CHAPTER 2

ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS(CHARGES AT REST)

Electrostatic field is produced by a static (time invariant) charge distribution.
A typical example of such a field is found in a cathode-ray tube.
Application Areas of Electrostatics:
 Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and lightning protection systems.
 Solid-state electronic devices (resistors, capacitors, bipolar and field effect transistors)
 Almost all computer peripheral devices (touch pads, capacitance keyboards, cathode-ray
tubes, liquid crystal displays, and electrostatic printers).
 In medical work (in electrocardiograms, electroencephalograms, and recordings of organs
withelectrical activity including eyes, ears, and stomachs).
 In industry (paint spraying, electrodeposition, electrochemical machining,and separation of
fine particles.)
 In agriculture(to sort seeds, directsprays to plants, measure the moisture content of crops,
spin cotton, and speed baking of bread and smoking of meat).
The two fundamental laws governing electrostatic fields are
(1) Coulomb's law, and
(2) Gauss's law.
Regarding to these two laws:
 Both are based on experimental studies and are interdependent.
 Coulomb's law is used in finding the electric field due to any charge configuration,
 Gauss's law is used in finding the electric field due to symmetrical charge distribution.
Here we will see
⤿ Concept of electric field intensitybased on Coulomb's law (to cases involving point, line,
surface, and volume charges) and
⤿ Special problems that are hard solving by using Coulomb's law will be solved by applying
Gauss's law easily.
2.1 Coulomb's Law
Coulomb's law:
 Deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point charge.
 A point charge means a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions are much
smaller than other relevant dimensions. (eg: a collection of electric charges on a pinhead).
Charges are measured in coulombs (C). 1C ≅ 6𝑥1018 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠.
 States that the force F between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
⤿ Along the line joining them.
⤿ Directly proportional to the product Q1Q2 of the charges.
⤿ Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them.Expressed
𝐾𝑄1 𝑄2
mathematically,𝐹 = , where
𝑅2

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 1
𝐾= ≅ 9𝑥109 (𝑚/𝐹)is proportionality constant,
4𝜋𝜀0
Q1 and Q2 are charges in coulombs (C),R is distance in meters (m), and F is force in Newtons(N).
The constant 𝜀0 is known as the permittivity of free space (in farads per meter) and has the value
10−9
𝜀0 = 8.854𝑥10−12 (𝐹/𝑚) ≅ (𝐹/𝑚)
36𝜋
Thus, the above equation becomes,

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having position vectors r1 and r2, then the
force F12 on Q2 due to Q1, shown in Figure 2.1, is given by

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐅12 = 𝒂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2 𝑅12
𝐑 12
Where 𝐑12 = 𝐫2 − 𝐫1 , 𝑅 = |𝐑12 |,𝐚𝑅12 =
𝑅

By substituting,

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2 (𝒓2 − 𝒓1 )
𝐅12 = 𝒂 = 𝑹 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2 𝑅12 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 12 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓2 − 𝒓1 |3

Figure 2.1: Coulomb vector force on point changes Q1 and Q2.

Note the following conclusions from the above equations.
(1). As shown in Figure 2.1, the force F21, on Q1due to Q2is given by
𝐅21 = |𝐅12 |𝐚𝑅21 = |𝐅12 |(−𝐚𝑅12 )or𝐅21 = −𝐅12 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐚𝑅21 = −𝐚𝑅12
(2). Like charges (charges of the same sign) repel each other while unlike charge attract.
Thisis illustrated in Figure 2.2 below.

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 Figure 2.2 (a), (b) Like charges repel; (c) unlike charges attract
(3). Q1 and Q2must be point charges.
(4). Q1 and Q2must be static (at rest).
(5). The signs of Q1 and Q2must be taken into account.

Principle of Superposition
 Used to determine force on one particular charge due to more than two point charges.
 The total force is the vector sum of individual contribution. i.e
 If there are N chargesQ1,Q2,…,QNlocated, respectively, at points with position vectors r1,
r2,…, rN, theresultant force F on a charge Qlocated at point r is
𝑄𝑄1 (𝒓−𝒓1 ) 𝑄𝑄2 (𝒓−𝒓2 ) 𝑄𝑄𝑁 (𝒓−𝒓𝑁 )
𝐅= + + ⋯+ or
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓1 |3 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓2 |3 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓𝑁 |3
𝑁
𝑄 𝑄𝑘 (𝒓 − 𝒓𝑘 )
𝐅= ∑
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓 − 𝒓 𝑘 |3
𝑘=1

2.2 Electric Field Intensity(E)

(a) E Due to point Charges
The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is

⤿ The force per unit charge when placed in the electric field.
⤿ In the direction of the force F and is measured in Newtons/Coulomb or Volts/meter.
⤿ The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge Q located at r'is given by
𝐅 𝑄 𝑄(𝒓 − 𝑟 ′ )
𝐄 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ⇒ 𝐄 = 𝒂 =
𝑸→𝟎 𝑸 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓 − 𝑟 ′ |3
⤿ For N point charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , … , 𝑄𝑁 located at 𝐫1 , 𝐫2 , … , 𝐫𝑁 , then E at point ris

