[/SOT 54 (1992) 107-116]

A BOOK ON LABOUR: THE STRUCTURING ^RINOPLES

AND THE MAIN THEME OFTOEBOOK OF QOHELEÏ* '

Stephan de Jong
Casilla 52, Correo Villa la Reina, Santiago, Chile

Introduction
In his commentary on the book of Qohelet, published in 1875, Franz
Delitzsch predicted that all future attempts to indicate a structure in
the book would fail.1 The book of Qohelet, according to Delitzsch,
forms a many-coloured collection of different texts. Numerous scho-
lars have followed this opinion, with varying degrees of modification.
In spite of Delitzschs warning, others have tried to find an ordered
plan in Qohelet. Until now, however, no endeavour has found general
acceptance. A discussion of these endeavours is given in the recent
survey by Michel.2
Is Delitzsch's warning correct? It could be. However, in studying
the book of Qohelet I have reached another conclusion. With some
new observations, I intend to contribute to the discussion concerning
the structure of the book and, in connection with it, its main theme.
Three intuitions emerged as determining factors in my investigation.
The first is that we have to start with stylistic and semantic observa-
tions. The second is that the structure of the book can only be des-
cribed adequately if we reckon not only with one structuring

* I should like to express my gratitude to Mrs Christine Fitzurka and Mrs Karen
Guenter, who gave me valuable suggestions for the English translation.
1. Cited in D. Michel, Qohelet (Erträge der Forschung, 258; Darmstadt:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1988), p. 10.
2. D. Michel, Qohelet, pp. 21-45. For a discussion of the other hypotheses, see
pp. 9-21.
108 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 54 (1992)

principle, but with more. The third intuition is that in structuring the
book the writer did not apply modern western standards, such as
absolute consistency and systematism. We have to look for principles
as applied in the ancient wisdom literature.

Alternation of Observation and Instruction Complexes

The book of Qohelet begins with a series of observations that extends
to 4.16. In 4.17 the style suddenly changes. There follows a text in
which various instructions are addressed to the reader. In the course
of ch. S, a complex again appears in which observations predominate
(5.9-6.9). This complex is succeeded in turn by another complex
composed mainly of instructions (6.10-7.22). The alternation of
observation and instruction complexes is found throughout the whole
book. This regularity indicates the outlines of a structure.1 I present
this structure here, before discussing it in greater depth.
1.1 introduction
1.2 motto
1.3-4.16 observation complex
4.17-5.8 instruction complex
5.9-6.9 observation complex
6.10-7.22 instruction complex
7.23-29 observation complex
8.1-8 instruction complex
8.9-9.12 observation complex
9.13-12.7 instruction complex
12.8 motto
12.9-14 epilogue
It must be admitted that not only instructions are found in instruction
complexes and not only observations are found in observation com-
plexes.2 What matters, however, is the density of these types of texts.

1. G.R. Castellino also based his hypothesis on a distinction between observa-

tions and instructions. However, he characterized the whole text of 4.17-12.12 as
instruction, adding that Qohelet sometimes relapsed in an observating style. Cf.
'Qohelet and his Wisdom*, CBQ 30 (1968), pp. 16-20. R. Braun spoke of a
'Schwerpunktmässigen Trennung von betrachtenden und belehrenden bzw. folger-
nenden Aussagen'. This division would be characteristic of certain ancient Greek
wisdom texts. Cf. Kohelet und die frühhellenistische Popularphilosophie (BZAW,
130; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1973), p. 165.
2. Recommendations in observation complexes can be found in 4.9-11 ; 4.13-14
 DE JONG Λ Book on Labour 109
This characteristic is also responsible for the fact that the borders
between the complexes are not always as clear as one would wish. I
shall return to this subject later on.
Although the character of the alternating observation and instruc­
tion complexes is not absolutely distinct, each complex shows a well-
distinguished profile. The observation complexes generally do not
give instructions. The majority of these texts consists of observations
1 9
and confirmations. The use of the first person predominates: Ί saw ,
'With all my heart I turned to learn', *I said to myself*. The tone is
often pessimistic. In various ways, light is shed on human impo­
tence—for example, in human activities, wisdom, enjoyment, under­
standing, justice.
In the instruction complexes, advice and admonitions have been
2
concentrated. Observations are not absent in these complexes, but
serve the instructions, either as introduction or argument. The surface
structure of the instruction complexes is characterized by frequent
occurrences of imperatives and verbs in the second person.3 The tone
is more positive: admonitions and advice indicate what is possible and
sensible. In general, the message of the instructions is to be prudent,
especially with regard to authorities and God.
We perceive the distinction between the observation and instruction
complexes even more clearly when we examine the occurrence of the
word hebel. It is one of the most characteristic words of the book,
occurring 30 times in 1.3-12.7 and 8 times in the significant frame-
texts 1.2 and 12.8. The word hebel appears to be a keyword in the
observation complexes, where it is found 23 times. This fact becomes

