Energy Conversion. Vol.8, pp. 169-176. PergamonPress, 1968.
Printed in Great Britain
Design and PerformanceAnalysisof Pa -Type t
Solar Therm le ric G rators
V, RAAG:
(Received 7 July 1968)
In the design and in the performance analysis of
thermoelectric power generators, several methods are
commonly used. The most common method is based on
the assumption that the generator operates between
fixed hot- and cold-junction temperatures [1, 2]. Fixed-
temperature operation implicitly assumes that the
generator operates between a heat source and a heat sink
of infinite capacity. Although this assumption permits
considerable simplification in performance analyses, the
results may be considered only approximate because in
practice this assumption is not justified. In most applica-
tions, thermoelectric generators are coupled to a finite
heat source which supplies a constant amount of heat.
This condition corresponds to the case that is converse
to the one usually assumed; i.e., the hot- and cold-
junction temperatures are variable and the heat input
is fixed. Solar thermoelectric generators and radioisotope
thermoelectric generators are examples of devices
operating in this manner. As Castro and Happ [3] point
out, the difference between the two types of operation is
analogous to that between the constant voltage and
constant current operations of an electric network.
Several studies of the performances of thermoelectric
devices consider the operation under conditions of
constant heat input [3-6]. Although correct in their basic
approach, these studies, however, are not generally
suitable for detailed performance analyses and for the
design and optimization of thermoelectric generators
because of further simplifying assumptions. Castro and
Happ outline the method to be used in analysing the
performance of a thermoelectric device operating under
conditions of fixed heat input, but, for the case of a
solar thermoelectric generator, they neglect reradiation
effects at the hot side. Generally, they do not consider
shunt heat losses or parasitic electrical losses in the
device.
Fuschillo et al. [4, 5] treat the case of a solar thermo-
electric generator operating in space in the form of a
panel. In their analyses, FuschiUo et al. account for
re-radiation effects at the hot side of the panel, but do
not account for temperature drops in the thermo-
electricaUy passive members of the thermal circuit nor
for parasitic electrical losses. They make the implicit
assumption that the n- and p-type legs of the thermo-
couples possess identical thermoelectric properties--a
condition that is rarely met in practice. They further
assume that maximum power is transferred to the load
I" This work was supported by the National Aeronautical and
Space Administration under Contract No. NAS 3-10600.
~: R C A Electronic Components, Harrison, New Jersey 07029.
169
when the internal and load resistances are matched.
This condition is not true for operation under fixed
heat-input conditions, but applies only under the condi-
tions of fixed-temperature operation. Finally, FuschiUo
et al. neglect the effects of transverse heat flow in the
heat-collection and heat-rejection plates on the opposite
faces of the panel, and implicitly assume the temperature
independence of the Seebeck coefficient of the thermo-
electric material by neglecting Thomson heat in the
net heat balance of the thermoelements.
Lyon and Anderson [6] describe a solar thermo-
electric energy-conversion panel in terms of a simul-
taneous set of time-dependent, nonlinear, second-order
differential equations. Because these equations are non-
analytical, they are solved numerically on a computer.
This treatment is considerably more sophisticated than
most others and makes fewer simplifying assumptions.
Nevertheless, the neglect of temperature drops across
all thermoelectrically passive members (such as electrical
insulators, current conductors, structural members, and
the like) that usually exist between the thermoelements
and the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates in an
actual generator limits its usefulness. Lyon and Anderson
treat shunt heat transfer between the beat-reception and
heat-rejection plates by radiation but do not consider
the possible shunt heat transfer by conduction through
insulation. They are correct in emphasizing the impor-
tance of considering the effects of transverse heat flow
in the heat absorption and heat rejection plates of a
solar flat-plate thermocouple on calculated performance.
However, the complexity introduced in attempting to
rigorously account for these effects, unfortunately pre-
cludes the convenient use of their method in general
solar thermoelectric power conversion applications.
Simplifying assumptions in other parts of the Lyon and
Anderson treatment may negate the justification of
undue rigor, especially because these effects have only
a second-order bearing on performance in most thermo-
couples of practical interest.
