Chapter 5 Oscillators

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS FOR COMMUNICATION
Chapter 5
Oscillators
Huynh Phu Minh Cuong

hpmcuong@hcmut.edu.vn
Department of Telecommunications
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Ho Chi Minh city University of Technology
Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 1
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS FOR COMMUNICATION
Chapter 5
Oscillators
Reference:
[1] Smith, Jack, Modern Communications Circuits, Second Edition, McGraw Hill,
1998.
[2] Razavi, RF Microelectronics, Prentice Hall, 2 edition, 2011

1. Introduction
 Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a periodic
waveform on its output without an external signal source. It is
used to convert dc to ac.
 Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous signal of some
type without the need of an input.
 Oscillators are used in a number of applications in which a
reference tone is required. For instance, they can be used as the
clock for digital circuits or as the source of the LO signal in
transmitters.
 In receivers, oscillator waveforms are used as the reference
frequency to mix down the received RF to an IF or to baseband. In
most RF applications, sinusoidal references with a high degree of
spectral purity (low phase noise) are required.
 Communications systems, digital systems (including computers),
and test equipment make use of oscillators
1. Introduction
• An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal from a dc
voltage.
• The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the output
to maintain the oscillations.
• The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to
generate a nonsinusoidal signal such as square wave
Sine wave
Square wave
Sawtooth wave

1. Introduction
Types of oscillators
1. RC oscillators
– Wien Bridge
– Phase-Shift
2. LC oscillators
– Hartley
– Colpitts
– Crystal
3. LC Crossed-couple Oscillator

2. Conditions for Oscillation – Loop Gain
• An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback

+ V
Vs  Amplifier (A) Vo
+
Positive Vf Frequency-Selective
Feedback Network ()
Feedback
A linear oscillator contains:

- a frequency selection feedback network
- an amplifier to maintain the loop gain at unity

• An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback

+ V
Vs  Amplifier (A) Vo
+
Positive Vf Frequency-Selective
Feedback Network ()
Feedback
Ve  Vs  V f (1) V f  βVo (2)
Vo  AVe  AVs  V f   AVs  βVo  (3)

 In general A and  are functions of frequency

and thus may be written as;
As 
A f s   s  
Vo
Vs 1  As β s 
As β s  is known as loop gain

 Writing T s   As β s  the loop gain becomes:

As 
A f s  
1  T s 
 Replacing s with j
A jω
A f  jω 
1  T  jω
and
T  jω  A jωβ  jω

 At a specific frequency f0
T  jω0   A jω0 β  jω0   1
 At this frequency, the closed loop gain;
A jω0 
A f  jω0  
1  A jω0 β  jω0 
will be infinite, i.e. the circuit will have finite output

for zero input signal - oscillation

 Thus, the condition for sinusoidal oscillation of

frequency f0 is:
A jω0 β  jω0   1
 This is known as Barkhausen criterion.
 The frequency of oscillation is solely determined
by the phase characteristic of the feedback loop –
the loop oscillates at the frequency for which the
phase is zero.

Summary:
+ V
Vs  A(f) Vo
+
Vf SelectiveNetwork
(f)
Vo  AV  A(Vs  V f ) and V f  Vo

Vo A
 
Vs 1  A
If Vs = 0, the only way that Vo can be nonzero is that loop gain
A=1 which implies that
| A | 1
(Barkhausen Criterion)
A  0
In phase
Vf Vo
Av
Noninverting
amplifier
Feedback
circuit

Design Criteria for Oscillators
1. The magnitude of the loop gain must be
unity or slightly larger
Aβ  1
2. Total phase shift, of the loop gain must be