and 9.7-10. Observations in instruction complexes are found more often, especially
in 9.13-10.15. Although this last complex clearly has to be characterized as instruc­
tive, it is a bit ambiguous.
1. JA. Loader distinguished the genre of 'the observation'. These are intro­
duced by the verbs râ'â oryâda'. These observations are to be found in 1.13-14,17;
2.12-14, 24; 3.14, 16, 22; 4.1, 4, 7, 15; 5.12, 17; 6.1; 7.15, 25; 8.9-10, 16-17;
9.11, 13; 10.5. It strikes me that this genre almost exclusively appears in the parts
which I characterized as observation complexes. Cf. J. Loader, Polar Structures in
the Book of Qohelet (BZAW, 152; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1979), p. 25.
2. Loader also distinguished the genre of 'the admonition'. This is found in
4.17; 5.1 (2x), 3 (2x), 7; 7.9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 21; 8.2, 3; 9.7, 8, 9, 10, 10.4, 20;
11.1, 2, 6; 11.8-12.1. The majority of these texts occurs in the instruction com-
plexes. Cf. Polar Structures, pp. 26-27.
3. Wefindthefirstperson only in 7.15; 8.2; 9.13,16; 10.5,7.
110 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 54 (1992)

even more interesting, considering the use of the word.1 In the obser-
vation complexes, hebel is almost exclusively found in conclusions.
The syntactical constructions in which it occurs are rather stereo-
typical. The expression most often used is gam zeh hebel2 or varia-
tions of this construction.3 Constructions with kôl are also found.4 In
4.7 and 8.14 the conclusions are given beforehand and are formulated
by other constructions. The only text in which hebel occurs in an
argument and not in a conclusion is 6.4. In 9.9 hebel is used as an
adjective. In the instruction complexes the word occurs almost exclu-
sively in arguments.5 The fact that something is hebel forms the basis
for a piece of advice or for a question. It functions in a conclusion in
only one case: 7.6. In 7.15 it occurs as an adjective. The different use
of the word hebel clearly is an indication in favour of the proposed
division of the book of Qohelet
Another argument is that the enjoyment texts characteristic of
Qohelet are found only in the observation complexes. The enjoyment
texts include 2.24-26,3.12-13,3.22,5.17-19,8.15,9.7-10. They attract
attention because of their similarity in structure and content. In general,
11.7-10 is also considered as belonging to the enjoyment texts. This
text is certainly connected with the enjoyment sayings. However, 11.7-
10 differs from this group of texts both in structure and in content.6
We have to consider 11.7-10 as a reaction to the earlier enjoyment
texts, being a climax of the instruction complex at the end of the book
of Qohelet
Although it may seem a bit odd that the enjoyment texts occur in the
rather negative observation parts of the book, it is not that strange. In
contrast to the interpretation of many authors, it should be stated that
these enjoyment texts do not contain an appeal to a joyful acceptance a

