ENSTU 300: Critical Thinking & Communication in Environmental Studies

Aquaculture pollution on the West

Coast and policies for sustainability.
Environmental Studies Program, California State University Monterey Bay

Fig 1. Nearshore aquaculture pens used to hold fish.

Introduction

Fish are a large part of daily life for people all over the world, whether it is food or employment,
fish are a necessity (Tidwell et al., 2001). Aquaculture is a proposed sustainable solution for our
growing consumption of sea food and freshwater fish. All fish used to come from fishermen, but
now 40 percent of our fish comes from aquaculture (Weeks, 2007). Aquaculture is the cultivation
of aquatic animals and plants, especially fish, shellfish, and seaweed, in natural or controlled
marine or freshwater environments (Dictionary, 2018). In California, abalone, oysters, and
scallops are cultured.
Nutrients used in feed loading of aquaculture can cause harmful algal blooms (Ransom et al.,
2012). Feed loading is the over use of food for the aquatic species to make sure all the animals
are fed and reach a certain size by a given date (Ransom et al., 2012). Nutrient loading is used
across most of aquaculture including the raising of salmon. Salmon are predatory fish and to
raise them we feed them wild fish. Currently for every one pound of predatory fish like salmon it
costs five to seven pounds of wild fish (Schatzberg, 2002). Salmon are genetically altered and
there have been cases of fish farmed salmon escaping containment. The question that is being
studied is if the escaped salmon have a diverse effect on the genetics of wild salmon (Marty,
Saksida, & Quinn, 2010). Fish farmed fish are kept in tight groupings and can spread disease to
wild fish.

Shellfish and scallops can increase the nutrient concentration in benthic water systems and lower
oxygenation (Richard et al., 2007). As climate change worsens, harmful algal blooms may
become more prevalent and the increased nutrients in the benthic water column may worsen the
effects of these algal blooms (Wells et al., 2015). In the future we may see an increase in
eutrophication and hypoxia in fresh and marine water ecosystems as well as an increase in wild
fish disease (Marty, Saksida, & Quinn, 2010). What policies should be implemented in order to
make west coast aquaculture more sustainable? Does aquaculture on the west coast cause enough
pollution that it is considered a problem? Is the bivalve aquaculture business sustainable? Is the
main cause of pollution the aqua farming of predatory species of fish? My analysis will help
determine the best policy for the future of sustainable aquaculture on the west coast.

Background
History

Aquaculture started in 1853 as a way to boost the catch of recreational fishermen around
the US. Canada later followed suit soon after (Stickney, 2011). In 1871 the fisheries commission
was created to stock many species of both marine and freshwater fish all over the US to boost
recreational and commercial fishing. In the late 1800s in the U.S. many people still thought that

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fish were an inexhaustible resource. It wasn’t until the 1950s when the aquarium was created that
scientist had the chance to study marine life more in depth (Stickney, 2011). Small advancements
were made to aquaculture early post war 1950s-1970, such as the way fish were kept, selectively
breeding so that a fish would reproduce more, and learning about what certain fish can eat while
in containment. The innovations that were revolutionary to aquaculture were polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) plumbing pipes, fiberglass tanks, and specialized tools to test water quality.

Fig 2 This is how U.S. and wildlife would stock rivers in the past ("Trout stocked all
winter long to satisfy New Mexico anglers," 2017).

Stickney (2011) stated that “marine shrimp culture took off. Marine shrimp culturing
started in japan but was later surpassed by Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand.
During the same time in the U.S. research was happening with the Gulf of Mexico shrimp. The
research took place at the Galveston research lab of the U.S. bureau of fisheries. This lab later
became the national marine fisheries service. Commercial shrimp fisheries were going out of
business in Texas and Florida. Japan played a large role in starting and maintaining the
aquaculture industry on the west coast (Stickney, 2011).