𝑄1 (𝒓−𝒓1 ) 𝑄2 (𝒓−𝒓2 ) 𝑄𝑁 (𝒓−𝒓𝑁 )

𝐄= + + ⋯+ or
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓1 |3 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓2 |3 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓𝑁 |3
𝑁
1 𝑄𝑘 (𝒓 − 𝒓𝑘 )
𝐄= ∑
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓 − 𝒓 𝑘 |3
𝑘=1
Example:Point charges 1𝑚𝐶 and −2𝑚𝐶 are located at (3, 2, - 1) and (-1, -1,4), respectively.
Calculate the electric force F on a 10𝑛𝐶charge located at (0, 3, 1) and the electric field
intensity Eat that point.
Solution: Let𝑄 = 10𝑛𝐶@ 𝐫 = (0,3,1)
𝑄1 = 1𝑚𝐶 @ 𝐫1 = (3,2, −1)
𝑄2 = −2𝑚𝐶 @ 𝐫2 = (−1, −1,4)

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
Point charges 5𝑛𝐶 and −2𝑛𝐶 are located at (2,0, 4) and (-3,0, 5), respectively.
(a) Determine the force Fon a 1𝑛𝐶 point charge located at (1, -3, 7).
(b) Find the electric field E at (1, - 3, 7).
Answer: (a) -1.004ax - 1.284 ay + 1.4aznN,
(b) -1.004 ax - 1.284 ay +1.4az V/m.

(b) E Due To Continuous Charge Distributions

As we can have point charges, it is also possible to have continuous charge distributions
 along a line,
 on a surface, or
 in a volume as illustrated in the following figure 2.3

Figure2.3: Various charge distributions and charge elements

 The line charge density, surface charge density, and volume charge density are
represented by𝜌𝐿 (C⁄𝑚), 𝜌𝑆 (C⁄𝑚2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑉 (C⁄𝑚3 ), respectively.
 The charge element 𝑑Qand the total charge Qdue to these charge distributions are

𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙 ⟶ 𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
𝐿

𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆 ⟶ 𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆 = ∬ 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
𝑆

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 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 ⟶ 𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
𝑣

 E due to 𝜌𝐿 , 𝜌𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑉 may be regarded as the summation of the field contributed by

the numerous point charges making up the chargedistribution.
 Thus, by replacing Q in the point charge expression with charge element
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙, 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆, 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣and integrating, we get

𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙
𝐄=∫ 𝒂 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅
𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆
𝐄=∬ 𝒂 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐄=∭ 𝒂 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅
Now, let see them one by one.
(1). A Line Charge (𝜌𝐿 )
Consider a line charge with uniform charge density 𝜌𝐿 extending from A to B along the z-
axis as shown in Figure 2.4. The charge element dQassociated with element dl = dzof the
line is𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑧and hence the total charge Q is
𝑧𝐵
𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑧
𝑧𝐴

Figure2.4: Evaluation of the E field due to line charge

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NB:
 The field pointis represented by the unprimed(x, y, z) and
 the source point represented by the primed(x', y', z').
Thus, Eat an arbitrary point P(x, y, z) from the source point (x', y', z')in figure2.4 is obtained
as shown below

Substituting all this into equation of E given above, we get

To evaluate this, it is convenient that we define 𝛼, 𝛼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛼2 as in Figure 2.4

Hence, E becomes

Thus,
⤿ for a finite line charge,

⤿ for an infinite line charge,

𝜋 𝜋
Since point 𝐵 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 (0,0, ∞) ⟹ 𝛼1 = (0,0, ) and 𝐴 (0,0, −∞) ⟹ 𝛼2 = −
2 2

⤿ In general, 𝜌 is the perpendicular distance from the line to the point of interest and 𝒂𝜌
is a unit vector along that distance directed from theline charge to the field point.

(2). A Surface Charge (𝝆𝑺 )

Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the xy-plane with uniform charge densit𝜌𝑆 .
The charge associated with an elemental area dSis

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 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = ∬ 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆

The contribution to the E field at point P(0, 0, h) by the elemental surface1 in Figure 2.5 is

𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑬 = 𝒂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅

Figure 2.5: Evaluation of the E field due to an infinite sheet of charge.