Nx360° where N=0, 1, 2, …


2. Conditions Tuned Oscillator – Loop Gain
for Oscillation
Example:
 We wish to build a negative-feedback oscillatory system using “LC-tuned” amplifier stages.
At very low frequencies, L1 At the resonance frequency At very high frequencies

dominates the load and
|Vout/Vin| is very small and The phase shift from the |Vout/Vin| dinimishes ∠(Vout/Vin)
∠(Vout/Vin) remains around -90° input to the output is thus approaches +90°
equal to 180°
Can the circuit above
Dr. Cuongoscillate if its input and
HuynhTelecommunications output are shorted? – No--
DepartmentHCMUT 16
2. of
Cascade Conditions
Two Tunedfor Oscillation
Amplifiers – Loop
in Feedback Gain
Loop
 We recognize that the circuit provides a phase shift of 180 °with possibly adequate gain
(gmRp) at ω0. We simply need to increase the phase shift to 360 °.
Assuming that the circuit above (left) oscillates, plot the voltage waveforms at X and Y.
 Wave form is shown above (right). A unique attribute of inductive loads is that they can provide
peak voltages above the supply. The growth of VX and VY ceases when M1 and M2 enter the
triode region for part of the period, reducing the loop gain.

2. Conditions for Oscillation – Negative Resistance
One-Port View of Oscillators
 An alternative perspective views oscillators as two one-port components, namely, a
lossy resonator and an active circuit that cancels the loss.
 Consider the lossless LC circuit:
𝐼(𝑗𝑋𝐶 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿)=0
 Finite current I is allowed if XL + XC = 0, which occurs at the resonant frequency:
 Generalizing this idea to a circuit consisting of arbitrary impedances ZA and ZB ,

then finite current, I, is supported if ZA + ZB = 0.
Resonance condition:
ZA + ZB = 0
RA + RB = 0
XA + XB = 0
 In practice the negative resistance concept is applied by breaking a
candidate oscillator circuit into two parts, which are associated with
the impedances ZA and ZB.
 Most oscillators consist of a single active device, so when the circuit
is divided into two parts, one part will contain only passive
components. This part will exhibit an impedance with positive real
part.
 In order for oscillations to occur in the circuit, the part containing the
active device must have an impedance with a negative real part.
Resonance condition:
ZA + ZB = 0

 Under this view, an oscillator is considered as two one-port components, namely, a
lossy resonator and an active circuit (with negative input resistance) that cancels the
loss.
 If an active circuit replenishes the energy lost in each period, then the
oscillation can be sustained.
 In fact, we predict that an active circuit exhibiting an input resistance of -Rp
can be attached across the tank to cancel the effect of Rp.

3. Wien-bridge Oscillator
• It is a low frequency oscillator which ranges

from a few kHz to 1 MHz.

3. Wien-bridge Oscillator
 The loop gain for the oscillator is;
 R2  Z p 
T s   As β s    1  
Z Z 
 R1  p s 
 where;
R
Zp 
1  sRC
 and; 1  sRC
Zs 
sC
22
3. Wien-bridge
Wien-bridgeOscillator
Oscillator
 Hence;
 R2   
T s    1 
1
  
 R1   3  sRC  1 /sRC 
 Substituting for s;
 R2   
T  j   1   
1

 R1   3  jRC  1/jRC 
 For oscillation frequency f0;
 R2   
T  j0   1   
1

 R1   3  j0 RC  1/j0 RC 
23
3. Wien-bridge
Oscillator
Wien-bridge Oscillator
 Since at the frequency of oscillation, T(j) must be
real (for zero phase condition), the imaginary
component must be zero;
1
j0 RC  0
j0 RC
 Which gives us;
1
0 
RC
24
3. Wien-bridge
Oscillator
 From the previous equation;

 R2   
T  j0   1   
1

 R1   3  j0 RC  1/j0 RC 
 the magnitude condition is;
 R2  1  R2
1  1    or 2
 R1  3  R1
To ensure oscillation, the ratio R2/R1 must be

slightly greater than 2.
25
3.3.1 Wien-bridgeOscillator
Wien-bridge Oscillator
 With the ratio; R