Washington has had a long history with aquaculture and has been farming shellfish since
1860. In 1895 Washington state legislators passed two acts, the bush act and the callow act.
These acts allowed for the sale and ownership of tidal areas, which helped grow the aquaculture

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industry in Washington (Pacific Shellfish Institute, n.d.). The first attempts at starting the
aquaculture of salmon in Washington happened in 1951. Salmon were released in lakes and
waterways to establish fisheries. The first and following attempts to create fisheries outside of
the Atlantic oceans failed. In 1961 net pens were developed to raise salmon successfully
nearshore in the Atlantic (Pacific Shellfish Institute, n.d.).

In Oregon, in 1999 they began the aquaculture of tilapia, ornamental fish, and shellfish
species. The program that allowed the fish farming of these fish was a grant From Oregon sea
grant researchers. The Oregon sea grant researcher’s fish farming is being awarded because they
monitor the health of their farmed species through each step of their life cycles. The Oregon sea
grant research group continues to do research to further the sustainability of their aquaculture
operations (Oregon Sea Grant, 2013).

Aquaculture began in California in 1850 when European immigrants who were looking to
make a profit came to California in the search of gold. The US fish and Wildlife planted the
pacific oysters in Elkhorn Slough and other locations to try and establish a cash crop. In the
1940s California introduced Japanese oyster seeds to waters which bred out of control. The
Japanese oysters out competed many native oyster species and proved to be pests. They were
labeled as dangers to state waters (UC Davis). Whether it is the west coast of the united states or
japan, aquaculture is expected to increase as the populations around the world increase.

Scientific Background
Dense clusters of bivalve species such as shellfish consume organic particulates from the
water column and excrete it as waste that sinks to the water column floor. The change in
chemical compounds in the water from the bivalve excrement has the potential to influence
growth with phytoplankton and algae in the environment (Richard et al., 2007). Shellfish have an
impact on water quality that can affect surrounding waters.

Salmon excrete 75-90 percent of their ammonia through there gills or through urea. Salmon
constantly excrete urea and their feces loses its nitrogen and phosphorus as it floats to the
bottom. These chemicals diffuse in the water changing the water quality. The salmon themselves

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lower the dissolved oxygen in the water when they respire and from there feces breaking down
on the sea floor or the floor of containment. Ammonia from the salmon often will dissipate as it
leaves the water source as a gas entering the atmosphere. Studies suggest that Salmon farms in
their current concentration don’t have a large impact on phytoplankton in Washington. Salmon
waste does however settle on the floor of the water column, which effects sediment chemistry
and macrobenthic communities. For salmon farming there have been improvements to the
sustainability as of recent. There are floating cages that are closed systems. They also have
filtration tanks that they use to raise salmon on land. The closed system floatation tank and the
on-land filtration tanks are sustainable innovations that show that aquaculture is on its way to a
more sustainable future.

Fig 3. This image is what it looks like underneath salmon nets because of their excrement. This
layer of excrement can be meters in thickness (Suzuki, 2011).

There are two types of prominent fish farming indoor and outdoor. In indoor fish
farming, waste products are extracted and used for fertilizer. Filtration systems help remove
harmful bacteria and other waste. The phasing out of open ocean raised salmon will help
aquaculture be more sustainable and cleaner. Salmon fish farms lead to the pollution of
waterways because of the food that they are fed and the amount of fecal waste they produce. The
waste harms the biodiversity of bays and can damage the ecosystem (NPR, 2014).

Policy Context

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 In February 2018, an amendment was introduced for the Waste Discharge Requirements,
AB 2828 under section 13263.8 to include aquaculture. The bill would regulate the water quality
of the discharge from oil and gas operations that can be used for agriculture, ground water, and
aquaculture. The assembly members suggested that there would only need to be a single
requirement for testing parameters of the water quality. Any business who discharges their water
from oil and gas operations needs to file a report with the correct regional board about the quality
of the water being discharged (AB 2828). This assembly bill will help outdoor aquaculture to
thrive without water quality issues from other businesses and allow them to use the water for
indoor aquaculture.