From the above figure 2.5,

Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every element 1, there is a corresponding
element 2 whose contribution along 𝒂𝜌 cancels that of element 1, as illustrated in
Figure 2.5. Thus, the contributions to𝑬𝜌 add up to zero so that E has only z-component.
This can also be shown mathematically by replacing 𝒂𝜌 with 𝒂𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝒂𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝒂𝑦 .
Integration of 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ or 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ over 0 < ∅ < 2𝜋 gives zero. Therefore,

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⤿ In general, for an infinite sheet of charge
𝜌𝑆
𝐄= 𝒂
2𝜀0 𝑛
wherean is a unit vector normal to the sheet.
⤿ E is normal to the sheet & is independent of the distance between the sheet and the
point of observation P.
⤿ In a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field existing between the two plates having
equal and opposite charges is given by
𝜌𝑆 𝜌𝑆 𝜌𝑆
𝐄= 𝒂 +− (−𝒂𝑛 ) = 𝒂𝑛
2𝜀0 𝑛 2𝜀0 𝜀0
(3). A Volume Charge (𝜌𝑣 )
 Take the volume charge distribution with uniform charge density𝜌𝑣 in Figure 2.6.
 The charge dQ associated with the elemental volume dv is𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 and hence, the
total charge in a sphere of radius a is
4𝜋𝑎3
𝑄 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 ∭ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣
3
 The electric field dE at P(0, 0, z) due to the elementary volume charge is
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑬 = 𝒂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅

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 Figure 2.6: E field due to a volume charge distribution.

where 𝒂𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝒂𝑧 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝒂𝜌 . Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the
contributionsto Exor Eyadd up to zero. We are left with only Ez, given by

𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐄. 𝒂𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = ∭
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
Again, we need to derive expressions for dv, R2, and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼.

Applying the cosine rule to Figure, we have

′
𝑅 2 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑟 ′2 − 2𝑧𝑟 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑟 ′2 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑅 2 − 2𝑧𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
It is convenient to evaluate the integral in terms of R and r'.
Hence, we express𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ′ ,𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ′ 𝑑𝜃 ′ in terms of R and r', that is,

Substituting yields

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 Thus,
𝑄
𝐄= 𝒂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑧 𝟐 𝒛
⤿ This result is obtained for E atP(0, 0, z).
 In general, due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, Eat𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃, ∅)is given by
𝑄
𝐄= 𝒂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝟐 𝒓
 This is identical to E at the same point due to a point charge Q located atthe origin or
the center of the spherical charge distribution.
Example1:
The finite sheet 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒has a charge density
3
𝜌𝑆 = 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 25) ⁄2 𝑛𝐶⁄𝑚2. Find
(a) The total charge on the sheet(b) The electric field at (0, 0, 5)
(c) The force experienced by a -1mC charge located at (0, 0, 5)

Solution:
1 1 3
(a) 𝑄 = ∬ 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 25) ⁄2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑛C
Since 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 1⁄2 𝑑(𝑥 2 ), we now integrate with respect to 𝑥 2 (𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒: 𝑥 2 =
𝑢 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢⁄2).
1 1 1
3
𝑄 = ∬ 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝑦 ∫ 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 25) ⁄2 𝑑(𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦 𝑛C
2 0 0
1 1 2 2 5
= ∫ 𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 25) ⁄2 |10 𝑑𝑦 𝑛C
2 0 5
1 11 2 5 5
= ∫ (𝑦 + 26) ⁄2 − (𝑦 2 + 25) ⁄2 𝑑(𝑦 2 ) 𝑛C
5 0 2
1 2 7 7
𝑄= . [(𝑦 2 + 26) ⁄2 − (𝑦 2 + 25) ⁄2 ] |10 = 33.15 𝑛C
10 7

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Example 2:
Planes 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −3, respectively, carry charges 10 𝑛C⁄𝑚2 and 15 𝑛C⁄𝑚2 .
If the line𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 2carries charge10𝜋 𝑛C⁄𝑚, calculate E at (1, 1, -1) due to the three
chargedistributions.
Solution:
LetE= E1+ E2+E3
Where E1, E2and E3 are respectively, the contributions to E at point (1,1,-1) due to the infinite
sheet 1, infinite sheet 2, and infinite line 3
𝜌𝑆1 10.10−9
𝐄1 = (−𝒂𝑥 ) = − 10−9
𝒂𝑥 = −180𝜋𝒂𝑥
2𝜀0 2.
36𝜋
𝜌 𝑆2 15.10−9
𝐄2 = (𝒂𝑦 ) = 10−9
𝒂𝑦 = 270𝜋𝒂𝑦 and
2𝜀0 2. 36𝜋
𝜌𝐿
𝐄3 = 𝒂
2𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 𝜌

where𝒂𝜌 is a unit vector along LP perpendicular to the line charge and p is the length LP to
be determined from Figure 2.7 (b). Figure 2.7(b) results from Figure 2.7(a) if we consider
plane y = 1 on which E3 lies. From Figure 2.7(b), the distance vector from L to P is
𝑹 1 3
𝑹 = −3𝒂𝑧 + 𝒂𝑥 → 𝜌 = |𝑹| = √10 , 𝒂𝜌 = = 𝒂𝑥 − 𝒂𝑧
|𝑹| √10 √10
Hence,
10𝜋. 10−9 1
𝐄3 = . (𝒂𝑥 − 3𝒂𝑧 ) = 18𝜋(𝒂𝑥 − 3𝒂𝑧 )
10−9 10
2𝜋.
36𝜋
Thus, by adding E1, E2and E3 we obtain the total field as
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 𝐄 = −162𝜋𝒂𝑥 + 270𝜋𝒂𝑦 − 54𝜋𝒂𝑧 𝑉⁄𝑚

Figure 2.7For Example 2:

(a) three charge distributions;
(b) finding𝜌and 𝒂𝜌 on plane y = 1.

