method. Tracks 1 and 2 show the comparison of core to log bulk and matrix densities. Track 3 shows
the matrix-corrected density porosity (DPHI_MC, red solid curve), NMR total porosity (MRP_CMR,
green solid curve), gas-corrected porosity by DMR method (DMRP, gray solid curve), and core porosity
at reservoir conditions. Note the good agreement between DMRP and core porosity. Track 4 shows the
comparison between the DMRP and gas-corrected porosity estimated by the analogous DMR method using
matrix-corrected thermal neutron porosity instead of NMR total porosity, called PHIT_DNPC (density-
neutron porosity corrected).

Figure 8—DMR results and comparison with core data.

Permeability Estimation
In the previous section, the pros and cons of some common methods to estimate permeability from logs were
briefly mentioned. Kukal and Simons (1986a, 1986b) proposed an empirical equation for low-permeability
gas sands rocks. The equation is similar in form to Timur's generalized equation but improved by the
inclusion of the clay fraction, which reduces the porosity by multiplying ϕt by 1-Vcl, where the Vcl is the
clay volume fraction from the proposed mineralogical model:
(12)
12 SPE-192942-MS

Permeability values were predicted using the empirical equation of Kukal and Simons (1986a, 1986b),
Herron (1987) equation and NMR permeability estimation. Fig. 9 shows the comparison between the
three permeability estimations with the core permeability data at reservoir conditions. The general good
agreement of these data provides confidence on the estimation of absolute permeability. The NMR
permeability estimation shows to solve better for those thin intervals with high permeability.

Figure 9—Comparison of estimation of permeability within the Kukal and Simons

(1986a, 1986b), NMR permeability, and Herron (1987) equations and core permeability.

Reducing the Uncertainty in Water Saturation

To compute water saturation accurately using resistivity logs requires precise knowledge of Archie's
electrical parameters m and n and formation water salinity (Rw). Usually, the special core analysis (SCAL)
data are the only source for Archie's electrical parameters, but these data are very scarce and sparse,
considering the heterogeneity of the tight gas reservoirs in the Grupo Cuyo formations. A similar situation
occurs regarding availability of formation water salinity or saturation data.
SPE-192942-MS 13

The multifrequency dielectric measurement is an alternative source for the electrical parameters, water
volume, or water saturation at the depth of investigation of these tools, which is limited to a few inches
(Hizem et al. 2008), and it can help to reduce the uncertainty in the final water saturation computation.
Fig. 10 shows the petrophysical properties estimated from the dielectric dispersion measurement. Track
1 shows the water-filled porosity from dielectric dispersion measurement (PWXO_ADT, blue solid curve).
It is worth mentioning that PWXO_ADT includes both bound (with clay bound) and free water in the
formation. The green solid curve is the NMR bound fluid at 33-ms T2 cutoff (BFV_CMR), and the black
solid curve is the clay bound water estimated from mineralogical model (CBW_ELAN). The good overlap
between the PWXO_ADT and BFV_CMR, and the fact that these reservoirs produce no or little formation
water, indicates that most of the water in the reservoir is bound, and the T2 cutoff value is close to 33 ms.

Figure 10—Petrophysical property estimation from the dielectric dispersion measurement.

14 SPE-192942-MS

Track 2 shows the water salinity estimation (FSXO_ADT) obtained from the dielectric dispersion
measurements. The median value observed along the reservoir is approximated 90-ppk NaCl. The dielectric
dispersion is a shallow measurement, limited to few inches into the formation, and, as a result, its response
comes mostly from the invaded zone. In water-based mud (WBM) systems, FXSO_ADT corresponds to
a mix of mud and formation water salinities. In oil-based mud (OBM) systems, the situation is different
because the mud invasion is shallow, and the filtrate contains little or no water, FXSO_ADT will respond
mainly to the formation water salinity. The few available samples of formation water salinity from laboratory
analysis reported values of approximately 120-ppk NaCl. Water saturation computed using 90 ppk and 120
ppk showed a difference of only 5%. Thus, a constant value of 100ppk is used in the evaluation.
Track 3 shows the textural parameter MN_ADT, the water phase tortuosity. This parameter is related to
Archie's electrical parameters m and n (Eq. 13) and combines the rock texture and wettability:
(13)
where the Sw is the water saturation.
Honoring this BFV_CMR volume, an irreducible water saturation can be estimated with the Eq. 14,

