ASM Handbook volume 14B Metalworking: Sheet metal forming

Forming Limit Diagrams

A traditional forming limit diagram (FLD) indicates the limiting strains that sheet metals
can sustain over a range of major-to-minor strain ratios. Two main types of laboratory
tests are used to determine these limiting strains. The first type of test involves stretching
test specimens over a punch or by means of hydraulic pres-sure—for example, the
hemispherical punch method. This produces some out-of-plane deformation and, when a
punch is used, surface friction effects. The second test produces only in-plane
deformation and does not involve any contact with the sample within the gage length.
The first type of test has been used much more extensively (Ref 6, 77-79) than the
second and provides slightly different results (Ref 33. 80). Good correlation has been
obtained between FLDs determined in the laboratory and production experience.
The hemispherical punch method for determining forming limit diagrams uses
circle-gridded strips of the test material ranging in width from 25.4 to 203 mm (1.0 to 8.0
in.) that are clamped in a die ring and stretched to incipient fracture by a 102 mm (4.0 in.)
diam steel punch ( Ref 77. 79). The narrowest strip fractures at a minor-to-major strain
ratio of about -0.5, which is comparable to that obtained in a tension test As the strip
width is increased, the strain ratio passes through plane strain toward positive values for
a full-width specimen. Further increases in the ratio to a maximum value of +1.0
(balanced biaxial stretching) are achieved by using progressively improved punch
lubrication (oiled polyethylene, oiled neoprene) and by increasing thicknesses of
polyurethane rubber between the sheet and the punch.
The strains are measured in and around regions of visible necking and fracture. The
forming limit curve is drawn above the strains measured outside the necked regions and
below those measured in the necked and fractured regions, as shown in Fig. 31.
In-plane determination of the forming limit diagram can be achieved by using the
uniaxial tension test, rectangular sheet tension test, or Marciniak biaxial stretching test
with elliptical and circular punches, as described earlier in this article. The forming limit
curve can be deter-mined over the full range of strain ratios, without introducing any out-
of-plane deformation. A comparison of the in-plane and punch methods showed close
agreement for negative strain ratios and slightly higher values in the punch test at plane
strain and for positive strain ratios (Ref 33).
Circle Grid Analysis and Use of FLDs
Circle grid analysis is a useful technique for ensuring that a die is adequately prepared
for production and for diagnosing the causes of necking and splitting failures in
production (Ref 81.82). The forming limit diagram tor the type and gage of work material
selected must first be obtained. Arrays of small diameter (2.5 mm, or 0.1 in.), evenly
spaced circles are printed or etched on several blanks in the critical strain regions,
preferably in the same location on each blank. Some of the blanks are formed into parts,
and the major and minor axes of the deformed circles are measured in the critical
locations. The critical strain regions of the part are identified by visual observation of
necking or splitting, or by previous experience with similar parts. The local strains are
then calculated from the measured dimensions and plotted on the forming limit diagram.
If the maximum strains measured are close to or above the forming limit curve (FLC),
problems with the tooling, lubrication, blank size or positioning, or press variables are
indicated, whether necking or splitting actually occurs. Fluctuations that occur in
operating conditions and in the properties of the work material over a production run will
eventually cause failure if the material is strained to its full capacity. If the greatest levels

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of strain in the stamping are more than 10% below the FLC, the dies are considered
"green," or safe. Many companies require this type of analysis, proving that the new
stamping dies are capable of producing a part with strain levels in the "green" zone of the
FLD, before buying off on the dies (Ref 83). When new dies cause levels of strain
between 0 and 10% below the FLC, this is considered a "yellow" zone, where caution
requires further development of either the dies themselves, the drawbeads, or other
process conditions including lubrication. Any strain readings that exceed the FLC
indicate a "red" condition, where the likelihood of failure is high if the dies are not
modified prior to being used for production.
The material used in die tryout should have typical, or slightly lower, forming properties
than the production material. The use of superior material may indicate an adequate
forming safety margin that will disappear when a more typical or lower formabilitv
material is used. It is good practice to form a few gridded blanks of a standard (nonaging)
reference material periodically during a production run to determine the trends in the
maximum strains. If the strains are approaching the maximum limits, corrective
measures can be taken before any actual failures occur.
A none exhaustive list of industrial applications of the FLD includes (Ref 84):