2.3 Electric Flux Density(D)

 While E is dependent on the medium in which the charge is placed, Dis independent
of the medium and is defined by
𝑫 = 𝜀0 𝑬
 We define electric flux 𝚿 in terms of D using
𝚿 = ∬ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺
 Since one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and terminates on - 1 C, then𝚿is
measured in coulombs(C). Hence, the vector field D is called the electric flux
densityand is measured in coulombs per square meter (C/m2).
 All the formulas derived for E from Coulomb's lawcan be used in calculating D,
except that we have to multiply those formulas by𝜀0 . Thus,
𝜌𝐿
𝒂 (𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
2𝜋𝜌 𝜌
𝜌𝑆
𝐃= 𝒂 (𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
2 𝑛
𝑄
{4𝜋𝑟 𝟐 𝒂𝒓 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)

Example:
Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is a point charge −5𝜋𝑚C at (4, 0, 0) and a line charge3𝜋𝑚C/
malong the y-axis.
Solution:
Let𝐃 = 𝐃𝑳 + 𝐃𝑸 where𝐃𝑳 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐃𝑸 are flux densities due to the line charge and point charge,
respectively,
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 Figure 2.8 Flux density D due to a point charge and an infinite line charge
𝑄 𝑄(𝒓 − 𝒓′ )
𝐃𝑸 = 𝜀0 𝐄 = 𝒂𝒓 =
4𝜋𝑟𝟐 𝟑
4𝜋|𝒓 − 𝒓′ |
Where𝒓 − 𝒓′ = (4,0,3) − (4,0,0) = (0,0,3). Hence,
−3
−5𝜋. 10 (0,0,3)
𝐃𝑸 = 𝟑
= −0.138𝒂𝑧 𝑚C/𝑚2
4𝜋|(0,0,3)|
Also
𝜌𝐿
𝐃𝐿 = 𝒂
2𝜋𝜌 𝜌
(4,0,3)−(0,0,0) (4,0,3)
In this case𝒂𝜌 =
|(4,0,3)−(0,0,0)|
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 = |(4,0,3) − (0,0,0)| = 5
5
Hence,
3𝜋
𝐃𝐿 = (4𝒂𝑥 + 3𝒂𝑧 ) = 0.24𝒂𝑥 + 0.18𝒂𝑧 𝑚C/𝑚2
2𝜋(25)
Thus,
𝐃 = 𝐃𝑳 + 𝐃𝑸 = 240𝒂𝑥 + 42𝒂𝑧 𝜇C/𝑚2

2.4 Gauss's Law—Maxwell's Equation

Gauss's law states that
 Ψthrough any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.i.e
Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
sinceΨ = ∮ 𝑑Ψ = ∯ 𝐃. 𝑑𝑺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Thus,

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∯ 𝐃. 𝑑𝑺 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 … … … (𝑥)

By applying divergence theorem to the middle term

∯ 𝐃. 𝑑𝑺 = ∭(∇. 𝐃)𝑑𝑣 … … … . (𝑥𝑥)

 Comparing right sides of equations (𝑥) and (𝑥𝑥), we obtain
Page | 13
 𝜌𝑣 = ∇. 𝐃 (1𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
i.e thevolume charge density is the same as the divergence of D.
 Gauss's law is an alternative statement of Coulomb's law;
 Gauss's law provides an easy means of finding E or D for symmetrical charge
distributions such as
 a point charge,
 an infinite line charge,
 an infinite cylindrical surface charge, and
 a spherical distribution of charge
 A continuous charge distribution has
 rectangular symmetry if it depends only on x (or y or z),
 cylindrical symmetry if it depends only on 𝜌, or
 spherical symmetry if it depends only on r (independent of 𝜃 and ∅).
 Whether the charge distribution is symmetric or not, Gauss's law alwaysholds.
Example
Consider the charge distribution in Figure 2.9 where v1 and v2 are closed surfaces (or
volumes). The total flux leaving v1is 10𝑛C − 5𝑛C = 5𝑛C because only 10𝑛Cand
−5𝑛Ccharges are enclosed by v1.
Since charges 20𝑛C and 15𝑛C outside v1 do not contribute to the flux crossing v1; the net
flux crossing v1, according to Gauss's law,is irrespective of those charges outside v1.
Similarly, the total flux leaving v2 is zero because no charge is enclosed by v2.
Thus, we see that Gauss's law,Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 is still obeyed even though the charge distribution
is not symmetric. However, we cannot use the law to determine E or D when the charge
distribution is not symmetric; we must use Coulomb's law to determine E or D in that case.

