Recent developments in automatic die design

for profile extrusion

O. S. Carneiro and J. M. Nóbrega*
The current state of the automatic design of dies for the extrusion of thermoplastic profiles is
described, with particular emphasis on the work of the present authors. The main problems
associated with the automatic design approach are set out and a description is given of how they
were solved. A case study is used to compare the adequacy of several die design strategies
implemented, not only in terms of the performance attained for the resulting dies when used in the
conditions adopted in their optimisation, but also in terms of their robustness when those
conditions are varied. It was concluded that the most efficient design strategy is that based on the
die parallel zone length optimisation coupled with the use of flow separators and that the most
robust die is that based on the die parallel zone thickness optimisation.
Keywords: Die design, Profile extrusion, Automatic optimisation, Flow balance

Introduction advantages of this approach are an overall reduction

Extrusion die design for the production of thermoplastic
extruded profiles is a difficult task since, ideally, it
should consider the complex 3D non-isothermal viscoe-
lastic flow developed in the die channel and also
anticipate the effects of the post-extrusion phenomena
occurring after the die exit. The main objective to
achieve when designing a new die is to reach the highest
possible production rate at the highest quality product
level in terms of its dimensional accuracy, aesthetics and
mechanical performance. As shown in Fig. 1, there are
many variables and phenomena involved in this process,
namely the rheological defects (shark-skin and melt-
fracture), the flow balance, the thermal degradation that
can result from excessive temperatures promoted by
viscous heat dissipation and the post-extrusion phenom-
ena (extrudate swell, draw-down and shrinkage upon
cooling), which limit the maximum production rate and/
or affect the quality of the extruded profile. Therefore,
and despite the progressive availability of numerical
tools, die design is usually strongly dependent on the
designer’s experience. In fact, traditionally the design of
a new die was carried out via an experimental trial-and-
error approach, as schematised in Fig. 2, being very
time, human, machine and raw materials consuming and
did not guarantee the achievement of the optimal
solution. Currently, and due to the availability of
software packages for the mathematical modelling of
polymer melt flows, the trial-and-error design approach
is being progressively transformed from experimental
into a numerical based operation, but still dependent on
the designer’s experience. As shown in Fig. 2, the
Institute for Polymers and Composites, Department of Polymer
Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058
Guimarães, Portugal
*Corresponding author, email mnobrega@dep.uminho.pt
in the cost of the project and a higher probability of
finding the optimal solution. Recently, there has been a
trend towards the automatic design concept. The idea is
to turn the die design fully automatic, i.e. without any
user intervention, and to guarantee the achievement of
the optimal solution. In this case, the process is almost
completely carried out by the computer, with obvious
savings in resources, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
This work aims at describing the current state of the
automatic design of profile extrusion dies. In the
following section, the main problems associated with
this approach are stated, an overview of the recent
developments achieved on this topic by several research
groups is presented and a more detailed description of
the work carried out by the authors of this work is given.
This is followed by a case study resulting from the
above-referred work and, in the final section, the
conclusions of the study are drawn.
Automatic die design
Problems to solve
The use of an automatic design approach requires the
resolution of some problems, which include: (i) the need
to parameterise the die flow channel in order to enable
an easy modification of its geometry during the
optimisation process; (ii) the minimisation of the
computation time and hardware requirements needed
for recurrent 3D flow modelling. The multiple simula-
tions involved in an optimisation process make this
feature critical since, in practical terms, the process
should be performed within an acceptable time; (iii) the
need to evaluate the quality, or performance, of each
trial solution (die geometry), as in each iteration the
required automatic decisions will be based on this
information. Evaluation is a key step of the optimisation
process since it will drive the search towards the final,

ß 2004 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
Received 23 December 2004; accepted 20 January 2005
400 DOI 10.1179/174328904X24907 Plastics, Rubbers and Composites 2004 VOL 33 NO 9/10
 Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion

1 Variables and phenomena that must be considered for

die design purposes
2 Evolution of die design approaches

optimal, solution; (iv) the availability of an efficient

optimisation technique able to automatically search
through possible solutions until an optimum is reached.
State-of-the-art
Despite its relevance, there are few groups working on
this subject. Optimisation algorithms have until now
been almost only applied to the design of extrusion dies
for the production of simple geometries, such as sheet or
pipes, since in these cases, the flow modelling and the
search process are relatively easy to implement and
systematise.1–3 One of the first attempts to implement an
automatic profile die design technique was carried out
by Coupez et al.,4 using a medical catheter as a case
study. Currently, other research groups, such as those
involved in the ESOP Project ‘A parallel optimisation
scheme applied to die design’, are trying to develop more
general methodologies. This specific project attempted
to identify the main requirements needed for automatic
profile extrusion die design,5 its functionality being
illustrated in several studies6–9 and the required objective
function studied in Szarvasy et al.10 This work was
further developed under a subsequent project, giving rise
to other publications where the methodology was
presented in a more detailed form,11 where some
parameterisation techniques are presented12,13 or where
the methodology is implemented using a 2D approach,
akin to the cross-section methods.14,15 In this context,
some of the remaining published studies are essentially
illustrations of how automatic die design techniques can
be implemented.16,17
All the above-mentioned researchers use the finite
element method (FEM) to solve the relevant balance
equations and almost all still point out the difficulties to
be faced in terms of the inherent computational
resources required. As a consequence, those researchers
use coarse meshes to map the complex 3D channel
geometry, or use a 2D code applied to each slice in
which they divide the channel, and consider the flow as
isothermal. These simplifications do not allow a proper
characterisation of the flow fields, especially when lateral
flow develops in the die channel. However, recently,
some authors have reported the application of the finite-
volume method (FVM),18,19 widely used in traditional
computational fluid dynamics, as a method demanding
low computational resources when compared with those
based on FEM, presenting, therefore, advantages
particularly when applied to fully 3D calculations.20,21
In terms of the required parameterisation, the most
promising technique is that implemented by one of the
above referred groups,15 involving the definition of key
points to represent the geometry of each 2D die slice.
The main issues dealt with by the research groups
active on this topic are listed in Table 1 and the
approach of these authors22 (referred to as Minho
group) are detailed in the next section. Finally, it is
worth mentioning that all these studies are focused on
the die flow channel, i.e. they ignore the flow after die
exit. In such conditions, the main problem to solve is the
flow balance of the die.
Approach
In the approach used in the present study, the four
problems mentioned at the beginning of this section
were solved as described below.
Parameterisation
The first step of the optimisation process consists of the
definition of the initial die parallel zone cross-section
and its division into elemental (ES) and intersection (IS)
sections, as shown in Fig. 3.
In order to parameterise the flow channel, a prepar-
allel zone was inserted between the transition and the
parallel zones (Fig. 4a), enabling to define three
geometrical parameters depicted in Fig. 4b [distance to

Table 1 Approaches used in automatic design of profile dies

Year Group Numerical model Optimisation method Notes

1999 CEMEF4 3D FEM Isothermal Simplex (applied to the Optimisation of the convergence angles
Viscoelastic rheological model and geometry) (transition zone); coarse mesh
2000 Polyflow and 3D FEM (Polyflow) Commercial software (DOT) Optimisation in two steps:
Swansea8 Isothermal die inlet and die land; coarse mesh
Power law
9
2000 Szarvasy 3D FEM (Polyflow) Not mentioned Optimisation in two steps: die land and
Isothermal Power-law transition zone (using separators)
2001–2003 Minho22 3D FVM Non-isothermal Simplex and Experimental Three geometrical parameters
CarreauzArrhenius of the preparallel zone
2004 Swansea15 2D FEM Isothermal Gradient based method Division in slices
Power-law Wall-slip