An amendment to the Freshwater and Estuarine Harmful Algal Bloom Program, (assembly bill)
AB 2053, was introduced on February 6, 2018, under section 13182 of the water code. The
purpose of the bill is to create a program that will mediate harmful algal blooms caused by
nutrient loading of the water during aquaculture practices, degradation of watersheds, hydrologic
alteration, and climate change impacts. The program’s responsibilities will be to report on the
locations of harmful algal blooms, conduct field research on the algal blooms, and prioritize
areas more affected than others (AB 2053).

The California Senate voted on SB-1363, an act to amend section 35650 under the Ocean
Protection Act on September 29, 2016. If amended, this Senate bill would create an ocean
acidification and hypoxia reduction program. The program would be funded by grants and loans
for projects to reduce ocean acidification and hypoxia. The program regulates the protection of
eel grasses and restoration which can reduce ocean acidification and hypoxia. The restoration of
eelgrass can reduce the impacts of hypoxia in aquaculture (SB 1363). This bill has not yet been
re-proposed to the committee.

Stakeholder Perspectives

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 Stake-holder Values Contributions Stake-holder Concerns
Stake-holder

Fishermen Job security Community The pollution of water ways

collaboration
Better pay The inbreeding of wild fish and
Upholding standards of aquaculture fish
fish farms
Loss of jobs

The cleanup of pin debris

Stop use of cypermethrin

No factory run fish farms

Environmentalists Want proper water quality Contributes new Aquaculture causing pollutions
information about fish
Native habitats still intact farms to increase
(Ecologigistic) sustainability Biodiversity destruction

Animal advocates Humanely raised fish Knowledge of immoral fish may have pain receptors able to
(Moralistic) practices feel the same as humans

Bringing issues to the Don’t want fish treated immorally or

attention of the public inhumanely

Community
collaboration

Aquaculture Want to make the More fish for our The business might be shut down due
businesses consuming of fish more growing population to fishermen backlash
sustainable
Sustainability Sustainability isn’t achievable
Want fish stocks to be
replenished more affordable fish

Innovations to make
aquaculture more
profitable

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Aquaculture businesses are making fish affordable to the general population without depleting
the fish stock. Some say that escaped genetically altered salmon are harming the wild salmon
gene pool but there is no science to support it (NPR, 2014).

The following information about the Monterey abalone company is summarized from an
interview I did with Art from the Monterey Abalone Company, he answers questions about how
the local aquaculture business runs and where he sees aquaculture in the future. He told me about
the life cycle of the Abalone, how they go through microscopic larval stages. The Monterey
abalone company also partakes in 2 side businesses, where they buy and store sea urchins and
whelks for later sale. The Monterey Abalone company has been in business since 1992 and has
made many sustainable improvements since then. His perspective on the future of aquaculture is
that California is very much behind the rest of the country and rest of the world. California will
see a shift in attitudes. The United States is currently behind other countries and other countries
have already increased production. Aquaculture will expand to feed the populous (Morrison,
2018).

Open ocean fish farms can cause pollution which makes environmentalists look for evidence of a
more sustainable future (NPR, 2014). Environmentalists believe that indoor fish farming can be
the future of clean aquaculture.

Aquaculture and fishermen are the producers and the salesmen of the same products. Fishermen
do not want “fish factories” that are run by large corporations causing the loss of jobs in their
communities (Cameron, 2012). Net cage aquaculture businesses say that their companies are
sustainable and do not pollute, but when fishermen troll down current from fish farms they often
find fish pin material that has broken away from the rest (Cameron, 2012). Open ocean fish
farming is concerning to fishermen because the fish excrement that comes from the thousands of
fish can create metric tons of waste a year that sits at the bottom harming biodiversity. The
pollution from open ocean fish farms can cause a plume of chemicals and fecal matter many
kilometers wide, harming marine life nearby. Fishermen have many years of familiarity with the
bay and the fear is that it won’t be the same for their children (Cameron, 2012).

