Mechanical Vibrations Chapter 1

Analytical Dynamics
of Discrete Systems
2
Introduction

The approach used throughout the course is the variational approach.

As it is based on the concepts of energy and work, it provides

• a better understanding of mechanical phenomena;

• a very powerful tool.

Why?

1. It simplifies the analytical formulation of the motion equations

for a complex mechanical system.

2. It gives rise to approximate numerical methods for the solution

of mechanical systems in a natural manner.
3
Principle of virtual work for a particle

ui(t)
x3 2
1 m
x1 x2

Dynamic equilibrium of a particle of mass m

m ui  X i  0 (i  1, 2, 3)
ui = displacement component of force field X
4
Principle of virtual work for a particle

ui(t) = real trajectory

x3
 ui 2
1
ui*(t) = motion trajectory distinct from the real one
x1 x2

We define the virtual displacement  ui by

 ui  ui*  ui (which is arbitrary for t1 < t < t2 )

However, we impose the conditions  ui (t1 )   ui (t 2 )  0

Remark: commutation property

d
dt
 
 u i   u i
5
Principle of virtual work for a particle

From the dynamic equilibrium equation

m ui  X i  0 (i  1, 2, 3)

it follows that  (m u  X )  u

i 1
i i i 0

The virtual work produced by the forces acting on the

particle during a virtual displacement  ui is equal to zero.
6
Virtual work principle for N particles

System of N particles
Every particle of mass mk satisfies the dynamic equilibrium

mk uik  X ik  R ik  0 i  1, 2, 3
k  1, 2,, N

where • X ik are the force components representing the known

external forces,

• R ik are the unknown reactions resulting from the kinematic

constraints imposed on the system.
7
Virtual work principle for N particles

Consider the virtual displacements for every particle k such as

 ui k  ui*k  ui k i  1, 2, 3
 ui k (t1 )   ui k (t2 )  0 k  1, , N

which verify the kinematic constraints imposed on the system.

The virtual work principle for the system of particles takes the form
N 3

  (m
k 1 i 1
k uik  X ik  Rik )  uik  0
8
Virtual work principle for N particles

Since the reaction forces do vanish when projecting the equations

of motion onto kinematically admissible displacement directions,
the virtual work principle for the system of particles takes the form

N 3

  (m
k 1 i 1
k uik  X ik )  uik  0

The virtual work of the forces effectively applied onto a system of

particles is zero with respect to any kinematically compatible virtual
displacement if and only if the system is in dynamic equilibrium.
9
The kinematic constraints

N particles is
Without kinematic constraints, the state of a system of
completely described by 3N displacement components uik (also called
degrees of freedom)

Instantaneous configuration
Displacement components

i k (t )  xik  uik ( x jk , t ) i, j  1, 2, 3
k  1, , N
Reference configuration

In most mechanical systems, the particles are submitted to kinematic

constraints which restrain their motion.
10
The kinematic constraints

Holonomic constraints

The holonomic constraints are defined by implicit relationships of type

f ( ik , t )  0

If there is no explicit dependence with respect to time, the constraints

are said to be scleronomic constraints. They are rheonomic otherwise;

A holonomic constraint reduces by one the number

of degrees of freedom of the system.

Example: two mass particles connected by a rigid bar

3


1 
2  i 2 i1 
   
2
 2

i 1
11
The kinematic constraints

Non-holonomic constraint

Non-holonomic constraints often take the form of differential relationships

f (i k , i k , t )  0

Such relationships are generally not integrable.