1. Castellino also emphasized the importance of hebel infindinga structure, but

neglected an investigation of the use of the word. Cf. Castellino, 'Qohelet and his
Wisdom', p. 17.
2. 2.15, 19, 23; 5.9; 8.10, 14.
3. With the addition ûr"ût rûah: 2.26; 4.4; 6.9. With w'ra'yôn rûah: 4.16.
Some other types of additions are tfrâ'â rabbâ: 2.21; nf'inyan rä' hû': 4.8. Cf. two
other constructions: gam hû' hebel: 2.1; zeh hebel wâifiïra': 6.2.
4. hakolhebelprcceàedby hinnëhorktin 1.14; 2.11, 17; 3.19. Except in 3.19,
all of these constructions are followed by ûr*'ût rûah,
5. 5.6; 6.11, 12; 11.8, 10.
6. Cf. F. Rousseau, 'Structure de Qohelet 1.4-11 et plan du livre', VT 31
(1981), pp. 210-13.
 DE JONG A Book on Labour 111
carpe diem stance toward life. At best this is the case in 9.7-10. As a
rule, the enjoyment texts form observations responding to pessimistic
affirmations. They observe that it is good if one has the opportunity to
enjoy life. But enjoying life is not in the power of human beings. It is
a gift of God.1 Like most of the texts in the observation complexes,
the enjoyment texts underline the impotence of the individual.2
The only observation complex in which we do not find an enjoy-
ment text is 7.23-29. Obviously the author did not consider it neces-
sary to insert such a text in all of these complexes. Nevertheless, we
do find in 7.23-29 a text which speaks about a beneficent gift from
God to humanity. In 7.26 it is said that God guards the one who is
good in his eyes from the traps of the seductress, but does not guard
the sinner. This phrase shows significant similarities with one of the
enjoyment texts (2.26). In this respect 7.23-29 appears to be quite
similar to the other observation texts.
Before investigating the contents of the observation and instruction
complexes, I would like to deal with the subject of the limits of the
complexes. In the summary presented earlier these limits seem to be
sharp. Sometimes this is indeed true, for example between 4.16 and
4.17. In some cases, however, the limits are not distinct. The text of
5.8 forms an observation, but it is not entirely clear whether this
verse has to be considered part of the instruction complex 4.17-5.7 or
of the observation complex 5.9-6.9. The thematic correspondence
with 5.7 ('ruler') leads to connecting 5.8 with the preceding text. The
text of 6.10-12 gives rise to the same question. These verses form a
unity because of their emphasis on the limitation of human life. Verse
10 seems to contain a conclusion which depends on 5.9-6.9. On the
other hand, the question in 6.12 joins this text to 7.1-24. It has to be
concluded that 6.10-12 forms a transitional text. We meet another
blurred borderline in 8.9. This verse shows a connection with the pre-
ceding verses, in which instructions are given about how to deal with
authorities. However, it is also possible to consider 8.9 as an intro-
duction to 8.10, which carries on with the word ûbekên and obviously
presupposes 8.9. The last example is 9.13-18. This text begins with an
observation, by which it is joined to 8.9-9.12. It then culminates in

1. This is stated explicitly in 2.26; 3.13; 5.18.

2. All the same, a person can strive after enjoyment of life. This is clearly
expressed in 11.7-12.7. The appeal in 9.7-10 anticipates this advice.
112 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 54 (1992)

instructions concerning wisdom (9.6-18), connecting it with the

instruction complex 9.16-12.7.
Thus it may be concluded that the borderlines of the division of
Qohelet into observation and instruction complexes are not always
clear. It is better to say that the content of the book oscillates between
observation and instruction. The book shows a wave structure in
which observation and instruction often shade off into one another
smoothly. Asking for absolute borders in the division of the book
seems to be posing the wrong question. Perhaps that is why the book
has seemed to be so unmanageable to those seeking its correct division.
So far, a mainly formal description of the indicated structure has
been given. Now I shall show that this structure offers a meaningful
division of the content of Qohelet. The fact that it offers a better grip
on the content of the book is one of the main arguments for the
correctness of the proposed structure.
Further study of the content and the catchwords shows that within
the observation complexes one theme is central: human labour. In the
observation complexes, all sorts of aspects of human labour are inves-
tigated: for example, striving after wisdom, seeking pleasure, doing
justice and the fruits of labour. The words used for labour are 'amai
and 'àsa or their derivatives.1 When these words indicate human labour,
they are found almost exclusively in the observation complexes.2 In
practically all of the texts, the limitations and senselessness of labour
are emphasized. We can distinguish the following principal thoughts:
Labour cannot change anything: 1.3-11; 3.1-11; 13.14-15;
The labour of the wise is a painful or senseless undertaking: 1.12-18;
2.12-17; 4.13-16; 6.10-12; 7.23-29; 8.16-17;
One cannot enjoy the fruits of one's own labour: 2.18-21; 5.9-16; 6.1-9;