In view of the shortcomings of most previous attempts
to define the method of analysis of solar thermoelectric
generators operating in space, it was concluded that a
new analysis is needed for the practical design and the
characterization of performance of such generators.
As a result, appropriate performance equations suitable
for solution on a high-speed computer have been derived
in detail, taking into account most of the shortcomings
of previous developments. Nevertheless, because of the
overall complexity of the problem, it was necessary to
make a number of simplifying assumptions. An attempt
170
was made, however, to assess these assumptions in
terms of their effect on the final results, and they are
discussed as a part of the over-all treatment.
The present development treats the solar thermo-
electric generator in a state of thermal equilibrium with
an external heat sink which possesses an effective tem-
perature that is negligible in comparison to the tem-
perature of any point on the heat-rejection plate of the
generator. The performance of the generator under
conditions of rapidly changing incident perpendicular
heat flux (a rapidly spinning generator) and/or operation
in the close proximity of a planet are therefore not
considered. If desired, however, a finite heat-sink tem-
perature can be easily accommodated in this treatment.
Similarly, relatively minor modifications in the present
development will permit its use also in the design and
analysis of radioisotope thermoelectric generators.
The model used in developing the equations necessary
to describe the performance of a solar thermoelectric
generator is illustrated in Fig. 1. The single thermo-
Incident heat
Hot stack
!~i:~;:~.~i.
~,.e..:~:~;~-~:~r////A
"~"
v///./a~.;~.~:~::,~:.~.~.~.~Heot
~::~ ~.~" ~.~.~::
reception
~ ~-~'~.~:.~ ~.~4~ . . . . .
:::.:.~ ~. :~:~.~ff :$~:::~'.+:::. ~ ..~
~i:: ~ ~ ":~' .,"~..'~~!
:" "11 " ~ : !.~i'~.':
, ~ ~ T h~e r m ,~->:
oe
~ Electrical connector
I \\ Heat rejection
Cold stack plate
Rejected heat
Fig. 1. Schematic of assumed thermocouple eonflguraaon.
couple represents a building block of the generator and
serves as the unit on which all calculations are performed.
Desired power~voltage characteristics of a system are
obtained by appropriate combinations of single thermo-
couples. The thermocouple configuration consists of
heat-rejection plates, in between which are the n- and
p-type thermoelectric elements. On both ends of the
thermoelements, there are so-called "stacks" which
(metallurgically or otherwise) connect the elements to
the plates. The purpose of the stacks is to relieve stresses
that arise from differential thermal expansion of the
plates and the elements, and to afford low-loss thermal
coupling between these members. If necessary, the
stacks also include electrical insulators to isolate the
electrical circuit from the remainder of the structure.
For minimum shunt heat losses, the space between the
plates not occupied by thermoelements may be filled
with thermal insulation.
The thermocouple shown in Fig. 1 has a fixed con-
figuration and contains specific materials with their
corresponding physical properties. The thermocouple
configuration, although fixed, is arbitrary, and the
dimensions of its components have in no respect been
optimized. One face of the thermocouple is assumed
to be exposed to a perpendicular heat flux W. Because
V. R A A G
of the finite thermal resistance of the thermocouple
configuration, the incident heat flux establishes a tem-
perature difference across it. The heat appearing on
the cold side of the therm0¢ouple is dissipated by
radiation into space at an assumed temperature of
0°K.
The total heat Qx incident on the thermocouple is
given by
az =- WO~AT, (1)
where A~, is the area and n is the absorptivity of the
heat-reception plate. The total heat Qz flowing from the
heat-reception to the heat-rejection plate is less than the
total incident heat Qz because some of the heat absorbed
by the heat-reception plate is reradiated into space, as
expressed by
QT = Qx - cr,n j ATT•(A) dA, (2)
where ~ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, e~r is the
emissivity, TH(A) is the temperature of the heat-reception
plate surface, and A is a dummy variable used for
indicating compatibility with coordinates eventually
selected for the differential area dA. The choice of
co-ordinates is discussed later. The temperature of the
heat-reception plate surface is not constant because the
heat received by the plate tends to flow toward the
thermoelements which offer less thermal resistance to
I ements
heat flow than does direct transfer between the heat-
reception and heat-rejection plates. Direct transfer of
heat is inhibited either by the insertion of thermal
insulation between the plates or by the use of low-
emissivity coatings between or on the inside surfaces of
the plates. The resultant transverse heat flow in the
plates gives rise to temperature gradients. The total
heat reradiated by the heat-reception plate is therefore
obtained by integration over its surface.