Plastics, Rubbers and Composites 2004 VOL 33 NO 9/10 401

Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion
3 Division of flow channel cross section into elemental
(ES) and intersection (IS) sections
die exit or length of the parallel zone (L), convergence
angle (a) and exit thickness (t)], for each ES. Changes
promoted in the length or convergence angle of this zone
enable to modify the flow distribution of the parallel
zone without changing the geometry of its cross-section;
on the contrary, a change in its thickness implicitly alters
the parallel zone cross-section.
Minimisation of computation time and hardware
requirements
In order to minimise the computational resources needed
and/or to provide swifter calculations, a FVM based
rheological 3D non-isothermal code was used,22–25
coupled to a progressive mesh refinement technique.22
At the beginning of the optimisation process, a coarse
mesh (using two elements to map the thickness of the
profile) is used. This mesh is then progressively refined as
the process evolves towards the final solution, the
refinements being done whenever the algorithm is unable
to further increase the die performance in two consecutive
iterations. The adoption of this technique allows the
attainment of accurate results (the final iterations use
meshes with 10 elements along the profile thickness) while
a location; b characteristic geometrical parameters
4 Pre-parallel zone
402 Plastics, Rubbers and Composites 2004 VOL 33
5 Initial coarse mesh (two elements along thickness),
final refined mesh (10 elements along thickness) and
computational time required for mesh generation and
corresponding flow simulation
minimising the total computation time. Differences
between the initial and final meshes and corresponding
typical computation times required to perform one single
simulation are shown in Fig. 5.
Evaluation
The performance of a specific die flow channel geometry
can be evaluated through an objective function defined
as22
((
   ) )
X
nZ
Vi 2 (L=t)i 2 Aobj,i
Fobj ~ y 1{
Vobj,i
zkð1{yÞ 1{
(L=t)min Aobj
(1)
(1)
i~1
where nz is the total number of ES and IS zones
considered; k50 for all IS zones and for ES zones with
(L/t)i>(L/t)min; k51 for ES zones with (L/t)i,(L/t)min;
Vi is the actual average velocity of the melt flow in each
zone; (L/t)i is the ratio between the length and thickness
of each ES; (L/t)min is the minimum value recommended
for the ratio L/t; Y is the relative weight; Aobj, Aobj,i are
the objective cross-sectional areas of the global flow
channel and of each zone, respectively; Ai is the actual
cross-sectional area of each zone; V̄ is the global flow
average velocity; Vobj,i is the objective average velocity
of the melt flow in each zone, given by the continuity
equation
Aobj,i
Vobj,i ~V
V (2)
Ai
This function combines two criteria – flow balance and
ratio L/t – affected by different weights, each term being
weighted by the cross-sectional area of the respective
zone. According to equation (1), the objective function
value will decrease with increasing performance of the
die, being zero for a perfectly balanced condition with all
the ES lengths in the advisable range. Here, the
advisable value for the L/t ratio was considered to be
7, or higher, supposing that it will be enough to
guarantee adequate stability for the die performance.
It is worth mentioning that the IS zones are not
controllable since their dimensions are defined by those
of the neighbouring ES. However, since these zones
present low restriction to flow, they usually promote an
excessive local flow, negatively affecting the global
performance of the die. Therefore, despite their ‘uncon-
trolled’ nature, IS are also included in the objective
NO 9/10