Visual display of the cause of a Tight radii

problem Restrictions
Insufficient punch-die clearance
Blank to big

Strain comparisons Mirror image stamping

Before and after changes
Last one shutdown, first one startup

Setting dies Press lines, types and speeds

Die location
Ram adjustments

Guide modifications Detect changes

Rapid 2-blank method
Sensitivity to changes
Shop records

Strain history Source of problem

Breakdown sequence
Status at breakdown

Monitor production runs Die wear

Sudden breakage
Status at breakdown

Initial specifications Material

Lubrication
Die release

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Experimental changes Material

Lubrication
Die modifications
Press adjustments
Education Apprentices
New material
New processes

Circle Grids. Many types of circle grid patterns have been used, such us square arrays
of contacting or closely spaced noncontacting circles and arrays of overlapping circles.
The contacting and overlapping circles provide improved coverage but are more difficult
to measure manually. With small, closely spaced circles, it is possible to determine strain
gradients accurately, provided the circles are not too small for accurate measurement.
Circles with 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) diameters have been found to be a good size, Both open
and solid circles have been used successfully, and automatic systems have been
developed for measuring both types.
Applying Circle Grids to the Blanks. The circle grids can be applied to the blanks by a
printing or photographic technique or by electro-chemical etching. Printed and
photographically applied circles are easily damaged, and tend to rub off in areas
contacted by the dies. This has led to general acceptance of etched circles.
In the electrochemical etching process, an electric stencil with the required grid pattern is
placed on the blank and covered with a felt pad soaked in an etching solution. An
electrode is placed on the pad, and low-voltage (up to 14 V ) current is passed between
the electrode and the blank for a short time, usually less than 1 min. This produces a
lightly etched and oxidized pattern on the surface of the blank. The stencils, etching
solutions, and power supplies for this process are commercially available. Different
metals require different solutions, levels and types of voltage, and etching times.
Measuring Strains from Deformed Circles. Deformed circles can be measured
manually by means of dividers and a ruler, graduated transparent tapes, or a low-power
microscope with a graduated stage. Automatic systems, known as grid circle analyzers,
have also been developed for measuring the dimensions of the circles and calculating
and displaying the major and minor strains (Ref 85-87).
In regions of high curvature, the most accurate method of measurement is use of the
transparent tape because it follows the contour of the part and measures the arc length,
while the other methods measure the chord length. The tapes have a pair of diverging
lines graduated lo give direct readings of the strain, as shown in Fig 32.
Grid circle analyzers use a solid-state digital array camera with a built-in light source, a
minicomputer, keyboard, cathode-ray tube (CRT) display, and printer. An image of a
given deformed circle is displayed on the CRT, and a least squares curve fitting program
selects the most suitable ellipse, which is displayed simultaneously. The major and minor
strains, computed from the equation for the ellipse and the diameter of the original circle,
are displayed on the screen and printed. A typical layout for the equipment is show it in
Fig. 33.
Drawbead forces
It is common practice in production stamping operations to control the movement of the
edges of the blank into the die cavity by means of drawbeads placed in the blankholder.
These consist of a semicylindrical ridge in the upper part of the blankholder and a
corresponding groove with rounded shoulders in the lower part, or a similar but opposite

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configuration. The drawbeads cause the periphery of the blank to bend and straighten
three times as it passes through each bead, as shown in Fig. 34.
The repeated bending and straightening produces a restraining force in addition to that
caused by surface friction. A method has been devised for measuring the restraining
force due to deformation, independently of the effects of friction, using a drawbead
simulator with low-friction rollers instead of a fixed bead and groove (Ref 88, 89). A
second drawbead simulator with nonrotating parts can be used to measure the combined
effects of friction and deformation. Figure 35 shows both types of simulators.
Strips of 0.75 to l.00 mm (0.03 to 0.04 in.) thick and 50 mm (1.97 in.) wide rimmed and
aluminum-killed steels and two aluminum alloys were tested using simulators and a
universal testing machine. The contribution from deformation to the total restraining force
depended on the lubricant used and ranged from an average of 60% with poor
lubrication to 85% with very good lubrication. The required clamping forces, surface
strains in the workpiece at various locations in the drawbead simulators, effect of
drawbead radius, and effect of rate of testing were also investigated.

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Fig. 31. Strain measurement and forming limit diagrams for aluminum-killed steel. Source:
Ref 76

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Fig. 32. Transparent tape measurement of deformed circles. Source: Ref 78

Fig. 33. Layout of a grid circle analyzer. Source: Ref 79

Fig. 34. Repeated bending and straightening of a blank edge in a drawbead.

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Fig. 35. Drawbead simulators. (a) frictionless simulator, (b) standard simulator. Source:
Ref 83.

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