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Discussion

All the current solutions proposed to fix aquaculture are costly ones. Moving
aquaculture farms farther off shore has the issue of being in the way of public waterways
(Klinger, 2012).

Policy option 1 could be amended helping regulate the water quality of the
location in or around fish farm. The safe water quality could lessen the amount of
chemicals people take in when they consume fish because of bioaccumulation. Fish could
become more expensive if the regulations on water quality mean that fish farms
(aquaculture) have to lessen the amount of fish by a large margin in each pen or enclosure
to meet requirements. The waterbodies could be less of a health issue to humans if there
are less fecal particulates in the water. This policy option would be better for the public
and consumers of aquaculture. A positive outcome would be that the waterbodies
ecosystems or areas surrounding the enclosures would be impacted less by
eutrophication, disease, and fish waste.

Policy option 2 would be species restriction. Certain species should be banned

from being able to be farmed in open water. Ex; (predatory fish). The restriction of
certain species of fish would make them more expensive to the consumer because we
would have to import them and there would be more demand. Ecologically there would
be less fecal waste and eutrophication. Wild fish wouldn’t be used in excess amount to
raise a smaller amount of fish. Salmon if restricted from being fish farmed wouldn’t be a
danger from consuming native species if they escaped. With policy option 2 there would
be less local salmon stock in some states and the price would rise for salmon. The West
coast would also lose its consumers of local salmon stock.

Policy option 3 is payment by those who are polluting. Making the aquaculture
businesses pay for the removal of fish waste and pollution is another policy option. The
cost of fish would increase because the steps for aquaculture businesses from start to
finish would become costlier. There would be less pollution if the aquaculture businesses

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 became responsible for their pollution. If aquaculture businesses had to pay for their own
pollution they would be more mindful of damages causing the death of biodiversity in the
area due to fish waste. Businesses wouldn’t accept this policy because it would hurt their
businesses profits. Consumers would have fresher fish to buy.

option 1 option 2 option 3

Criteria Water quality Species restriction payment by polluter
Human health safer food
cost fish more expensive fish more expensive cost goes up for fish
environmental Safer water bodies less pollution less pollution
ecological no HABS or eutrophication less death of native fish no dead zones
acceptability better for public and consumers less local stock and less consumers businesses wont accept
consumer gets fresher fish

Final Recommendations

The option that I am choosing has negative implications to the price of the fish and
seafood the consumer will purchase. My final recommendation is to implement water quality
policies that are based on the science and realistic sustainable goals of the future. Species
restriction was an option because it’s been proposed in the past but would harm Washington’s
economy and that isn’t the goal of the policy options I am trying to propose. Payment by the
polluter isn’t a viable option due to it being very difficult scientifically to gauge the amount of
damage done by pollution. It would also cost money to assess the damage.

Aquaculture has made large improvements in a very short time to reach sustainable goals.
Monterey Abalone Company has some of the most renewable and sustainable practices in the
U.S. and sets the bar for other shellfish and aquaculture companies. They only have the Abalone
in the ocean nets after the abalone has matured. They also farm indigenous species rather than

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nonnatives that feed on kelp that already lives in their marine ecosystem. Monterey Abalone
company is also on Monterey Bay Aquariums seafood watch list as best choice for their
sustainability (Aquaculture Farming Best Practices By Monterey Abalone Company, 2011).
Conclusion

All our fish used to come from fishermen, but now 40 percent of our fish comes from
aquaculture (Weeks, 2007). Small advancements were made to aquaculture early post war 1950s-
1970, such as the way fish were kept, selectively breeding so that a fish would reproduce more,
and learning about what certain fish can eat while in containment. Although aquaculture can
have moderate impacts on the environment the businesses are working their way to a more
sustainable future.

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