6 Flow balance strategies implemented in optimisation
software
function in order to account for their influence on the
die performance.
Optimisation technique
Two optimisation algorithms were implemented.22 One
is based on the non-linear SIMPLEX method26 and the
other tries to mimic the conventional trial-and-error
experimental procedure used in the manufacture of a
new extrusion die, i.e. the changes in geometry are
carried out in order to facilitate the flow in sections
where the melt flowrate is lower than the required value,
and vice-versa.
For optimisation purposes, three alternative strategies
(illustrated in Fig. 6) were implemented.27 The selection
of the strategy adopted to carry out the optimisation of
a specific ES or, in practical terms, of each profile wall,
should be based on the required performance, as
described in Table 2. The first two strategies (Length
and Thickness C) guarantee the achievement of the
required thickness through the optimisation of the
length or the thickness of the die parallel zone,
respectively: the Length Strategy will give the desired
relative magnitude of thicknesses at the die exit, while
the Thickness C Strategy will only provide it after
pulling. Consequently, and as schematised in Fig. 6, the
Length Strategy will result in similar draw-down ratios
imposed on the different walls, thus providing a better
dimensional stability of the profile in use. On the other
hand, the adoption of the Thickness C Strategy will
always promote differential pulling, thus giving a profile
more prone to distort. Finally, the Thickness U Strategy
involves the die parallel zone thickness optimisation
and does not guarantee a prescribed thickness for the
profile wall. Therefore, this strategy should be selected
whenever the wall thickness is not an issue.
Case study
Objective
The automatic die design package used in this work was
assessed elsewhere.28 Here, it will be used to illustrate the
Table 2 Profile wall requirements and most adequate design strategy
Wall requirements
Prescribed thickness Dimensional stability
Yes Yes
Yes No
No Yes
Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion
Table 3 Initial flow channel dimensions
ES 1 2 3 4 5 6
ti, mm 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 2.0 4.0
Li, mm 30.0 37.5 37.5 45.0 30.0 60.0
Li/ti 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
potentialities of the above mentioned design strategies,
in terms of: (i) their capability to enhance the
performance of a particular profile die when used under
the operating conditions employed in its optimisation;
(ii) their robustness, i.e. sensitivity of the optimised die
to variations imposed by the operating conditions.
The polymer used in this work was a polypropylene
homopolymer extrusion grade, Novolen PPH 2150,
from Targor. Its rheological behaviour was charac-
terised experimentally in capillary and rotational rheo-
meters, and the shear viscosity data were fitted with a
least-squares method by means of the Bird-Carreau
constitutive equation combined with the Arrhenius law,
as described in Nóbrega et al.22
Flow channel geometry optimisation
The design code was employed to optimise the flow
distribution of a profile die, whose parallel zone cross-
section is shown in Fig. 5. The geometry comprises
subsections of different thickness (Table 3), since it is
intended to be representative of a typical profile
extrusion die.
Following the proposed design methodology, the
layout adopted for the flow channel is that illustrated
in Fig. 4. The parallel zone cross-section was divided
into six elemental sections (ES), as shown in Fig. 3, and
the initial dimensions selected for each ES are presented
in Table 3.
For the present work, the flow channel geometry was
optimised using three alternative design strategies, which
produced three different flow channel geometries, or
dies, denominated as follows:
(i) DieL: Length Strategy optimisation applied to
each and all of the ES;
(ii) DieT: Thickness C Strategy optimisation applied
to each and all of the ES;
(iii) DieLS: Length Strategy optimisation applied to
each and all of the ES in a die having flow
separators. The location of these separators
(1 mm thickness axial walls) is shown in Fig. 7.
These separating walls emerge from the begin-
ning of the preparallel zone, ending 5 mm
upstream of the die exit.
The optimisation was performed using five variables,
which were denoted as: Opt1 for ES1, Opt23 for ES2
and ES3, Opt4 for ES4, Opt5 for ES5 and Opt6 for ES6.
These variables assume the value of either the ES length,