Figure 2.9: Illustration of Gauss's law;

flux leaving v1 is 5𝑛C and that of leaving v2 is 0

2.4.1 Applications Of Gauss's Law

The procedure for applying Gauss's law to calculate E and Dinvolves
⤿ First know whether symmetry exists.
⤿ Once symmetric charge distribution exists, construct a mathematical closed
surface (known as a Gaussian surface). The surface is chosen such that D is normal
or tangential to the Gaussian surface.

Page | 14
 ⤿ When D is normal to the surface, 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐷𝑑𝑆 sinceD is constant on the surface.
When D is tangential to the surface, 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺=0.
⤿ Thus, we must choose a surface that has some of the symmetry exhibited by the
charge distribution. Let us see the ideas to the following cases.

(𝒊)𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
Suppose a point charge Q is located at the origin. To determine D at a point P, choosing a
spherical surface containing P will satisfy symmetry conditions.
Thus, a spherical surface centered at the origin is the Gaussian surface in this case and is
shown in Figure 2.10, below.

Figure 2.10:Gaussian surface about a point charge

Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is, 𝐃 = 𝐷𝑟 𝒂𝑟 D.
If we applyingGauss's law (Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 )we get (to know 𝐷𝑟 )

Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∯ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐷𝑟 ∯ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2

2𝜋 𝜋
Where ∯ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ = 4𝜋𝑟 2 is the surface area of the Gaussian surface
(area of sphere of radius r).
Thus,
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐷𝑟 = ⟹ 𝐃 = 𝒂 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
(𝒊𝒊)𝑰𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge 𝜌𝐿 C/𝑚lies along the z-axis. To determine D at
a point P, we choose a cylindrical surface containing P to satisfy symmetry condition as shown
in Figure 2.11.
D is constant on and normal to the cylindrical Gaussian surface; that is,𝐃 = 𝐷𝜌 𝒂𝜌 .
If we apply Gauss's law to an arbitrary length ℓ of the line (to know 𝐷𝜌 )

𝜌𝐿 ℓ = 𝑄 = ∯ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐷𝜌 ∯ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝜌 2𝜋𝜌ℓ
Where ∯ 𝑑𝑆 = 2𝜋𝜌ℓ is the surface area of the Gaussian surface (area of cylinder whose
radius is 𝜌 and heightℓ).
Page | 15
Note that∬ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 0on the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder since D has no z-
component;that means that D is tangential to those surfaces.
Thus,
𝜌 𝜌
𝐷𝜌 = 𝐿 ⟹ 𝐃 = 𝐷𝜌 𝒂𝜌 = 𝐿 𝒂𝜌 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 )
2𝜋𝜌 2𝜋𝜌

Figure 2.11 Gaussian surface about an infinite line charge

(𝒊𝒊𝒊)𝑰𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆

Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge 𝜌𝑆 C/𝑚2 lying on the z = 0 plane.
To determine D at point P, we choose a rectangular box that is cut symmetrically by the sheet
ofcharge and has two of its faces parallel to the sheet as shown in Figure 2.12 below.
As D is normalto the sheet,𝐃 = 𝐷𝑧 𝒂𝑧 , and applying Gauss's lawgives (to know 𝐷𝑧 ).

𝜌𝑆 ∬ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄 = ∯ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐷𝑧 [∬ 𝑑𝑆 + ∬ 𝑑𝑆]
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

∬ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 0on the sides of the boxsince D has no components along ax and ay.
If the top and bottom area of the box each has area A, the above equation becomes
𝜌𝑆
𝜌𝑆 𝐴 = 𝐷𝑧 (𝐴 + 𝐴) ⟹ 𝐷𝑧 =
2
Thus,
𝜌𝑆
𝐃 = 𝐷𝑧 𝒂𝑧 = 𝒂 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
2 𝑧

Page | 16
 Figure 2.12: Gaussian surface about an infinite line sheet of charge.

(𝒊𝒗)𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒍𝒚 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆

Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform charge, 𝜌𝑣 C/𝑚3 .
To determine D everywhere, weconstruct Gaussian surfaces for cases𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎
separately. Since the charge has spherical symmetry, it is obvious that a spherical surface
is an appropriate Gaussiansurface.

Figure2.13: Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged sphere

(𝑎)𝑟 ≤ 𝑎and(𝑏) 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎

⤿ For 0 < 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎, the total charge enclosed by the spherical surface of radius r, as shown
in Figure 2.13 (a), is
2𝜋 𝜋 𝑟
4
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 ∭ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 ∫ 𝑑∅ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟 3
∅=0 𝜃=0 𝑟=0 3
2𝜋 𝜋
AndΨ = ∯ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐷𝑟 ∯ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 ∫∅=0 𝑑∅ ∫𝜃=0 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
Hence, Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 gives
4 𝑟 𝑟
𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟3 ⟹ 𝐷𝑟 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝐃 = 𝜌𝑣 𝒂𝑟
3 3 3
⤿ For 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎, the Gaussian surface is shown in Figure 2.13 (b). The charge enclosed by the
surface is the entire charge in this case, that is,