On the opposite face of the panel, the outer surface
of the heat-rejection plate, also having an area AT, is
cooled by the radiation of heat transported through the
thermocouple. The quantity of such heat is less than QT
by the amount converted to electricity. Thus, the heat
balance of the cold side can be written as follows:
Q~ - Po = aEc f ATT~(A) dA, (3)
where P0 is the electrical power output, ~c is the emis-
sivity, and To(A) is the temperature of the outer surface
of the heat-rejection plate. As in the case of the heat-
reception plate and for a similar reason, the temperature
of the heat-rejection plate is position-dependent and the
total heat radiated is obtained through integration over
the plate surface.
To obtain expressions for the temperature functions
T~(A) and To(A), it is necessary to solve Poisson's
equation for the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates.
Poisson's equation describes steady heat flow in the
presence of heat sources and heat sinks, as follows:
R
VZT = -- ~, (4)
 Design and Performance Analysis of Panel-Type Solar Thermoelectric Generators
where R represents the rate at which heat is supplied per
unit volume and k is the thermal conductivity of the
material. Equation (4) assumes that k is a constant.
This assumption is reasonable because most materials
used for heat-reception and heat-rejection plates are
isotropic, and because the temperature variation on
these plates is relatively small. For the heat-reception
plate, there are three contributions to R: the incident
heat from the sun, the heat re-radiated from the face of
the plate, and the shunt heat transferred directly between
the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates. The quan-
tity R, denoted as Rn for the heat-reception plate, can
therefore be written as follows:
R H --~ -t1H [ W a - - a e H T 4 ( A )
%)
--]
where tn is the thickness of the heat-reception plate,
Ae is the area of the heat-reception and heat-rejection
plates not covered by the n- and p-type thermoelements,
and dQs(A)/dAe is the shunt heat per unit area directly
transferred between the heat-reception and heat-rejection
plates as a function of position on these plates. Depend-
ing on the mode of shunt heat transfer, dQs(A)/dAs has
the following forms:
dQ,(A) __ k,
-- ATH(A)]
dAs ts
-- [Tc(A) ÷ ATc(A)]} (conduction),
dQ,(A)
- - - o,, {[rx(A) --
dAs
-- [Tc(A) +/ITc(A)] ~} (radiation),
where ks is the thermal conductivity and ts is the thick-
ness of insulation. The emissivity ~ is the net emissivity
of the inner surfaces of the two plates and may be
approximated by the expression for the net emissivity of
two parallel surfaces:
1 them, the total cross-sectional area of the two thermo-
,s = , (7)
1 + _ _1 _ 1
~Hl ~CI
where ~/~ and ec~ are the emissivities of the inner
surfaces of the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates.
The /IT factors in Equations (6), identified by appro-
priate subscripts, account for the differences in the
temperatures of the outer and inner surfaces of the
heat-reception and the heat-rejection plates. Therefore,
they can be approximated by Q~/KH and (QT -- Po)/Kc
respectively, where KH and K~ refer to the thermal
conductances of the heat-reception and heat-rejection
plates. This approximation effectively replaces the
position-dependent axial temperature drops in the two
plates by their average values and is validated by the
fact that such drops are of the order of a degree centigrade
or less, depending on panel constructional materials and
precise configuration. The three-dimensional Poisson
equation is thus reduced to one of two dimensions.
Equations (6) implicitly neglect the transverse heat flow
in the insulation or the radiation space between the
171
plates because integration of the equation in the calcula-
tion of total shunt heat results in weighted average
temperatures. This approximation is relatively minor
because shunt heat forms only a small portion of the
total heat transmitted in most thermocouples of
practical interest. Furthermore, in most cases Tzg(A)
and To(A) are only relatively slowly varying functions.