(14)

The irreducible water saturation (Swirr_BFV) can be considered as the minimun water saturation
expected in the reservoir.
The DMR method introduced by Freedman et al. (1998) is proposed to estimate the gas saturation in
the flushed zone (Sxgdmr) including the matrix-corrected density porosity and the NMR total porosity, as
shown in Eq. 15:

(15)

where HI_f is the hydrogen index of liquid phase in the flushed zone at the reservoir conditions.
Considering that Sxgdmr is computed from two shallow measurements, density and NMR, it can be
assumed as the residual gas saturation in the shallow zone. In other words, (1-Sxgdmr) is the maximum water
saturation that can be expected in the reservoir at a particular depth. Core analysis data report residual gas
saturations of approximately 19%. This value can be used as reference for minimum gas saturation value
expected.
The estimations of (1- Sxgdmr) and SwirrBFV indicate the range of true value of water saturation. A narrow
band between both saturations would indicate less uncertainty. Overlap of both saturations predicts the true
water saturation, as can be observed in the last track of Fig. 11. Because we expect shallow mud filtrate
invasion in wells drilled with OBM, it is possible that the shallow water saturation estimation from dielectric,
or the gas saturation from the NMR and density combination, approaches the true saturations in the virgin
zone.
SPE-192942-MS 15

Figure 11—Fluid saturation analysis.

To do the final adjustments on the water saturation calculation using conventional resistivity methods,
is is necessary to define the values for the Archie's electrical parameters. The left panel of Fig. 12 shows
a histogram of MN_ADT values in the reservoir, excluding shale zones with a VCL cutoff. On the right
panel is the cementation exponent m from core data obtained in different wells. Note that statistically the
average values are very close. Comparison of the computed MN_ADT curve to the scarce core data showed
that all the sands have similar values for this textural parameter, so we can use constant Archie electrical
parameters "calibrated" to the average MN in those wells without dielectric logs. Core data show that the
saturation exponent n is on average close to 2. Note that because of the presence of clay in the reservoirs,
Archie's parameters are effective parameters.
16 SPE-192942-MS

Figure 12—Archie's textural parameters from dielectric dispersion measurement

MN_ADT (left panel) and cementation exponent m from core data (right panel).

Simandoux is the widely used water saturation equation for the tight gas reservoirs in the Grupo Cuyo.
Fig. 13 shows the comparison of different saturation estimations. In track 2 is shown the water saturation
using the Simandoux equation (SWSIM, green solid curve) together with the saturations already mentioned
computed from resistivity-independent methods. In track 3 is added the water saturation from dielectric
dispersion measurement (SWXOADT, black solid curve). The closeness of water saturation values through
the different methods gives confidence in the true value of hydrocarbon saturation.

Figure 13—Comparison of different saturation estimations.