2
2
R1
 then;
R2
K  1 3
R1
K = 3 ensures the loop gain of unity – oscillation
 K > 3 : growing oscillations
 K < 3 : decreasing oscillations
26
4. Phase-Shift Oscillator
 The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits

to provide 180º phase shift that when coupled with
the 180º of the op-amp itself provides the necessary
feedback to sustain oscillations.
 The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the
oscillations.
 The frequency of resonance for the this type is
similar to any RC circuit oscillator:
1
fr 
2 6 RC
27
4. Phase-Shift
3.2 Phase-ShiftOscillator
Oscillator
Phase-Shift Oscillator
- C R2
R
- C v2 -
C v1 + v2 v3
vi + v1 + vo
R R
vo R2
A( s )   
3
v3
R
 sRC   sRC 
v1   vi v3    vi
 1  sRC   1  sRC 
3
 sRC 
2
 sRC  v3
  ( s)  
v2    vi 
 1  sRC  vi  1  sRC 
28
4. Phase-Shift
Oscillator
 Loop gain, T(s):
3
 R2   sRC 
T ( s )  A( s )  ( s )      
 R   1  sRC 
 Set s=jw
 R2   j RC 
3
T ( j )      
 R   1  j RC 
 R2  ( j RC )( RC ) 2
T ( j )   
  
R 1  3 2
R 2
C 2
  j RC  3   2
R 2
C 2

29
4. Phase-Shift
Oscillator
 To satisfy condition T(jwo)=1, real component must
be zero since the numerator is purely imaginary.
1  3 2 R 2C 2  0
 the oscillation frequency: 1
0 
3RC
 Apply wo in equation:
 R2  ( j / 3)(1/ 3)  R2  1 
T ( jo )       
 R  0  ( j / 3) 3  (1/ 3)   R  8 
To satisfy condition T(jwo)=1
R2 The gain greater than 8, the circuit will
8 spontaneously begin oscillating & sustain
R oscillations
30
4. Phase-Shift
Oscillator
1 R2
fo   29 The gain must be at least
2 6 RC
29 to maintain the
R oscillations
31
Circuit Models for BJT and FET
Hybrid-pi equivalent circuit for bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
𝑉𝑇 𝛽 𝐼𝐶𝑄
𝑟𝜋 = 𝑔𝑚 =
𝐼𝐶𝑄 𝑉𝑇
Cut-off Frequency
Hybrid-pi small-signal model for BJT
32
 Hybrid-pi equivalent circuit for MOSFET transistor
Hybrid-pi small-signal model for MOSFET
Cut-off Frequency
33
Example: Common-emitter amplifier with tuned output
(a) Find the quiescent collector current, ICQ.

Express your result in mA.
(b) Find the resonant frequency of the
amplifier. The voltage gain will be largest at
this frequency. Express your result in MHz.
(c) Find the voltage gain at resonance.
(d) Find the 3 dB bandwidth of the amplifier.
Express your result in MHz.
34
5. Colpitts and Hartley – Oscillators
 RF oscillators are usually made using one amplifier/transistor
accompanying with a feedback network consisting of 3 elements Z1, Z2, Z3.
 The feedback network (Z1, Z2

and Z3) provides a phase shift of 
Av Ro
180o A
~
 The amplifier provides an
addition shift of 180o +
 The amplifier is realized using a 2 Z1 Z2 1
transistor (BJT or FET)
 The ground of the oscillator can Z3
be any at B, C or E terminal Zp
 These oscillators can be analysed
using Loop-Gain or Negative-
Resistance methods.
 Two well-known Oscillators:

• Colpitts Oscillator
• Harley Oscillator 35
Oscillator Analysis using Loop Gain
(a) Topology of one class of oscillator circuits. (b) Same as (a), redrawn to show the feedback path from output to
input through Z3.
C Note: For small-signal analysis we can model
the transistor as shown in this figure. Note that
this is a simplified version of the hybrid-pi
B
model for the transistor. The passive elements of
the model (e.g., r⇡, C⇡, Cμ, etc.) can be lumped
E into the external impedances Z1, Z2, Z3.
Simplified hybrid-pi model of transistor
To find the open loop gain of this circuit, we break the loop at a convenient point and
terminate that point in the impedance that it sees when the loop is closed.
36
Oscillator Analysis using Loop Gain
 Since the output of Z3 normally looks into Z1 when the loop is closed, we terminate
the loop with Z1 as shown:
 Compute the loop gain:
 Oscillation condition:
A𝑙o =1
𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐙𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦𝐙𝟏𝐙𝟐 = 0
37
Oscillator Analysis using Negative Resistance
Z3
Zin
Zin = Z1 + Z2 + 𝑔𝑚Z1Z2
B C
+
Z1 vbe gmvbe Z
2
-
E
 Oscillation condition: Z3 + Zin = 0

which leads to
𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐙𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦𝐙𝟏𝐙𝟐 = 0
 It is the same as the condition resulting from the loop gain method !
38
Colpitts, Hartley Oscillatior Analysis
 Oscillation condition:
𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐙𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦𝐙𝟏𝐙𝟐 = 0
 Some useful insights can be gained if we assume for this moment that:
Z1 and Z2 are purely reactive, i.e., Z1 = jX1, Z2 = jX2.
We allow Z3 to have a non-zero (positive) real part (Z3 = R + jX3).
Then:
𝐑 + 𝐣 𝐗𝟏 + 𝐗𝟐 + 𝐗𝟑 − 𝐠𝐦𝐗𝟏𝐗𝟐 = 𝟎
𝐗𝟏 + 𝐗𝟐 + 𝐗𝟑 = 𝟎
𝐑 − 𝐠𝐦𝐗𝟏𝐗𝟐 = 𝟏
39
g XX
 For oscillation to occur: A𝑙o = m 1 2
=1
R+j(X1+X2+X3)
 𝐴𝑙𝑜 =1
 The phase angle of Alo must be zero at some frequency
 It indicates that:
gmX1X2
 X1 + X2 + X3=0 and =1
R
 At least one reactance must be capacitance (negative)
 X1 and X2 must be of same type and X3 must be of opposite type
40
Colpitts Oscillator
 The Colpitts oscillator is a type of oscillator that uses an
LC circuit in the feed-back loop.
 The feedback network is made up of a pair of tapped
capacitors (C1 and C2) and an inductor L to produce a
feedback necessary for oscillations.
 The Hartley oscillator is almost identical to the Colpitts

oscillator.
 The primary difference is that the feedback network of
the Hartley oscillator uses tapped inductors (L1 and L2)
and a single capacitor C.
41
Colpitts:
gm are the values necessary for the circuit to

support steady-state oscillations.
Hartley:
These frequencies of oscillation are simply the resonant frequencies of the networks
that result when the transistor is removed from the circuits.
42
 The values of gm obtained in previous equations are the values
necessary for the circuit to support steady-state oscillations. We
will denote these values by gm,ss.
 In practical applications the transistor is biased to set the
transconductance to a value somewhat larger, e.g. a factor of 2 to
5 larger, than gm,ss.
 Setting gm > gm,ss causes the loop gain at o to be larger than 1 by
the factor gm/gm,ss. One reason for doing this is to ensure that
oscillations start reliably even if component values change
slightly.
 Setting Alo (at o) > 1 means that the oscillations will not be
maintained at a steady state; rather, they will grow in amplitude.
43
 Growth will proceed until the active device is no longer
operating in the “small-signal” mode. As the oscillation
grows, eventually the amplitude of the oscillation will be
limited by nonlinear effects.
 In large signal condition, nonlinear operation reduce the gain
of the active device. This is called gain saturation, and the
effect can be modeled as a decrease in the transconductance,
gm, and hence a decrease in the loop gain.
 As the amplitude of the oscillation grows, the
transconductance is decreased to the point where the
magnitude of the loop gain is 1.
 At this point steady-state oscillation will be maintained.
44
 Note that previous considerations did not specify which of the

