Calculus - Telecom BCN: Chapter 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN
Chapter 2. Functions
Carles Padró
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
2016-17, Semester 2
Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Functions
A function relates every input to a single output
Image from Wikipedia “Function (mathematics)”
This is a very general concept.

In this course, we deal only with functions in which
the input is a real number and
the output is a real number too

Examples of Functions
The temperature in a room as a function of time
t (in hours) 7→ T (t) (in o C)
The exchange rate of two currencies as a function of time
t (in days) 7→ R(t) (in Euro/SGD)
Given an exchange rate R, the amount one gets when exchanging

money
x SGD 7→ f (x) = Rx Euro
The area of a square as a function of the length of one side
x m 7→ A(x) = x 2 m2
The length of a circle as a function of the length of its radius
x m 7→ L(x) = 2πx m

Graph of a Function
The graph of a function f consists of the points (x, f (x)) in a

Cartesian system of coordinates

Graph of a Function
The graph of most functions is not so simple

Domain and Range of a Function
The set D of inputs is the domain of the function

In this course, we consider only functions whose domain
is a set of real numbers
D⊆R
Moreover, the outputs of our functions will be always real numbers
A function f with domain D ⊆ R assigns a single real number
f (x) ∈ R to each x ∈ D
We write
f : D → R, x 7→ f (x)
The range of a function f is the set of its outputs
{f (x) : x ∈ D} ⊆ R
Many times (but not always!),

the domain and range of a function are intervals

Domain and Range of a Function
For instance, for the function A(x) = x 2

that outputs the area of a square given the length of one side:
The domain of A is D = [0, +∞)
(the set of the nonnegative real numbers)
So we write
A : [0, +∞) → R, x 7→ A(x) = x 2
The range of A is [0, +∞),

because every nonnegative real number is
the square of some nonnegative real number
The function f whose graph was given in Page 4 is
f : R → R, x 7→ f (x) = x 2 − x − 2
Its domain is D = R
Its range is [−9/4, +∞)

Operations on Functions
Addition (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

Multiplication (fg)(x) = f (x)g(x)

f f (x)
Division If g(x) 6= 0, then (x) =
g g(x)
For example, if f (x) = x 2 and g(x) = x 3 − 1, then
x2

3 2 5 2 f
(f + g)(x) = x + x − 1, (fg)(x) = x − x , (x) = 3
g x −1
The last function is defined only for the values of x with x 3 − 1 6= 0

That is, its domain is R r {1}

Bounded Functions
Definition
Consider a function f : D → R
f is bounded from above if its range is bounded from above
That is, if there is M ∈ R such that f (x) ≤ M for every x ∈ D
M is called an upper bound of f
f is bounded from below if its range is bounded from below
That is, if there is M ∈ R such that f (x) ≥ M for every x ∈ D
M is called a lower bound of f
f is bounded if its range is bounded
That is, if there is M > 0 such that |f (x)| ≤ M for every x ∈ D

Monotonic Functions
Definition
For a function f : D → R,
f is increasing if x ≤ y =⇒ f (x) ≤ f (y )
f is decreasing if x ≤ y =⇒ f (x) ≥ f (y )
f is strictly increasing if x < y =⇒ f (x) < f (y )
f is strictly decreasing if x < y =⇒ f (x) > f (y )
f is monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing
f is strictly monotonic if it is either
strictly increasing or strictly decreasing

Polynomial and Rational Functions
The simplest functions are
Constant function x 7→ C, where C ∈ R is a constant value
Identity function x 7→ x
By adding and multiplying these simplest functions,
we obtain the polynomial functions
x 7→ p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R
Affine functions
x 7→ ax + b
are a particular case of polynomial functions
For instance to transform Celsius into Fahrenheit,
9
x 7→ F (x) = x + 32
5
The graph of every affine function is a straight line
Polynomial and Rational Functions
Rational functions are obtained by dividing polynomial functions
a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n
x 7→
b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + · · · + bm x m
The domain of the rational function

p(x)
f (x) =
q(x)
where p, q are polynomials,

is the set of the real numbers with q(x) 6= 0

Powers
Integer powers
x 7→ x n
with n ∈ Z are a particular case of rational functions
For example
1 1
f (x) = x 2 , g(x) = x 7 , h(x) = x −1 = , j(x) = x −5 =
x x5

Powers
n-th root
x 7→ x 1/n
where n is a positive integer
If n is odd, the domain is R and the range is R
If n is even, the domain is [0, +∞) and the range is [0, +∞)
√
In particular, the square root x 7→ x 1/2 = x
√
Observe that we assume x ≥ 0 for every x ≥ 0
√
Therefore, x 2 = |x| for every x ∈ R

Powers
Rational powers
x 7→ x p/q
where p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0
Observe that the exponent may be any rational number:
positive, negative, or 0
Each of these functions is defined (at least) in (0, +∞)
So, unless otherwise is stated,
we assume that the domain is (0, +∞)

Exponential Functions
Exponential function with base a
x 7→ ax
where a > 0 is a real number, called base