SPE-192942-MS 17

Poro-Fluid Facies
A wide variety of methodologies exists to determine rock types (lithofacies, petrofacies, and electrofacies)
with their respective definition. Usually, the decision to select one or another methodology depends on the
data available, user knowledge, and confidence to handle the methodology. The main goal is to obtain the
best relation between formation geology and petrophysical properties to the well's productivity.
Some authors have described the implementation of different rock typing methodologies in formations of
Grupo Cuyo. Licitra et al. (2010) proposed a workflow that integrates the petrology through the sedimentary
facies and physical rock properties with the definition of hydraulic rock types in the Lajas formation.
Naides (2010) proposed a methodology for the rock type definition based on the integration of mercury-
injection capillary pressure data (MICP), NMR logs, and other petrophysical properties for the Punta Rosada
formation.
The importance of pore structure on fluid flow and storage properties is well recognized in all types
of porous media. Our work proposes the facies definition based on the poro-fluid components underlying
the formation T2 distribution, called poro-fluid facies. Getting the poro-fluid facies from NMR data is
accomplished through the NMR factor analysis technique described by Jain et al. (2013). The principle of
NMR factor analysis is based on the extraction of multimodal information from the NMR T2 distributions
to determine the optimal number of dominant modes (factors) that allow describing the reservoir.
The workflow to determine the poro-fluid facies is described below:
1. The workflow first determines the optimal number of modes called "factors" in input NMR data. Each
factor is associated to a "poro-fluid component" and respective "poro-fluid volumes".
2. Poro-fluid facies are determined by classifying poro-fluid volumes using advanced clustering
technique and are characterized by mean T2 distributions.
Fig. 14 shows the results of NMR factor analysis processing. Eight factors are identified, which
correspond to specific pore size or fluid in the formation. Below 3-ms T2 cutoff, three factors are found (S1,
S2, and S3). Each factor could relate to different clay type, but this remains unproven. Between 3ms and 33
ms T2, two factors are observed (S4 and S5), likely related to capillary bound water in different pore sizes.
Above the 33-ms T2, three other factors (S6, S7, and S8) are observed that can be related to different pore
size of type of fluids in the formation, mainly gas and OBM filtrate, as discussed above.

Figure 14—Factor analysis. Determination of number of factors. The 3-ms and 33-ms T2 cutoffs are displayed as reference.
18 SPE-192942-MS

Initial application of this analysis is the adjustment of the number of porosity bins and their T2 cutoffs
respectively. In the case of Lindero Atravesado field, it seems the T2 cutoffs (3 and 33 ms) define reasonably
well the bound and free fluids. This observation supports the irreducible water saturation (SwirrBFV)
estimation done with NMR bound fluid volume.
The poro-fluid facies are obtained via an automatic classification of poro-fluid factor volumes with
an advanced clustering technique. The track 2 of Fig. 15 shows the poro-fluid volume from NMR factor
analysis, which are used subsequently to obtain the poro-fluid facies shown in the track 3. Note that the
purple color facies correlates well with the highest value of production log (PLT) (track 4) and other
petrophysical properties such as porosity (track 6) and permeability (track 7).

Figure 15—Poro-fluid bins from factor analysis and poro-fluid facies from cluster
analysis. The PLT results are shown in the track 4, where the gas production of each
test is shown in the horizontal scale, and the test interval is the height of the red boxes.

To propagate poro-fluid facies to other wells having the same underlying poro-fluid components (factors),
a cluster tagging tool is used to find similar patterns, as inreference clusters, indata sets from different wells.
In a 1000-m average total gross thickness that covers the Lajas and Punta Rosada formations, 25 to
30 depth intervals were identified. Among those intervals, between 10 to 15 productive intervals were
recognized. To futher analyze multiple productive intervals, measurements were sorted by poro-fluid facies
to better understand relationships between poro-fluid facies and petrophysical properties, mineralogy and
other log responses as shown in Fig. 16.
From Fig. 16, it is observed that the purple and black facies correlate well with the best petrophysical
properties, mainly porosity and permeability. Mineralogically, these two facies look similar, but the purple
SPE-192942-MS 19

facies have lower water saturation and longer T2 (the "texture property"). The brown, red, and yellow facies
have similar mineralogy, but slightly higher clay content resulting in progressively faster T2s, less porosity.
and less permeability than the purple and black facies. Yellow facies seen to have the poorest petrophysical
properties within the rock reservoirs. Green, light blue, and blues facies are classified as nonreservoir rocks.
The true resistivity (RT) in the track 2 shows similar resistivity magnitude in all the reservoir rocks.