transistor terminals was at RF ground.
 Thus they apply without modification to common base, common
emitter or common collector circuits.
 Also, it was assumed that Z1 and Z2 were purely reactive. If this is
not the case, one must go back to the general expression for
oscillation condition:
−𝐠𝐦𝐙𝟏𝐙𝟐
𝐀𝒍𝐨 = =1 or
𝐙𝟏+𝐙𝟐+𝐙𝟑
𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐙𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦𝐙𝟏𝐙𝟐 = 0
 The oscillating frequency and gm may be different with those

derived. 45
 If: 𝐙𝟏 = R1 + jX1 , 𝐙𝟐 = R2 + jX2 , 𝐙𝟑 = R + jX3
𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐙𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦𝐙𝟏𝐙𝟐 = 0
leads to:
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦(𝐑𝟏𝑹𝟐 - X1X2) = 0
𝐗𝟏 + 𝐗𝟐 + 𝐗𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦(𝐑𝟏𝑿𝟐 + R2X1) = 0
 The oscillating frequency and gm are obtained from those .
46
Common-Collector, Common-Base Colpitts Oscillator
Common-collector Colpitts oscillator Common-base Colpitts oscillator circuit.

47
MOSFET Colpitts Oscillator
Zin
Inductor with parallel Rp
48
MOSFET Colpitts Oscillator
49
Example - Common-collector Colpitts Oscillator
50
Small-signal equivalent circuit for common-collector Colpitts.

The resistance, r represents the series resistance of the inductor.
51
 In practice it is useful to choose C1 >> C, C2 >> Co.
 This ensures that the external components swamp the internal
capacitances of the transistor, thereby minimizing the circuit’s
dependence on variations in the internal transistor capacitances.
 It is also useful to choose C1 and C2 to be large enough so that
1/(C1) << r, 1/(C2) << Re. This causes Z1 and Z2 to be
dominated by the external capacitances, thereby minimizing
dependence on r (which depends on bias current and transistor
) and losses in r and Re.
 In view of these considerations, in the following analysis we
shall make the following replacements:
C1 + C  C1 and C2 + Co  C2.
52
 It is now useful to make some approximations in order to simplify
the analysis.
 We assume that the impedances of the capacitances C1 and C2 are
small compared to r and Re, respectively. In other words, define
Q1 = C1 r and Q2 = C2Re. We assume that Q1>> 1 and Q2>> 1.
 Then Z1 and Z2 can be transformed using a high-Q parallel to
series
 transformation, i.e.:
53
 The condition for steady-state oscillation is Zin + Z3 = 0, or
𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐙𝟑 + 𝐠𝐦𝐙𝟏𝐙𝟐 = 0
 The real part of this equation is
 r =/gm
 The term involving -4 may be neglected provided that:
2C1C2rRe>>1, or if Q1Q2 >>1 .
 The steady-state transconductance can be written as follows:
54
 The steady-state transconductance can be written as follows:
 If Re is allowed to approach infinity (so that Z2 becomes a pure

reactance), and if  >> C2/C1, then gm,ss reduces to gm,ss = 2C1C2 r,
the same as the result which was derived by assuming that Z1 and Z2
were pure reactances.
 Practically C1 > C2 and  >>1, the second term in the denominator
can be neglected, in which case:
which leads to
with
55
Some Practical Colpitts Oscillator
56
Some Practical Colpitts Oscillator
Example of Colpitts circuit Example of Hartley circuit