1. In their investigation of 'âmàl, G.R. Castellino and A.G. Wright overlooked

that 'ûsâ refers to the same matter, namely labour. Cf. Castellino, 'Qohelet and his
Wisdom', p. 17; Wright, 'The Riddle of the Sphinx: The Structure of the Book of
Qoheleth', CBQ 30 (1968), p. 321.
2. In the following cases, 'âmàl and 'òsa with their derivatives indicate human
labour. Verb 'Ornai: 1.3; 2.11, 19, 20, 21; 5.15, 17; 8.17. Noun 'àmâl: 1.3; 2.10,
11, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24; 3.13; 4.4, 6, 8, 9; 5.14, 17, 18; 6.7; 8.15; 9.9.
Adjective 'âmêl: 2.18, 22; 3.9; 4.8; 9.9. Verb 'âsâ (qal and niphal): 1.9, 13, 14;
2.(2), 3, 5, 6, 8, 11 (2x), 12, 17; 3.9, 12; 4.1, 3, 17; 6.12; 7.20; 8.3, 4, 9, 10, 11
(2x), 12, 14, 16, 17; 9.6, 10; 10.19. Noun mataseh: 1.14; 2.4, 11, 17; 3.17, 22;
4.3, 4; 5.5; 8.9, 11, 14 (2x), 17; 9.7, 10. These are 81 cases, of which only 7 are
found outside the observation complexes.
 DE JONG A Book on Labour 113
Human labour is joined to an incomprehensible or unjust world order
3.16-21; 4.1-3; 4.4-6; 8.9-15; 9.1-6; 9.11-12;
Each person needs help: 4.7-12;
Labour does not make anyone happy: 2.1-11; 2.22-23;
The enjoyment of life has to be given by God: 2.24-26; 3.12-13; 3.22;
5.17-19; 8.15; 9.7-10.
The conclusion is obvious: human labour is in vain (hebel). This cen-
tral insight summarizes Qohelet's observations concerning labour.
The instruction complexes can be understood against the back-
ground of this evaluation of human labour. In spite of a number of
texts in the observation complexes which criticize wisdom, the instruc-
tion complexes affirm its relative advantage over folly. This wisdom
has a special character, expressed in various recommendations which
have a common emphasis on caution. These are the main ideas:
Be careful with God: 4.17-5.6;
Be careful with authorities: 5.7; 8.1-8; 10.4-11; 10.16-20;
Be modest in everything: 7.1-22;
Be wise in spite of powerful folly around you: 9.13-10.3; 10.12-15;
Do not put all your eggs in one basket: 11.1-6;
Enjoy life prudently: 11.7-12.7.
This is the wisdom Qohelet advocates. It is a logical consequence of
the content of his observations. Human beings do not achieve much
with labour. His frailty compels Qohelet to a wisdom of caution.
In connection with the above-indicated main idea of the instructions,
it is interesting to see what is said about wisdom (hokmâ and déri-
vâtes) in the instruction complexes compared to the observation
complexes. It is well known that the book of Qohelet expresses posi-
tive and negative assertions concerning wisdom. Closer study makes it
clear that positive assertions occur almost exclusively in the instruc-
tion parts (7.4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 19; 8.1, 5; 9.13, 15, 16, 17, 18; 10.1, 2,
10,12). 1 In the observation complexes, wisdom is spoken about nega-
tively, or at best neutrally.2 Some texts see grief as consequence of
wisdom (1.13; 1.16-18; 7.25). Other texts observe that wisdom does
not offer advantages (2.14-15; 2.16, 19, 21; 6.8). The fool and the
wise share the same destiny (2.12-14; 4.13-16; 9.1, 11). Real wisdom

1. Cf. also 7.7, which speaks about the danger of corruption for the wise, and
7.16, which advises not to be too wise. Both texts presuppose the relative value of
wisdom.
2. 2.3, 9; 9.10.
114 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 54 (1992)

is unattainable (7.23; 8.16-17).1 It can be concluded that the division

of positive and negative texts concerning wisdom coincides with the
division of instruction and observation texts. This forms another
argument in favour of the indicated structure.

Association and Opposition

The existence of an alternating structure of observation and instruc-
tion complexes is shown above. Although both types of complexes
have a thematic unity, the structuring of the texts within the com-
plexes is less clear. Frequently the distinct observations and instruc-
tions have not been arranged in what would be considered a logical
way by modern standards. In this respect the book of Qohelet shows
similarities with the book of Proverbs and the speeches in the book of
Job. However, it cannot be said that there is no comprehensible arrange-
ment at all. Some ordering principles are at work. These principles
can be summarized roughly as association and opposition. Some texts
are united by association based on keywords or a common theme.2
Other texts are united by opposition. For example, first a traditional
wisdom saying is given, whereupon an opposite reaction follows.3 We
cannot go further into these structuring principles here. More infor-
mation about this subject can be found in the literature referred to in
the notes.