They do not allow reduction of the number

of degrees of freedom of the system.
12
Example of non-holonomic constraint

Let us consider the case of centre of a rigid wheel constrained to roll without sliding on a plane

z Rolling-without-sliding condition

x1  r  cos   0  a 
y1  r  sin   0  b 
r 1 y
2 where  and  are such as

x  x2  x1  r sin  cos  c
y2  y1   r sin  sin   d 

The wheel kinematics also imposes z2  z1   r cos   e 

z1  r f 
Thus the system is described in terms of 8 variables: x1, y1, z1, x2, y2, z2, , 

and is submitted to
• the two non-holonomic constraints (a) and (b) 4 independent
variables are left
• The four holonomic constraints (c), (d), (e) and (f)
13
Example of non-holonomic constraint

If the orientation  is fixed, the two constraints (a) and (b) becomes integrable.

z
x1  r  cos   0  a 
y1  r  sin  0  b 
r 1 y
2

x 

In this case, all constraints are holonomic and the system has only one degree
of freedom: it can be seen that  describes the configuration in a unique way.
14
Concept of generalized displacements

System of N particles 3N degrees of freedom

R holonomic constraints 3N - R degrees of freedom

The system dynamics is defined in terms of n = 3N - R variables

called the generalized co-ordinates or degrees of freedom
15
Concept of generalized displacements

Example : the double pendulum in the 2D-plane

x2 The system kinematics is described by 4 instantaneous

position components
1
1 1  11 ,  21 , 12 ,  22
2 2
x1 2 2 holonomic constraints
2 2
11   21  12
12  11 2  22  21 2   22

11  1 cos 1
 21  1 sin1
2 generalized coordinates: 1 and 2
12  1 cos 1   2 cos 1   2 
 22  1 sin1   2 sin 1   2 
16
Concept of generalized displacements

The displacements of the system are expressed in the form

For a system with holonomic constraints only, we may write

n U ik
 ui k    qs
s 1 qs

and the virtual work equation becomes

n
N 3 U ik 
   ( mk ui k  X i k )
qs   qs  0
s 1  k 1 i 1
17
Hamilton’s principle for conservative systems

Time-integration of the virtual work principle leads to

t2  N 3 
 
t1  k 1
 (mk ui k  X i k )  ui k  dt  0
i 1 

where  ui k are arbitrary but compatible virtual displacements

which verify the end conditions  ui k (t1 )   ui k (t2 )  0
18
Hamilton’s principle for conservative systems

t2  N 3 
 
t1  k 1
 (mk ui k  X i k )  ui k  dt  0
i 1 

1) Let us assume that the applied forces derive from a potential

V
Xik  
ui k

N 3 N
V3 n U i k n
V

k 1 i 1
X i k  ui k  
k 1 i 1 ui k

s 1 qs
 qs   
s 1 qs
 qs

N 3 n
V
 X
k 1 i 1
ik  ui k   Qs  qs  V
s 1
where Qs  
qs
19
Hamilton’s principle for conservative systems

t2  N 3 
 
t1  k 1
 (mk ui k  X i k )  ui k  dt  0
i 1 

2) The term associated with inertia forces is transformed by noting that

d
mk ui k  ui k 
dt
 
mk ui k  ui k  mk ui k  ui k

d 1 

dt
 
mk ui k  ui k    mk ui k ui k 
2 
20
Hamilton’s principle for conservative systems

Owing to the definition of the kinetic energy of the system,

1 N 3
T   mk ui k ui k
2 k 1 i 1

the time-integrated form of the virtual work principle may be rewritten

in the form
t2
 N 3  t2
  mk ui k  ui k    t T  V  dt  0
 k 1 i 1  t1 1

= 0 due to the end conditions:  ui k(t1) = ui k(t2) = 0

21
Hamilton’s principle for conservative systems

In terms of the generalized coordinates

U i k n U i k
ui k   q s
t s 1
qs

T  T  q, q , t  and V  V  q, t 

 q  t1    q  t2   0

where q
T
  q1  qn 
22
Hamilton’s principle for conservative systems

Hamilton’s principle for a conservative system may be stated in the form:

The real trajectory of the system is such that the integral

remains stationary with respect to any compatible virtual

displacement, arbitrary between both instants t1 and t2
but vanishing at the ends of the interval.