Page | 17
 2𝜋 𝜋 𝑎
4
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 ∭ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 ∫ 𝑑∅ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑎3
∅=0 𝜃=0 𝑟=0 3

While Ψ = ∯ 𝑫. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐷𝑟 ∯ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
Hence, Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 gives
2
4 𝑎3
3
𝑎3
𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑎 ⟹ 𝐷𝑟 = 2 𝜌𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝐃 = 2 𝜌𝑣 𝒂𝑟
3 3𝑟 3𝑟

In summary,
𝑟
𝜌 𝒂 , 0<𝑟≤𝑎
3 𝑣 𝑟
𝐃={ 3
𝑎
𝜌 𝒂, 𝑟≥𝑎
3𝑟 2 𝑣 𝑟
Graphically,

Figure 2.14: Sketch of |D| against r for a uniformly charged sphere.

⤿ In all cases from (i) to (iv), the ability to take D out of the integral sign is the key to
finding D using Gauss's law. i.e, D must be constant on the Gaussian surface.

Example1:
Given that 𝐃 = 𝑧𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝒂𝑧 C/𝑚2, calculate the charge density at (1, 𝜋/4,3) and the total
charge enclosed by the cylinder of radius 1 m with −2 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2𝑚.

Solution:
𝜕𝐷𝑧
𝜌𝑣 = 𝛁. 𝐃 = = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅
𝜕𝑧
2 𝜋 𝐶
at (1, 𝜋/4,3), 𝜌𝑣 = 1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = 0.5 ⁄ 3 . The total charge enclosed by the cylinder can
4 𝑚
be found in two ways:

Page | 18
Method 1: This method is based directly on the definition of the total volume charge.

𝑄 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧

1 2𝜋 2
2 2
1 4𝜋
=∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ( ) (𝜋)(4) =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑑∅ ∫ C
𝜌=0 ∅=0 𝑧=−2 3 3
Method 2: Alternatively, we can use Gauss's law.

𝑄 = Ψ = ∯ 𝐃. 𝑑𝑺 = [∫ + ∫ + ∫ ] 𝐃. 𝑑𝑺 = Ψ𝒔 + Ψ𝒕 + Ψ𝒃
𝑆 𝑡 𝑏
WhereΨ𝒔 , Ψ𝒕 , Ψ𝒃 arethe flux through the sides, the top surface, and the bottom surfaceof the
cylinder, respectively.
⤿ Since D does not have component along 𝒂𝜌 , then Ψ𝒔 = 0
⤿ For Ψ𝒕 , 𝑑𝑺 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝒂𝑧 so
2𝜋 1 2𝜋 1
1 2𝜋
Ψ𝒕 = ∫ ∫ 𝑧𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑑𝜌𝑑∅ |@𝑧=2 = 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑑∅ ∫ 𝜌2 𝑑𝜌 = 2(𝜋) ( ) =
2 2 2
C
∅=0 𝜌=0 ∅=0 𝜌=0 3 3
⤿ For Ψ𝒃 , 𝑑𝑺 = −𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝒂𝑧 , so
2𝜋 1 2𝜋 1 1 2𝜋
⤿ Ψ𝒃 = − ∫∅=0 ∫𝜌=0 𝑧𝜌2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑑𝜌𝑑∅ |@𝑧=−2 = 2 ∫∅=0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑑∅ ∫𝜌=0 𝜌2 𝑑𝜌 = 2(𝜋) ( ) = C
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
Thus, 𝑄 = Ψ = 0 + C+ C=
3 3 3

2.5 Electric Potential(V)

So far, we have seen as E due to a chargedistribution can beobtained
 from Coulomb's law in general or
 from Gauss's law when thecharge distribution is symmetric.
 Another way of obtaining E is from the electric scalar potentialV to be defined in this
section.

Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in an electric field E as
shown in Figure 2.15. From Coulomb's law,
 the force on Q is F = QEso that the work done in displacing the charge by dlis
𝑑𝑊 = −𝑭. 𝑑𝒍 = −𝑄𝑬. 𝑑𝒍
 The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.
 Thus, the total work done, or the potential energy required, in moving Q from A to B is
𝐵
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍
𝐴
 𝑊⁄𝑄 gives the potential energy per unit charge. This quantity, denoted by 𝑉AB , is
known as the potential differencebetween points A and B. Thus,
𝑊 𝐵
𝑉AB = = − ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍
𝑄 𝐴

Page | 19
 Figure2.15: Displacement of point charge Q in an electrostatic field E.
 In 𝑉AB , A is the initial point while B is the final point.
 If 𝑉AB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from A to B;this implies
that the work is being done by the field.
 If 𝑉AB is positive,there is a gain in potential energy in the movement; an external agent
performsthe work.
 𝑉AB is independent of the path taken (conservative/solenoidal vector)
 𝑉AB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly referred to as volts (V).

Example: Find 𝑉AB due to a point charge Q located at the origin.