Repetition
Structuring by means of a distinction between observation and instruc-
tion parts and by means of association and opposition determines the
character of the book. Yet there is another structuring principle:
repetition also plays an important part in Qohelet. There is not only

1. Cf. 2.26, which says that real wisdom only can be given by God.
2. Cf. O. Loretz, Qohelet und der Alte Orient: Untersuchungen zu Sül und theo-
logische Thematik des Buches Qohelet (Freiburg: Herder, 1964), pp. 211-17;
Α. Lauha, Kohelet (BKAT, 19; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978),
pp. 4-7.
3. Cf. R. Gordis, 'The Style—His Use of Quotations*, in idem, Koheleth: The
Man and his World: A Study of Ecclesiastes (New York: Schocken Books, 3rd edn,
1968), pp. 95-108. Loader dedicated a study to the polar structures of the book. He
explained this polarity as a consequence of Qohelet's opposition to traditional
wisdom. Cf. Polar Structures* p. 116.
 DE JONG A Book on Labour 115
repetition in the alternation of observation and instruction complexes,
but also in the frequent recurrence of certain subthemes. Some examples
include the already discussed texts about enjoyment, the conclusions
'vanity' (33 times) and "chasing of wind' (9 times), observations about
the unjust world order (7.1S; 8.10, 14; 9.2, 11, 15; 10.6), statements
that another enjoys the fruit of one's labour (2.18-21; 5.13; 6.2), and
remarks about the impossibility of fathoming the mysteries of exis­
tence (3.11 ; 6.12; 8.7,17; 11.5) and about the relative value of wisdom
(2.13; 4.13; 7.5, 12, 19; 8.1; 9.16-18; 10.12). These subthemes are
used to shed light on various aspects of the central theme of labour, or
on various aspects of wisdom.
Consequently, repetition is discernable as an important structuring
principle. Labour and wisdom are investigated in various rounds with
the help of frequent recurring subthemes. This shows that Qohelet
conforms to well-known conventions of Old Testament literature in
general and of wisdom literature in particular.1 The correspondence
with the book of Job attracts particular attention. Just as in Qohelet,
there is one central theme in Job. Here it is 'divine justice'. In Job 3 -
27, various aspects of this central theme are discussed in various
rounds of speeches. Often the logical relationships between succeeding
speeches are rather loose, as is the case in the relationships between
the succeeding observation and instruction complexes in Qohelet The
central theme is investigated from rapidly changing perspectives with
the help of frequently returning subthemes.2 It can be concluded that,
as far as the structure is concerned, Qohelet shows many similarities
with the book of Job.

Conclusion
I will now proceed to sum up the main results of my investigation.
The book of Qohelet does have a plan. To describe this structure, one
must deal with more than one structuring principle. In the first place,

1. Cf. R. Alter, *The Techniques of Repetition', in idem, The Art of Biblical

Narrative (New York: Basic Books, 1981), pp. 88-113. Cf. also the references of
Loretz, Qohelet und der Alte Orient, p. 215 η. 376.
2. In the speeches of Job and his friends, we frequently find subthemes such as
suffering, sin, wisdom and repentance. G. von Rad considered this manner of
investigating a central theme to be characteristic of the book of Job. Cf. Theologie
des Alten Testaments (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1969), I, pp. 422-24.
116 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 54 (1992)

there is an alternation between observation complexes and instruction

complexes. In the observation complexes the central theme is 'labour'.
The central point of the observations on all types of human labour is
this: labour is 'vanity'. This conviction forms the basis of the book.
The instructions have been attuned to this central idea. They propose
the wisdom of careful behaviour to human beings with their frailty.
Within the observation and instruction complexes we find various
insights as well as advice concerning labour and wisdom. These are
organized according to the structuring principles of association and
opposition. In this respect Qohelet shows some similarity with Proverbs
and the speeches in Job. Another important structuring principle is
repetition. This is found in the alternation of the observation and
instruction complexes and in the frequent recurrence of similar themes.
Here the book of Qohelet shows resemblance to the book of Job.

ABSTRACT

This article argues that the book of Qohelet has a logical structure. The main struc-
turing principle of the book is the alternation of observation and instruction com-
plexes. Although the differences between these complexes are not absolute, they
show a well-differentiated profile. This is shown by an analysis of some principal
stylistic and semantic features of both complexes. The proposed division sheds light
on the main theme of the book: human labour. The observation complexes show the
weakness of human labour. The instruction complexes consist of advice, indicating
what is sensible for a person to do. Other structuring principles are association,
opposition and repetition. In this respect Qohelet shows some similarity with
Proverbs and, especially, the speeches in Job.
 ^ s
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