Figure 16—Sorting petrophysical properties by poro-fluid facies.

Fig. 17 shows the relationship of poro-fluid facies with the production data from PLTs. It shows a good
correlation between the purple facies thickness and the well productivity. Well A has the best production
and more presence of purple facies; in contrast, for well E, purple facies are almost absent, and the well
production is lower.
20 SPE-192942-MS

Figure 17—Relationship of poro-fluid facies with well production.

It cannot be concluded that the production of the wells is only related to the purple and black facies; there
are other factors to be considered, such as reservoir pressure, well completion practices, and other variables
that are beyond the scope of this work. Nevertheless, there is a good indication of the link between the good
poro-fluid facies and the well productivity.

Conclusions
A formation evaluation workflow for Lajas and Punta Rosada formations is proposed to obtain an accurate
mineralogical model and the best estimation of petrophysical properties. The workflow is supported with
advanced log measurements such as induced GR spectroscopy, NMR, and dielectric dispersion.
The advanced induced GR spectroscopy is invaluable for accurate mineralogy characterization and to
provide matrix properties to account for the lithology effects on the density and thermal neutron porosity
computations. The petrophysical parameters estimated by the dielectric dispersion log, together with core
analysis, helped to adjust the Archie's parameters m and n and Rw to estimate water saturation from resistivity
with greater confidence. The DMR method, combining NMR and matrix-corrected density porosity, is used
to obtain both gas-corrected porosity and resistivity-independent gas saturation in the shallow zone.
NMR Factor analysis proved to be a useful tool to define and characterize the optimal number of poro-
fluid components, with respective T2 cutoffs in the reservoir. Moreover poro-fluid facies helped establish
the realtionship between petrophysical properties and well productivity, making poro-fluid facies a potential
predictive tool.
The estimation of petrophysical properties using the proposed workflow are found to be accurate and
provided key inputs to the development of static and dynamic models for the Lindero Atravesado field.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Pan American Energy management for their support and permission to
publish this paper and the Schlumberger team for the efforts taken to review the manuscript.
SPE-192942-MS 21