Solution: From page 3,we have seen that E due to a point charge is given by
𝑄 𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 1 1
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 𝒂𝑟 ⟹ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫𝑟 𝐵 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 𝒂𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟𝒂𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 − 𝑟 ]or
0 𝐴 0 0 𝐵 𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
NB:
 𝑉𝐵 and𝑉𝐴 areabsolute potentialsat B and A, respectively.
 Thus, the potential difference 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is regarded as the potential at B with reference to A.
 Inproblems involving point charges, infinity is taken as reference; that is,we assume
the potential at infinity is zero. Thus, if 𝑉𝐴 = 0 (𝑟𝐴 ⟶ ∞), then the potentialat any
point (𝑟𝐵 ⟶ 𝑟)due to a point charge Q located at the origin is
𝑄
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
 The potential at any point is the potential difference between that point and a chosen
point in which the potential is zero.i.e
 By assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r from the point
charge is the work done per unit charge by an external agent in transferring a test
charge from infinity to that point. Thus,
𝑟 𝑄
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 =
∞ 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
 If the point charge Q is not located at the origin but at a point whose position vector is
r', the potential V(x, y, z) or simply V(r) at r becomes

Page | 20
 𝑄
𝑉(𝑟) =
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ |
 So far, we have considered the electric potential due to a point charge. The same basic
ideasapply to other types of charge distribution because any charge distribution can
be regardedas consisting of point charges.
 The superposition principle, which we applied to electricfields, applies to potentials.
 For N charges Q1, Q2,…, QNlocated at points with position vectors r1, r2,…, rN, the potential
at point r is
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄𝑁
V(𝐫) = + + ⋯ + or
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓1 | 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓2 | 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓𝑁 |
1 𝑄𝑘
V(𝐫) = ∑𝑁
𝑘=1 (point charges)
4𝜋𝜀0 |𝒓−𝒓𝑘 |
 For continuous charge distributions,
 replace 𝑄𝑘 with charge element𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙, 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆𝑜𝑟𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
 replace the summation with an integration,
 so the potential at r becomes
1 𝜌 (𝒓′ )𝑑𝑙 ′
𝐿
𝑉(𝑟) = ∫ (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐿 |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ |

1 𝜌𝑆 (𝒓′ )𝑑𝑆 ′
𝑉(𝑟) = ∬ (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑆 |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ |
1 𝜌𝑣 (𝒓′ )𝑑𝑣 ′
𝑉 (𝑟) = ∭ (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑣 |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ |
NB:
⤿ The primed coordinates are used to denote source point location and the unprimed
coordinates refer to field point (the point at which Vis to be determined).
⤿ The zero potential (reference) pointhas been chosen arbitrarily to be at infinity. If any
other point is chosen as reference, the equation becomes
𝑄
𝑉= +C
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
whereCis a constant that is determined at the chosen point of reference.
⤿ The potential at a point can be determined in two ways depending on whether
thecharge distribution or E is known. If the charge distribution is known, we use the
above equations depending on the charge distribution. If E is known, we simply use
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 + C

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⤿ The potential difference𝑉𝐴𝐵 can be found generally from
𝐵
𝑊
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 =
𝐴 𝑄
Example1: Two point charges - 4 uC and 5uC are located at (2, - 1 , 3) and (0, 4, - 2 ) ,
respectively.Find the potential at (1, 0, 1) assuming zero potential at infinity.

Example2: A point charge 5 nC is located at (-3 , 4, 0) while line y = 1, z = 1 carries

uniform charge2 nC/m.
(a) If V = 0 Volt at O(0, 0, 0), find V at A(5, 0, 1).
(b) If V = 100 Volt at B(1, 2, 1), find Vat C(-2, 5, 3).
(c) If V = - 5 Volt at O, find VBC.
Solution:Let the potential at any point be
V = VQ + VL
whereVQand VLare the contributions to V at that point due to the point charge and the
line charge, respectively.
For the point charge,

where
 C = C1 + C2 = constant,
 𝜌 is the perpendicular distance from the line y = 1, z = 1 to the field point, and
 r is the distance from the point charge to the field point.
(a). If V = 0Volt at O(0, 0, 0), and V at A(5, 0, 1) is to be determined, we must first
determine the values of 𝜌 and r at O and A.
To find𝜌 for any point (x, y, z), we utilize the fact that 𝜌 is the perpendicular distance from
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(x, y, z) to line y = 1, z = 1, which is parallel to the x-axis. Hence p is the distance between
(x, y, z) and (x, 1, 1) because the distance vector between the two points is perpendicular
to ax. Thus,

(b) If V = 100 at 5(1, 2, 1) and Vat C(-2, 5, 3) is to be determined, we find

(c) To find the potential difference between two points, we do not need a potential
reference if a common reference is assumed.
VBC= Vc - VB = 49.825 - 100= -50.175 V as obtained in part (b).