(with bias), oscillating frequency: (with bias), oscillating frequency:
1
f  f 
1
2 L
C1C2 2 LC
C1  C2
57
6. Crystal Oscillator (Reading)
 Most communications and digital applications require the use

of oscillators with extremely stable output. Crystal oscillators
are invented to overcome the output fluctuation experienced
by conventional oscillators.
 Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz
wafer held between two metal plates and housed in a package
as shown in Fig. (a) and (b).
58
7. Voltage Control Oscillators - VCO
 VCO is an electronic oscillator specifically designed to be
controlled in oscillation frequency by a voltage input using a
varactor or varicap.
 The frequency of oscillation, is varied with an applied DC voltage.
 The output frequency varies from ω1 to ω2 (the required tuning

range) as the control voltage, Vcont, goes from V1 to V2.
 The slope of the characteristic, KVCO, is called the “gain” or
“sensitivity” of the VCO and expressed in rad/Hz/V.
59
 Oscillation frequency by a voltage input using a varactor or varicap
Ideal
Vcont
Varactor characteristic
60
Colpitts VCO
61
Example: VHF VCO for TV tuner
 The L-Cv combination looks inductive.

 The frequency of oscillation for this
circuit will be the frequency where C1,
C2 and the L-Cv combination are
resonant.
62
Oscillators
Design a Colpitts oscillator operating at 200 MHz using an
FET in a common gate configuration, including the effect
of a lossy inductor. First derive equations for the resonant
frequency and condition required for sustaining oscillation
for an inductor with loss. Use these results to find the
required capacitances, assuming an inductor of
15 nH with a Q of 50, and a transistor with gm = 20 mS and
Ro = 1/Go = 200 .
Determine the minimum value of the inductor Q required
to sustain oscillations.
63
Oscillators
HW: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 16
64

Chapter 5 Oscillators

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Chapter 5 Oscillators

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ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS FOR COMMUNICATION

Huynh Phu Minh Cuong

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 2

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 4

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 5

• An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback

A linear oscillator contains:

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 6

• An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback

Ve  Vs  V f (1) V f  βVo (2)

Vo  AVe  AVs  V f   AVs  βVo  (3)

 In general A and  are functions of frequency

As β s  is known as loop gain

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 8

 Writing T s   As β s  the loop gain becomes:

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 9

will be infinite, i.e. the circuit will have finite output

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 10

 Thus, the condition for sinusoidal oscillation of

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 11

Vo  AV  A(Vs  V f ) and V f  Vo

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 13

2. Total phase shift, of the loop gain must be

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 14

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 15

At very low frequencies, L1 At the resonance frequency At very high frequencies

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 17

 Finite current I is allowed if XL + XC = 0, which occurs at the resonant frequency:

 Generalizing this idea to a circuit consisting of arbitrary impedances ZA and ZB ,

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 19

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 20

• It is a low frequency oscillator which ranges

Dr. Cuong HuynhTelecommunications DepartmentHCMUT 21

 The loop gain for the oscillator is;

 From the previous equation;

To ensure oscillation, the ratio R2/R1 must be

 With the ratio; R

 The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits

Hybrid-pi small-signal model for BJT

Hybrid-pi small-signal model for MOSFET

(a) Find the quiescent collector current, ICQ.

 The feedback network (Z1, Z2

 Two well-known Oscillators:

 Compute the loop gain:

 Oscillation condition: Z3 + Zin = 0

 The Hartley oscillator is almost identical to the Colpitts

gm are the values necessary for the circuit to

 Note that previous considerations did not specify which of the

 The oscillating frequency and gm may be different with those

 If: 𝐙𝟏 = R1 + jX1 , 𝐙𝟐 = R2 + jX2 , 𝐙𝟑 = R + jX3

 The oscillating frequency and gm are obtained from those .

Common-collector Colpitts oscillator Common-base Colpitts oscillator circuit.

Inductor with parallel Rp

Small-signal equivalent circuit for common-collector Colpitts.

 If Re is allowed to approach infinity (so that Z2 becomes a pure

Example of Colpitts circuit Example of Hartley circuit

 Most communications and digital applications require the use

 The output frequency varies from ω1 to ω2 (the required tuning

 The L-Cv combination looks inductive.

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