References
Coates, G.R. and Dumanoir, J.L. 1973. A new approach to improved log-derived permeability. Presented at the SPWLA
14th Annual Logging Symposium, Lafayette, Lousiana, USA, 6-9 May.
Freedman, R. Cao Minh, C., Gubelin,et al. 1998. Combining NMR and Density logs for petrophysical analysis in gas-
bearing formations. Presented at the SPWLA 39th Annual Logging Symposium, Keystone, Colorado, USA, 26-28
May.
Gaymard, R. and Poupon, A. 1968. Response of neutron and formation density logs in hydrocarbon bearing formations.
The Log Analyst 9 (5).
Jain, V., Cao Minh, C., Heaton, N. et al. 2013. Characterization of underlying pore and fluid structure using factor analysis
on NMR data. Presented at the SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, 22–26 June.
Herron, M., 1987. Estimating the intrinsic permeability of clastic sediments from geochemical data. Presented at the
SPWLA 28th Annual Logging Symposium, London, England, 29 June—2 July.
Herron, M. and Mattenson, A. 1993. Elemental composition and nuclear parameters of some common sedimentary
minerals. Nucl. Geophys. 7 (3): 383–406.
Herron, S.L. and Herron, M.M. 2000. Application of Nuclear Spectroscopy Logs to the Derivation of Formation Matrix
Density. SPWLA 41st Annual Logging Symposium, Dallas, Texas, USA, 4-7 June.
Hizem, M., Budan, H., Deville, B. et al. 2008. Dielectric dispersion: a new wireline petrophysical measurement. Presented
at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, USA, 21–24 September. SPE-116130-
MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/1161130-MS
Kenyon, W.E., Day, P.I., Straley, C. 1988a. A Three-Part study of NMR longitudinal relaxation properties of water-
saturated sandstones. Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference, September. SPE-15643-MS.
Kenyon, W.E., Day, P,I., Straley, C. et al. 1988b. A Three-Part Study of NMR Longitudinal Relaxation Properties of
Water-Saturated Sandstones. SPE Form Eval 3: 622–636. SPE-15643-PA. https://doi.org/10.2118/15643-PA
Kleinberg, R.L. and Vinegar, H.J. 1996. NMR Properties of reservoir fluids. The Log Analyst 37(6): 20–32.
Kukal, G.C. and Simons, K.E. 1986a. Log Analysis Techniques for Quantifying the Permeability of Submillidarcy
Sandstone Reservoirs. Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference. SPE 13880.
Kukal, G.C. and Simons, K.E. 1986b. Log Analysis Techniques for Quantifying the Permeability of Submillidarcy
Sandstone Reservoirs. SPE Form Eval 1: 609–622. SPE-13880-PA. https://doi.org/10.2118/13880-PA
Lamberghini, L., Parra, D., Alonso, E. et al. 2017. Performance Based Reservoir Characterization in a Tight Gas Reservoir
System — Case Study from Lajas and Punta Rosada Formations in the Neuquén Basin, Argentina. Presented at
the Unconventional Resources Technology Conference, Austin, Texas, USA, 24-26 July. URTeC: 2697509. http://
dx.doi.org/10.15530/urtec-2017-2697509
Licitra, D., Bravin, N., Montagna, A. et al. 2011. Caracterizacion petrofisica de la fm. Lajas en el yacimiento Lajas Tight
Gas, a partir de la definicion de tipos de rocas y unidades hidraulicas de flujo. Area Aguada Toledo-Sierra Barrosa,
Cuenca Neuquina. Presented at the VIII Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos. Mar del Plata,
Argentina.
Montagna, A., Licitra, D., Gutierrez, F. et al. 2011. Incertidumbre en la caracterización petrofísica, con énfasis en la
interpretación de registros eléctricos, de los reservorios "Tight". Caso de estudio la Fm. Lajas, Sierra barrosa – Aguada
Toledo – Loma La Lata, Neuquén, Argentina. VIII Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos. Mar del
Plata, Argentina. Noviembre.
Mosse, L., Rodriguez, L., Chiapello, E. et al. 2014. Accurate lithology and TOC obtained from an induced gamma ray
spectroscopy tool: two major challenges in shale reservoirs. Presented at the IX Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo
de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, 3–7 November.
Naides, C., 2010. Petrophysical analysis method to identify "Sweet Spots" in tight reservoirs: Case study from Punta
Rosada fm. in Neuquen basin, Argentina. Presented at the SPE Latin American & Caribbean Petroleum Engineering
Conference, Lima, Peru, 1–3 December. SPE-121313-MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/121313-MS
Naipauer, M., Brinkworth, W., Loss, M.L. et al. 2017. Estudio integral de datos geocronologicos (edades U-PB) y sísmicos
en el subsuelo del engolfamiento neuquino: edades máximas de sedimentación y áreas de aporte para el grupo cuyo.
Presented at the XX Congreso Geológico Argentino, San Miguel de Tucumán, 7–11 de agosto.
Radtke, R.J., Lorente, M., Adolph, R., et al. 2012. A new capture and inelastic spectroscopy tool takes geochemical logging
to the next level. Presented at the SPWLA 53rd Annual Logging Symposium, Cartagena, Colombia, 16–20 June.
Schlumberger. 2013. Log Interpretation Charts. https://www.slb.com/resources/publications/books/log_charts.aspx
(accessed 13 September 2018).
Straley, C., Rossini, D., Vinegar, H., et al. 1997. Core Analysis by Low-Field NMR. The Log Analyst 38 (2).
Timur, A., 1968. An investigation of permeability, porosity, and residual water saturation relationships for sandstone
reservoirs. Presented at the SPWLA 9th Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans, Lousiana, 23–26 June.