2.6 Relationship Between E And V (Maxwell's Equation)

As shown in the previous section, the potential difference between points A and B is
independent of the path taken. Hence,

𝑉𝐵𝐴 = −𝑉𝐴𝐵 ⟹ 𝑉𝐵𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = ∮ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0 ⟹ ∮ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0

This shows that

 The line integral of E along a closed path as shown in Figure 2.16 must be zero.
 No net work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic field.
 Applying Stokes's theorem to the above equation gives

∮ 𝐄. 𝑑𝒍 = ∬(∇ 𝑥𝐄). 𝑑𝑺 = 0 ⟹ ∇𝑥𝐄 = 0

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  Any vector field whose curl is zero as such is said to be conservative, or irrotational.
 Thus, an electrostatic field is a conservative field. The Equationis referred to as
Maxwell's equation.
 In short,
𝐄 = −∇𝑉
 That is, the electric field intensity is the gradient of V.
 The negative sign shows that the direction of E is opposite to the direction in which
V increases; E is directed from higher to lower levels of V.

Figure 2.16Conservative nature of an electrostatic field.

Example:
10
Given the potential𝑉 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑟
(a). Find the electric flux density D at (2, 𝜋⁄2 , 0).
(b). Findthe work done in moving a 10𝜇C charge from point A(l, 30°, 120°) toB(4, 90°, 60°).
Solution:
(a). 𝐃 = 𝜀0 𝐄but
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
𝐄 = −∇𝑉 = − [ 𝒂𝑟 + 𝒂𝜃 + 𝒂 ]
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕∅ ∅
20 10 10
= 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝒂𝑟 − 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝒂𝜃 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝒂∅
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
@(2, 𝜋⁄2 , 0),
20
𝐃 = 𝜀0 𝐄 = 𝜀0 ( 𝒂𝑟 − 0𝒂𝜃 + 0𝒂∅ ) = 2.5𝜀0 𝒂𝑟 𝐶⁄ 2
8 𝑚
(b). The work done can be found in two ways, using either E or V.
Method 1:
𝐵 𝐵
𝑊
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 𝑜𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍
𝐴 𝑄 𝐴
and because the electrostatic field is conservative, the path of integration is immaterial.
Hence, the work done in moving Q from A(l, 30°, 120°) to B(4, 90°, 60°) is the same asthat in
moving Q from A to A', from A' to B', and from B' to B where

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That is, instead of moving Q directly from A and B, it is moved from 𝐴 → 𝐴′ , 𝐴′ → 𝐵′ , 𝐵′ → 𝐵
so that only one variable is changed at a time. This makes the line integral a loteasier to
evaluate. Thus,

Method 2:
Since Vis known, this method is a lot easier.
𝐵
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑄𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑄(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
𝐴
10 10
= 10 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 𝑐𝑜𝑠600 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛300 𝑐𝑜𝑠1200 ) . 10−6 = 28.125𝜇𝐽
16 1

2.7 An Electric Dipole And Flux Lines

An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but opposite
sign are separated by a small distance.
An electric flux line(electric lines of force) is
 An imaginary path or line drawn whose direction at any point is the direction of the
electric field at that point. Or
 They are the lines to which the electric field density D is tangential at every point.
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An equipotential surface
⤿ Is any surface on which the potential is the same throughout.
⤿ Its intersection with a planeresults in a path or line known as an equipotential line.
No work is done in moving a charge from one point to another along an
equipotential line or surface (VA - VB = 0) and hence, on the line or surface,
∫ 𝐄. 𝑑𝒍 = 0
⤿ Thus, the lines of force or flux lines (or the direction of E) are always normal to
equipotential surfaces. Examples of equipotential surfaces for point charge and a
dipole are shown in Figure 2.17 below.

Figure2.17: Equipotential surfaces for

(a) a point charge and (b) an electric dipole.

2.8 Energy Density In Electrostatic Fields

To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, we must first determine the
amount of work necessary to assemble them.
 Suppose we wish to position three point charges Q1, Q2, and Q3in an initially empty
space shown shaded in Figure 2.18 below.
 No work is required to transfer Q1from infinity to P1since the space is initially charge
free and there is no electric field [thus, W = 0].
 The work done in transferring Q2from infinity to P2is equal to the product of Q2and the
potential V21 a t P2due to Q1.
 Similarly, the work done in positioning Q3at P3is equal to Q3(V32 + V31), where V32and
V31 are the potentials at P3due to Q2and Q=respectively.
 Hence ,the total work done in positioning the three charges is

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 Figure2.18: Assembling of charges

If, instead of point charges, the region has a continuous charge distribution, the
summation becomes integration; that is,

By applying divergence theorem to the first term on the right-hand side of this equation,
we have we recall that V varies as 1/r and D as 1/r2 for point charges; V variesas 1/r2 and

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D as 1/r3 for dipoles; and so on. Hence, VD in the first term on the right-handside of must
vary at least as 1/r3 while dSvaries as r2. Consequently, the first integral must tend to zero
as the surface S becomes large. Hence, reduces to

Example: Three point charges - 1 nC, 4 nC, and 3 nC are located at (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), and
(1, 0, 0),respectively. Find the energy in the system

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