In the limit of vanishing ks or ~s, the approximation
becomes exact.
In the manner similar to the case of the heat-reception
plate, the quantity R for the heat-rejection plate, denoted
by Re, is given by
1 accT,(A) + dQs(A)], (8)
(5)
Rc = ~c -- dAs ]
where tc is the thickness of the heat-rejection plate.
In this case, only two terms enter the equation: the heat
radiated into space, and the shunt heat directly trans-
ferred to the plate.
Equations (4, 5 and 8) define the temperature distri-
bution in the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates.
The equations for the two cases, however, are non-
analytic in the sense that closed-form solutions are not
generally possible. The procedure to follow is either to
obtain numerical solutions, or to simplify the problem
so that analytical solutions are possible. Adopting the
latter approach for calculation, it is assumed that the
(6) heat-reception and heat-rejection plates possess radial
symmetry. In other words, the plates of square cross-
section are replaced by plates of circular cross section
so that the total plate areas Ae remain the same. The
thermoelements are combined into one circular cross-
section which possesses an area equal to the combined
areas of the n- and p-type thermoelements. In many
cases this approximation is nearly exact because fre-
quently the n- and p-type thermoelements are designed
with semicircular cross-sectional areas. Because they
face each other and have only a small separation between
elements is nearly circular. Figure 2 illustrates the
assumed thermocouple configuration. The approxima-
tion resulting from the assumption of circular rather
Hot stock Therrnoelements /Heat reception
~//////////~//////]/////////'~plate
!~ii~!~:~:~:~!:i:!:i~:~.~
~~i~:~:~:i :!:i:~::-"i.:::'."~.~:.~-'~.:~~~:;::~: :::
==================================================
================================================
~/////////////////~(//////////~kHeat rejection plate
Cold stock
(I - . - . ~ . - . - ~.~~Actual plate
(i
Fig. 2. Heat-reception and heat-rejection plate configurations assumed
in transverse heat flow calculations.
172 V. RAAG

than square plate configurations is good because it The process is repeated as often as necessary to obtain
directly enters into the computation of only the trans- consistency of the functions for Tn(r) and To(r) between
verse temperature distribution in the plates and in most successive approximations.
cases of practical interest has only a second-order effect Although, in principle, Equations (9) may be con-
on the calculated thermocouple performance. An ap- veniently solved, in practice the solutions are not easily
proximate indication of the effect of transverse tempera- obtained because of the nonlinearity of the right-hand
ture drops in the plate is obtained by comparing them sides. A simpler and a more efficient method of solution
to the corresponding drops across the active thermo- becomes apparent after Equations (9) are rewritten with
electric material. Usually, the former are only a few the use of Equations (1-3) as follows:
per cent of the latter.J" Because of the radial symmetry
of the assumed model, Poisson's equation is further 1 d ( dTH~ = Rs
reduced from two to one dimension. r (r _r --d~/ -- kH'
Before discussion of the mathematical development,
it should be emphasized that the radial geometry adopted
1 d [rdre _ Re (10)
for transverse heat calculation in the plates has no effect
r dr \ -dr-~ ke'
on the geometry of the remainder of the thermocouple where RH and Rc are given by
because, as already stated, the shunt heat directly trans-
ferred between the heat-reception and heat-rejection 1 [dQa, dQa] (11)
plates is assumed to be axially directed with no trans- RH = dad'
verse component. A similar assumption is made for
heat flowing in the thermoelements. As a result of these Re = ~
1 [
d(QT -- Po) +
dAT
"Qq
dAsJ"
assumptions, all the calculations performed for the
portions of the thermocouple between the plates are If all the position-dependent heat-transfer rates per
independent of the precise geometry of the components unit area are replaced by their average values in Equa-
in the plane parallel to the plates. The only factor of tions (11), it is possible to treat Rs and Re as constants.
interest is the cross-sectional area of the components, The solution of Equations (10) is then obtained by two
not their precise configuration. The implication is that successive integrations. After the first integration, use
there is no heat exchange between the lateral surfaces of is made of the condition that the temperature gradient
the thermoelements and the remainder of the thermo- at the edge of the two plates vanishes. This condition
couple structure. Because of the complex geometry and assumes that plate edges are insulated and allows the
variable surface temperatures, it is difficult to assess the evaluation of one of the two integration constants.
precise effect of this assumption on the over-all heat The temperature distributions obtained for the two
balance of the thermocouple and on its predicted per- plates are given by the following function:
formance. By means of simplified geometry and tem-
perature distribution, however, it has been concluded T(r) = ~-~R[r~ In (r)~ -- ~ i ( r 9 - r~] + T(r,), (12)
that usually this effect is small.