or the ES thickness, for the optimisation of Length
(DieL and DieLS) and Thickness (DieT), respectively. In
order to facilitate the subsequent die machining, the
Design strategy (Fig. 6)
Length
Thickness C (constrained)
Thickness U (unconstrained)
Plastics, Rubbers and Composites 2004 VOL 33 NO 9/10 403
Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion
7 Location of flow separators in DieLS
variables related to ES2 and ES3 were set equal;
consequently, only one variable (Opt23) was used for
these two ES.
For the first trial geometry, a constant length to
thickness ratio (L/t) of 15 was adopted for all ES
(Table 3) and dies considered. This geometry was then
optimised using the algorithm based on the experimental
method under the general conditions shown in Table 4,
coupled to one of the three design strategies.
As already mentioned, the optimisation algorithm
initially calculates the flow field variables using coarse
meshes that are progressively refined as the procedure
evolves towards a final solution. Figure 5 shows
examples of the meshes employed in the initial and final
stages of the optimisation process. For this specific case
study, at the beginning of the optimisation procedure, a
typical mesh (with two cells along the thickness of each
ES) is composed of 7500 computational inner cells,
having 37 500 degrees of freedom. The most refined
meshes, used in the final stages of the optimisation
process, have 10 cells across the thickness of each ES,
resulting in 570 000 computational cells and 2 850 000
degrees of freedom. The calculation time required for
the grid generation and the flow field computation was
Table 5 Final values for variables and L/t for each optimised die
Optimised die
DieL (length)
Optimisation variable (dimensions in mm) Opt1
Opt23 11.50
Opt4 17.50
Opt5
Opt6 60.00
L/t ES1
ES2/ES3
ES4
ES5
ES6 15.00*
*Values lower than minimum advisable value (seven in present study).
404 Plastics, Rubbers and Composites 2004 VOL 33 NO 9/10
Table 4 General conditions for optimisation
Flowrate* 20 kg h21
Melt power law index 0.26
Melt inlet temperature 230uC
Outer die wall temperature 230uC
Inner (mandrel and flow separators) die walls Adiabatic
*Corresponding to average velocity of 1 m min21 at die exit.
circa 36 s and 7 h for the coarsest and the finest meshes
used, respectively, on a Pentium IV computer running at
2.4 GHz.
Table 5 contains the final values obtained for the
optimisation parameters and the L/t of the optimised
dies. As shown, after optimisation, almost all ES of
DieL have undesirably low L/t ratios, thus revealing a
limitation of the methodology based on the length
optimisation when flow separators are not used. In fact,
this methodology requires extreme reductions of the
parallel zone lengths in order to assure the required
flowrate at the more restrictive regions. On the other
hand, DieT and DieLS have L/t ratios within the
appropriate range.
The evolution of the flow channel optimisation in terms
of the predicted values of the objective function value
(Fobj), velocity ratio V̄/V̄obj (ratio between actual and
required average velocities, for each ES) and relative
difference between actual and final values of each
optimisation variable, are plotted in Figs. 8, 9 and 10,
for DieL, DieT and DieLS, respectively. It is clear that the
initial trial geometries are highly unbalanced; for
example, for DieL and DieT, ES5 (one of the most
restrictive sections) and ES6 (the least restrictive section)
have 275% and z115% of the required flowrate values,
respectively, thus leading to a high initial value of Fobj
(approximately 0.4). The case of DieLS is different since
the presence of the flow separators reduces the lateral flux
from the thinnest to the thickest ES; as a consequence, the
flow is better distributed, the local flowrates for ES5 and
ES6 being 229% and z31% of the required values,
respectively, which leads to an Fobj of only 0.04.
The optimisation routines substantially improved the
flow distribution, as quantified both by the low final
value of Fobj (0.032 for DieL, 0.009 for DieT and 0.005
for DieLS) and by the final values of the ratio V̄/V̄obj, all
close to 1.0. The total computational time required for
the complete optimisation process is relatively large
(43 h for DieL, 111 h for DieT and 84 h for DieLS);
DieT (thickness) DieLS (length)
7.50 2.42 21.50
2.64 34.50
2.89 38.00
7.00 2.42 24.50
3.19 60.00
3.75* 12.40 10.75
4.60* 14.20 13.80
5.83* 15.57 12.67
3.50* 12.40 12.25
18.81 15.00
 Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion

a objective function; b ratio between actual velocity and
objective velocity for each elemental section (V̄/V̄obj);
c difference between actual value of optimisation vari-
able and corresponding final optimised value
8 Results of simulations performed during optimisation
of DieL
a objective function; b ratio between actual velocity and
objective velocity for each elemental section (V̄/V̄obj);
c difference between actual value of optimisation vari-
able and corresponding final optimised value
9 Results of simulations performed during optimisation
of DieT

however, it is important to note that the design process promoted by the flow separators, is also visible in
was completely automatic, i.e. the optimisation was fully Fig. 11, where the velocity contours obtained for all the
controlled by the computer without any user interven- optimised dies are illustrated.
tion, and that after approximately 4 h of calculation all
the optimisation variables differ from their final values Table 6 Differential percentage of required average
by less than 5%, for all the cases considered (Figs. 8c, 9c velocity, calculated as (V̄2V̄obj)/V̄obj, at elemental
and 10c). and intersection sections, for optimised extrusion
The actual flowrate expressed in terms of differential dies
percentage relative to the required value for the Extrusion die DieL DieT DieLS
optimised dies, shown in Table 6, indicates that
the flow is well distributed in all ES, for all the dies, ES1 21.6% 1.8% 2.1%
since the optimisation algorithm is able to directly ES2 27.2% 22.6% 2.1%
control the flow in these regions. On the other hand, in ES3 3.8% 20.8% 3.1%
the non-controllable zones (IS), which are also the less ES4 25.0% 20.6% 0.9%
ES5 27.3% 0.5% 1.7%
restrictive zones, there is an evident flow concentration. ES6 6.7% 1.0% 1.7%
However, the presence of the flow separators employed IS1 24.6% 215.5% 227.7%
in DieLS has a positive effect in these regions: see for IS2 80.1% 99.7% 26.8%
example IS2, which has an excess flow of z80.1% and IS3 25.8% 27.2% 228.5%
z99.7% for DieL and DieT, respectively, and only an IS4 14.4% 19.3% 227.4%
IS5 12.8% 9.3% 228.0%
excess flow of z26.8% for DieLS. This positive effect,

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Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion

11 Velocity contours for all optimised dies

these results, it can be concluded that DieL has the best

performance since it has the minimum total pressure
drop, showing a melt average temperature and melt
temperature standard deviation similar to those of the
other dies. This is a consequence of its lower ES lengths,
the controllable variable used in its optimisation. The
differences between DieT and DieLS, which have similar
L/t values (Table 5), can be justified by the presence of
the flow separators included in DieLS, which decrease its
cross-sectional flow area thus leading to an increase in
pressure.

a objective function; b ratio between actual velocity
and objective velocity for each elemental section (V̄/
V̄obj); c difference between actual value of optimization
variable and corresponding final optimised value
10 Results of simulations performed during optimisation
of DieLS
Sensitivity study
In order to evaluate the robustness of the optimised dies,
a sensitivity study was performed. The overall results
obtained will enable a further assessment of the
adequacy of the different design strategies. The factors
considered in the case studies presented can be divided
into two different groups: (i) controllable process
parameters, such as the global average melt velocity
(or throughput), V, and the temperature of the external
die walls, Tw; and (ii) polymer melt rheology, such as the
power-law index, n, which is not controllable.
The comparison of the flow distribution will be done
via a simplified version of the objective function (Fobj)
defined by equation (1). In fact, for sensitivity analysis
purposes, the die geometry will be kept unchanged,
being just necessary to retain the flow distribution term,
given by
" #
X

Vi 2 Ai
Fobj ~ 1{ (3)
i
Vobji A

The main results corresponding to the optimised dies Using this equation, the reference value of DieL, Fobj is
are shown in Table 7. In terms of flow distribution, the now 0.008. For the other two dies, the values remain the
best performance is that of DieLS. This is not surprising same since all their L/t ratios are higher than the
since the presence of flow separators promotes the minimum advisable value.
easiest control of the flow distribution, by eliminating The conditions for the numerical experiments (iden-
the lateral flow between neighbouring ES. tical for the three optimised dies considered) were set
The remaining results shown in Table 7 are the total using a statistical Taguchi technique,29,30 with three
pressure drop, DP (relevant to determine the extruder levels for each factor, as listed in Table 8. For all the
power consumption), the average melt temperature at factors, the reference values are those used in the opti-
the die exit, T̄ (relevant to define the cooling time or misation stage and always correspond to their inter-
cooling length required) and the standard deviation of mediate level. The remaining conditions are the same as
the melt temperature at the die exit, sT (related to the used to carry out the optimisations.
development of thermal induced internal stresses). For The Taguchi analysis allowed identification of the
factors with statistical significance for each optimised
geometry and result considered, as shown in Table 9.
Table 7 Results obtained for optimised dies
From these data, and with the exception of the objective
Optimised die Fobj DP, Pa T̄, uC sT, uC function, it is possible to conclude that the factors
affecting each result are the same for all the dies and that
DieL 0.032 2.7 231.0 0.7 the standard deviation of the melt temperature at the die
DieT 0.009 3.9 231.4 0.9 exit is not affected by any factor, though it will not be
DieLS 0.005 4.3 231.5 1.0
considered in the following discussion.