In particular
x 7→ 2x , x 7→ 10x
The domain of the exponential functions is R

and, if a 6= 1, the range is (0, +∞)
We are going to consider almost exclusively
the exponential function with base e
exp(x) = ex
which is called exponential function

Exponential Functions
Graphs of x 7→ ax for a = 1, a = 2, a = 1/2, a = e,

Trigonometric Functions
The sine, the cosine, and the tangent
sin x
x 7→ sin x, x 7→ cos x, x 7→ tan x = (always in radians!)
cos x
The value in radians of an angle is the

length of the arc on the unit circle
sin x
x 7→ sin x, x 7→ cos x, x 7→ tan x = (always in radians!)
cos x
The domain of sin and cos is R and their range is [−1, 1]
The domain of tan is R r {(2k + 1)π/2, : k ∈ Z}
and its range is R

Graphs of sin, cos, and tan

Properties of Trigonometric Functions
This is a list of some basic properties of the functions sin, cos, tan
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
1
1 + tan2 x =
cos2 x
sin 0 = sin π = 0, sin(π/2) = 1, sin(3π/2) = −1
cos(π/2) = cos(3π/2) = 0, cos 0 = 1, cos π = −1
cos(x + 2π) = cos x, sin(x + 2π) = sin x
cos(−x) = cos x, sin(−x) = − sin x
sin(π/2 − x) = cos x, cos(π/2 − x) = sin x
√
cos(π/4) = sin(π/4) = 2/2
cos(π/3) = sin(π/6) = 1/2
√
cos(π/6) = sin(π/3) = 3/2
Other properties of these functions will be discussed in Chapter 3

Hyperbolic Functions
The functions hyperbolic cosine, hyperbolic sine,
and hyperbolic tangent, are defined by
ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
ex − e−x
sinh x =
2
sinh x ex − e−x
tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e−x
Basic properties
The domain of each of these functions is R

The range of cosh is [1, +∞), the range of sinh is R,
and the range of tanh is (−1, 1)
cosh x + sinh x = ex
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
cosh(−x) = cosh x, sinh(−x) = − sinh x
Graphs of cosh, sinh, and tanh

Why hyperbolic?
Since cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1, the point (cosh t, sinh t)
lies on the branch x > 0 of the hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1

Piecewise Defined Functions
Recall that a function is not a formula!

x +2
 if − 4 ≤ x < −3
1 if x = −3



x +2 if − 3 < x < −1




2 if − 1 ≤ x < 1

f : [−4, 4] → R, x 7→

 −1 if x = 1
(x − 1)2 if 1 < x ≤ 2




−x + 3 if 2 < x < 4




1 if x = 4


Composition of Functions
The composition g ◦ f of f with g is defined as follows
For every x in the domain of f such that f (x) is in the domain of g,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

Composition of Functions
For example, if f (x) = x 2 and g(x) = sin x, then
(g ◦ f )(x) = sin x 2 , (f ◦ g)(x) = (sin x)2 = sin2 x
In general, (g ◦ f ) 6= (f ◦ g)
√
Another example: If f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2) and g(x) = x, then
p
(g ◦ f )(x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)
is defined only for the real numbers x with x ∈

/ (1, 2)
On the other hand, the domain of
√ √
(f ◦ g)(x) = ( x − 1)( x − 2)
consists of the non-negative real numbers

Inverse Functions
Let f : D → R be a function
Let R be the range of f
Suppose that f is one-to one,
which means that f (x) 6= f (y ) if x 6= y .
Then there exists a function f −1 : R → R such that
(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x for every x ∈ D
(f ◦ f −1 )(y ) = y for every y ∈ R
That is
f −1 ◦ f = ID (the identity function on D)
f ◦ f −1 = IR (the identity function on R)

Examples of Inverse Functions
√
If f (x) = x 2 , then f −1 (y ) = y
In this case we have to take D = [0, +∞) as the domain of f
The range of f is R = [0, +∞), which is also the domain of f −1
Indeed,
√
(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x 2 = x for every x ≥ 0
√
(f ◦ f −1 )(y ) = ( y )2 = y for every y ≥ 0

Examples of Inverse Functions
The function f (x) = x 2 − x − 2 is one-to-one

on the domain D = [1/2, +∞)
Its range is R = [−9/4, +∞)
The domain of the inverse function f −1 is R = [−9/4, +∞)
and its range is D = [1/2, +∞)
One can check that
p
1+ 9 + 4y
f −1 (y ) =
2

Logarithms
The exponential function with basis a > 0, a 6= 1
x 7→ ax
is one-to-one on its domain D = R, and its range is R = (0, +∞)

By definition, the logarithm to base a (where a > 0, a 6= 1)
y 7→ loga y
is the inverse of the exponential function with base a
That is,
loga ax = x for every x ∈ R
aloga y = y for every y > 0
The domain of loga is (0, +∞) and its range is R

Natural Logarithm
The inverse of the exponential function
x 7→ exp(x) = ex
is called the natural logarithm
y 7→ log y
That is, the logartihm to the base e is called natural logarithm

and we write log for loge
The domain of the natural logarithm is (0, +∞) and the range is R
Unless otherwise is specified, only the natural logarithm will be used
in this course