t2
 
t1
(T  V ) dt  0
 q(t1 )   q(t2 )  0
23
Lagrange equations

Owing to T  T (q, q
 ,t) and V  V (q, t )
n
 T T 
T    qs   qs 
s 1 
qs q s 
t2 n  T  T 
t1
  qs  Qs   qs  qs  qs  dt  0
s 1
t2
t2 T  T  t2 d  T 
in which t1 q s
 qs dt  
 qs
 qs   
t

t1 dt  q 
s
  qs dt
1

t2 n  d  T  T 
t1
  dt  qs   qs  Qs   qqss dt  0
s 1
The variation  qs is arbitrary on [t1, t2]
24
Lagrange equations

The motion equations result in the form obtained by Lagrange

d  T  T
    Qs  0 ( s  1, , n )
dt  q s  qs

generalized inertia forces generalized (external

and internal) forces
associated to qs
25
Structure of kinetic energy

1 N 3
Let us substitute in T   mk ui k ui k the velocities expressed
2 k 1 i 1
in terms of the generalized coordinates
U ik n U ik
uik ( x jk , t )  U ik (q1 , , qn , t ) and uik   q s
t s 1 qs
T  q, q , t   T0  T1  T2

2
1 N 3  U ik 
T0   mk    T0  q, t  transport kinetic energy
2 k 1 i 1  t 
n N 3
U ik U ik
T1    t mk qs qs mutual kinetic energy
s 1 k 1 i 1

1 n n N 3
U ik U ik
T2    mk qs qr qs qr relative kinetic energy
2 s 1 r 1 k 1 i 1
26
Classification of inertia forces

Inserting the kinetic energy in the form

T  q, q , t   T0  T1  T2

into the Lagrange’s equations

d  T  T
    Qs  0 ( s  1, , n )
dt  q s  qs

allows to interpret the term describing the generalized inertia forces.

d  T  T d  T1 T2  
          T0  T1  T2 
dt  qs  qs dt  qs qs  qs
  T1  n   2T1  d  T2  
     qr      T0  T1  T2 
t  qs  r 1  qs qr  dt  qs  qs
27
Classification of inertia forces

d  T  T d  T1 T2  
          T0  T1  T2 
dt  q s  qs dt  q s qs  qs
  T1  n   2T1  d  T2  
     qr      T0  T1  T2 
t  q s  r 1  q s qr  dt  q s  qs

• Transport inertia forces obtained by setting q s  0

  T1  T0
   
t  q s  qs

• Relative inertia forces obtained by assuming that the constraints

do not depend explicitly on time (U i k t  0 )
d  T2  T2
   
dt  q s  qs
• Complementary inertia forces are the missing terms
n
 2T1 T1 n
Coriolis or
Fs   qr    qr g rs
r 1 q
s qr qs r 1 gyroscopic forces
28

Energy conservation in a system with scleronomic constraints

When the kinematic constraints are independent of time, the
kinetic energy reduces to
T  T2

In the conservative case when the forces depend on a potential, it

can be shown that

d
T  V   0
dt

T V  E
29
Classification of generalized forces

Linking forces
No contribution to Qs
(rigid connection)
Vint
Internal forces Elastic forces Qs  
qs
vk
Dissipation forces X k  C k f k ( v k )
vk
N
vk D
Qs    Ck f k ( v k ) 
k 1 q s q s
N vk
with D    Ck f k ( ) d
0
k 1

Vext
Conservative forces Qs  
qs
External forces
Non-conservative forces
30
Lagrange equations in the general case

Non-conservative system with rheonomic constraints

d  T  T V D
       Qs ( t )  0 ( s  1,  , n )
dt  q s  qs qs q s

or, by explicitly introducing the relative inertia forces

d  T2  T2 V * D   T1 

    Qs ( t )    Fs    ( s  1, , n )
dt  q s  qs qs q s t  q s 

where V *  V  T0
n
Fs   qr g rs
r 1
31
Example

Spring-mass system in rotation Approach in the

rotating frame (oxy)
y
 Position vector of mass m

c1 s  x ex  y e y
m
x Velocity of mass m
o
k1
k2 d
v    s   ez  s
 dt  xyz

v   x   y  e x   y   x  e y

Kinetic energy:
1
2
 2 2
1
T  m  x   y    y   x   J  2
2
32
Example

1 1
Potential energy: V  k1 x  k2 y 2
2

2 2

1
Dissipation function: D  c1 x 2
2
By applying the Lagrange equations, we obtain:

m x  2 m  y   2 m x  c1 x  k1 x  0

m y  2 m  x   2 m y  k2 y  0
33
Example

They can be put in the matrix form

c1 0
 0 0
 

 
  C  G  q  K   2 M q  0
Mq

m 0   0  2 m  k   2 m 0 
 0 m 2 m    
   0   0 k   m
2
34
Dynamics of constrained systems