406 Plastics, Rubbers and Composites 2004 VOL 33 NO 9/10

 Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion

a DieL; b DieT
13 Streamlines developed in ES5

The differences between DieL and DieT, i.e. between

a objective function; b pressure drop; c average melt
temperature at die exit
12 Sensitivity of results to different factors considered
in Taguchi analysis
The sensitivity of the dies is presented in Fig. 12. The
graphs show the percentage variation of each result
promoted by the maximum variation imposed by each
factor, relative to its reference value, positive values
indicating a variation of the same sign and negative
values indicating an opposite variation.
Results shown in Fig. 12a indicate that the power law
index, n, has the greater influence on flow distribution
for all the dies considered, DieT being the most stable.
Table 8 Taguchi plan of experiments (simulations)
Factor
Experiment (simulation) Tw, uC n V, m min21
length and thickness optimised dies, can be further
understood by analysing the flow streamlines obtained
for the two geometries studied. Figure 13 shows
calculated stream traces in the region corresponding to
ES5, one of the thinner sections, for these two dies. Since
differences in thickness promote lateral flux from
thinner to thicker regions, in DieL (having a cross-
section equal to the initial trial of the optimisation
process) the melt must leave the die channel before a
fully developed flow is attained. If this condition is not
verified, the flow balance will be lost, as occurs for the
initial trial geometry. On the other hand, in DieT the
flow is allowed to become fully developed in the parallel
zone, thus contributing to its higher stability.
As discussed in the analysis of the optimised
geometries, the use of flow separators improved the die
performance. However, the sensitivity of DieLS is
similar to that of DieL. Therefore, it can be concluded
that the flow separators have a negative effect on die
robustness, since the L/t ratios of all ES of DieLS are
higher than those of DieL.
As shown in Fig. 12b, the pressure drop decreases
with increasing temperature and decreasing value of the
power law index, since these variations promote a
decrease in the shear viscosity. An increase in flowrate

1 210 0.21 0.8

2 210 0.26 1.0 Table 9 Factors with statistical significance
3 210 0.31 1.2
4 230 0.21 1.0 Results
5 230 0.26 1.2 Geometry Fobj DP T̄ sT
6 230 0.31 0.8
7 250 0.21 1.2 DieL n Tw, n, V Tw, n None
8 250 0.26 0.8 DieT n Tw, n, V Tw, n None
9 250 0.31 1.0 DieLS Tw, n Tw, n, V Tw, n None

Plastics, Rubbers and Composites 2004 VOL 33 NO 9/10 407

Carneiro and Nóbrega Automatic die design for profile extrusion
will also increase the pressure drop, but to a lesser extent
as a result of the shear-thinning behaviour of the melt.
The effect of n and V on the melt average temperature
is expected (Fig. 12c) since an increase in any of
these factors will contribute to increase the viscous
dissipation. The effect of Tw is direct and obvious.
Conclusion
The present study showed that the traditional methods
employed in the design of extrusion dies can be
significantly improved through the use of the automatic
design concept. The main conclusions of the work are:
1. The optimisation of a real extrusion die showed
that the developed flow balancing code is able to
significantly improve the performance of extrusion dies
within acceptable computational times; these were
significantly reduced through the use of the progressive
mesh refinement concept.
2. It was shown that the thickness based optimisation
strategy is more efficient from the flow balance point of
view and generates dies which are more stable. However,
these dies are expected to give profiles which are more
prone to distort.
3. Optimisation strategies based on length control
may be difficult to apply in profiles presenting significant
differences in flow restriction, a factor that can be
minimised through the use of flow separators. However,
the flow separators may induce mechanical weakness in
the profile and promote higher sensitivity of the die,
factors that have negative consequences in the final
profile usage and during its production, respectively.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding by FCT,
Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the POCTI
and Plurianual programmes.
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