Natural Logarithm
Graph of log

Natural Logarithm
By using exp and log, we can express any power

with real exponent and real positive base. That is,
x y = exp(y log x) = ey log x
for every x > 0 and y ∈ R

In particular, the exponential function with base a is
ax = exp(x log a) = ex log a
and the logarithm to base a is
log y
loga y =
log a

Properties of the Exponential and the Logarithm
We list here the main properties of the
exponential function exp(x) = ex and the logarithm log x
The domain of exp is R, the range is (0, +∞)

The domain of log is (0, +∞), the range is R
The logarithm is the inverse of the exponential, and vice-versa:
log ex = x for every x ∈ R
elog x = x for every x ∈ (0, +∞)
e0 = 1, e1 = e
log 1 = 0, log e = 1
If x < 0, then 0 < ex < 1. If x > 0, then ex > 1
If 0 < x < 1, then log x < 0. If x > 1, then log x > 0
1
ex+y = ex ey , e−x = x , (ex )y = exy
e
1
log(xy ) = log x + log y , log = − log x, log(x y ) = y log x
x

Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The functions
x 7→ arcsin x, x 7→ arccos x, x 7→ arctan x
(also known as sin−1 , cos−1 , tan−1 )

are the inverse functions of sin, cos, tan, respectively
The domain of arcsin and arccos is [−1, 1]
The range of arcsin is [−π/2, π/2]
The range of arccos is [0, π]
The domain of arctan is R and its range is (−π/2, π/2)

Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Graphs of arcsin and arccos
Graph of arctan

Symmetries in Graphs of Functions
f (x) vs f (x) + C, vertical translation
f (x) = x 2 − x − 2, C = 2

f (x) vs f (x + C), horizontal translation
f (x) = x 2 − x − 2, C = 2

Periodic Functions
A function f is periodic with period T > 0 if
f (x + T ) = f (x)
for all x in the domain

For instance, sin and cos are periodic with period T = 2π

Periodic Functions
The graph of a periodic function is invariant
under the translation (x, y ) 7→ (x + T , y )
In the following example, T = 2
f (x) = sin(πx) − cos(2πx) + sin(3πx)

f (x) versus −f (x), reflection over the x-axis
f (x) = x 2 − x − 2

f (x) versus f (−x), reflection over the y -axis
f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 2

f (x) versus −f (−x), reflection over the origin (0, 0)
f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 2

Even and Odd Functions
A function f is even if f (−x) = f (x)
for all x such that both x and −x are in the domain
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y -axis
f (x) = x 4 − 3x 2 − 2
Examples of even functions: cos, cosh
Even and Odd Functions
A function f is odd if f (−x) = −f (x)
for all x such that both x and −x are in the domain
The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin
f (x) = x 3 − 3x
Examples of odd functions: sin, tan, sinh, tanh
f (x) versus f −1 (x), reflection over the line y = x
√
f (x) = x 2 , f −1 (x) = x

f (x) versus f −1 (x), reflection over the line y = x
f (x) = ex , f −1 (x) = log x

If a function coincides with its inverse, that is, if (f ◦ f )(x) = x,

then its graph is symmetric with respect to the line y = x
For example, f (x) = x, g(x) = −x, h(x) = 1/x, j(x) = −x + 3

Calculus - Telecom BCN: Chapter 2. Functions

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Calculus - telecom BCN

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

A function relates every input to a single output

Image from Wikipedia “Function (mathematics)”

This is a very general concept.

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

t (in hours) 7→ T (t) (in o C)

The exchange rate of two currencies as a function of time

t (in days) 7→ R(t) (in Euro/SGD)

Given an exchange rate R, the amount one gets when exchanging

The area of a square as a function of the length of one side

The length of a circle as a function of the length of its radius

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

The graph of a function f consists of the points (x, f (x)) in a

Image from Wikipedia “Function (mathematics)”

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

The graph of most functions is not so simple

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

The set D of inputs is the domain of the function

The range of a function f is the set of its outputs

Many times (but not always!),

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

For instance, for the function A(x) = x 2

The range of A is [0, +∞),

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Addition (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

The last function is defined only for the values of x with x 3 − 1 6= 0

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Rational functions are obtained by dividing polynomial functions

The domain of the rational function

where p, q are polynomials,

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Exponential function with base a

where a > 0 is a real number, called base

The domain of the exponential functions is R

which is called exponential function

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Graphs of x 7→ ax for a = 1, a = 2, a = 1/2, a = e,

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

The value in radians of an angle is the

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Graphs of sin, cos, and tan

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Other properties of these functions will be discussed in Chapter 3

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

The domain of each of these functions is R

Graphs of cosh, sinh, and tanh

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

Image from Wikipedia “Function (mathematics)”

Calculus - telecom BCN 2. Functions

For example, if f (x) = x 2 and g(x) = sin x, then

(g ◦ f )(x) = sin x 2 , (f ◦ g)(x) = (sin x)2 = sin2 x

is defined only for the real numbers x with x ∈