Let us suppose that a subset of m kinematic constraints is not explicitly

satisfied by the choice of the generalized coordinates qs (s = 1, …, n)

i, j  1, 2, 3 r  1, , m
f ( ik , t )  0
k  1, , N

As i k (t )  xik  uik ( x jk , t ) and ui k ( x jk , t )  U i k (q1 ,..., qn , t )

we can express the constraints for the generalized coordinates

f r (ik , t )  f r (q1 ,..., qn , t )  0 r  1, , m

35
Dynamics of constrained systems

The variation of these constraints gives

n
f r
 fr    qs  0 r  1, , m
s 1 qs

This relationship indicates that the constraints are still verified if the  qs
define a motion orthogonal to the direction determined by the gradients
of fr in the space of the generalized coordinates.

Thus the reaction forces are of the form

f r
Rrs  r
qs
Intensity factor called
Lagrange multiplier
36
Dynamics of constrained systems

The virtual work of the reaction forces writes

m n m n
f r

r 1 s 1
Rrs  qs   r 
r 1 s 1 qs
 qs

which can be introduced into Hamilton’s principle

t1 n
 d  T  T m
f r 
  
s 1  dt  q
 
s  qs
 Qs   r
r 1 qs 
  qs dt  0
t2

It provides the Lagrange equations in terms of the generalized coordinates

qs which do not satisfy the constraints.
37
Dynamics of constrained systems

The Lagrange equations together with the complementary conditions form

a system of n + m equations with n + m unknowns

d  T  T m
f r
    Qs    r 0 s  1,, n
dt  qs  qs qs
r 1
r  1,, m
f r ( qs , t )  0
38
Dynamics of constrained systems

Example of a pendulum in the 2D-plane

x2 The position vector of mass m is described

by its instantaneous coordinates 1 and 2
 
1    u1   cos  
x1 m r   
 2   u2    sin  

1 holonomic constraint: f (1 ,  2 )  12   22    0

f (u1 , u2 )  (  u1 ) 2  u22    0
39
Example of a pendulum in the 2D-plane

x2 1 1
Kinetic energy: T  m (u1  u2 )  m  
2 2 2 2

2 2
 
m Potential energy: V   m g u1  m g  (1  cos  )
x1

 u1   cos    
Kinematic relationships:     
u2    sin  
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Example of a pendulum in the 2D-plane

Lagrange equation with rheonomic constraints  1 DOF: 

d  T  T
    Qs (t )  0 ( s  1,, n)
dt  q s  qs

1
Kinetic energy: T  m  2  2
2

Potential energy: V  m g  (1  cos  )

Equation of motion: m  2   m g  sin   0

41
Example of a pendulum in the 2D-plane

Lagrange equation of the constrained system  2 DOF: u1 and u2

m
d  T  T f r
  
dt  q s  qs
 Qs (t )  
r 1
r
qs
 0 ( s  1,, n)

( r  1,, m)

1
Kinetic energy: T  m (u12  u22 )
2

Potential energy: V   m g u1

Holonomic constraint: f (u1 , u2 )  (  u1 ) 2  u22    0

42
Example of a pendulum in the 2D-plane

Reaction forces:

 f   (  u1 ) 
  (  u1 ) 
 u  2 
 (  u1 )  u2   
2
  
R  1  u 
 f   u2   2

 u2   2    
 (   u 1 ) 2
 u 2 

Constrained equations of motion:

(  u1 )
m u1  m g   0

u2
m u2   0

(  u1 ) 2  u22    0