Upon substitution of RH and Re from equations
(5 and 8), the differential equations for the heat-reception where r, and r0 are the radii between which the tempera-
and heat-rejection plates may be written, as follows: ture distribution is evaluated. Equation (12) is general
and applies equally to the heat-reception and the heat-
1d {rdTn~ = 1 {Wa--a,sT~(r) dQs(r)t rejection plates. The distinction between the two cases
r dr k -dT ] - - k~ts
- - dAs(r)) can be made by appropriate subscripts on T(r), T(r,),
R, and k. The radius r0 corresponds to the outer edge
ld( dTc~= 1 -- or,eTa(r) + dQ'(r) / (9) of the plate, and r{ represents the radius of the combined
r dr r -fir-] - ketc
-- dAs(r)J n- and p-type thermoelements (Fig. 2). The temperature
where kH and kc are the thermal conductivities of the T(r,) corresponds to that of the region on the surfaces
two plates. Equations (6) indicate that the shunt-heat of the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates which is
transfer terms Qs are functions of both Tn(r) and TO(r); immediately adjacent to the thermoelements. This region
therefore, Equations (9) are simultaneous equations. is assumed to be equal in area to the total area of the
The method of solution is to set TO(r) in the first Equation thermoelements and to have the constant tempera-
(9) equal to a constant and solve for Tn(r). By substitu- ture T(r,).
tion of Tn(r) in the second Equation (9), a solution is The heat-transfer rates Rs and Re, averaged over the
found for TO(r) which in turn, is substituted in the first portions of the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates
equation so that a new solution for Tn(r) may be found. not covered by the thermoelements, are given by

J" To quantitatively assess the result of approximating the Rn = ~1 .IQT-- [ W~- ocsT~(rO][AnAs + Av] -- Qsl,'
square heat-reception and heat-rejection plates with circular plates,
a typical silicon-germanium thermocouple configuration was
subjected to detailed performance analyses. A numerical heat Re = _ I {QT-- P o - ~,cTe(r,)[An + A,] - Q,}
transfer calculation with square plates yielded final thermocouple tc As '
performance values that differed by less than 1 per cent from those
obtained by the present method. (13)
 Design and Performance Analysis of Panel.Type Solar Thermoelectric G~merators
where A, and A~ are the cross-sectional areas of n- and
p-type thermoolements. Equations (10) were solved by
use of constant values of R~t and Re. Because the
solutions of these equations, represented by Equation
(12), are used successively in the solution of the over-all
problem, as described later, the fixed values of R~r and
Rc are also iterated. The values calculated for Qr, Qs,
P0, Tn(rt), and Tv(r~) in any given iteration are used in
Equations (13) to obtain new RH and Re values for use
in the next iteration. Thus, it becomes possible to
minimize the effects of replacing the position-dependent
heat-transfer rates per unit area by their average values
in Equation (11). The net result is that Poisson's Equa-
tions (10) are solved through a method of successive
approximations.
Radii r~ and r0 may be expressed in terms of total
plate areas A r and the areas An and A~ of the n- and
p-type thermoelements, as follows:
The area of shunt heat transfer A, may be defined in
terms of the other areas as follows:
A, = .4r -- (An + &,).
The defined system of coordinates used in treating
the heat-reception and heat-rejection plates and the
expressions obtained for the temperature distributions
on these plates can be used to rewrite Equations (2),
(3), and (6). Equation (2) may be written as follows:
n0
/*
Qr -----Qx - 2~roeH | T~(r) rdr
ri
- ~ H [ a ~ + A~] r*B(r,). (16)
Similarly, Equations (3) and (6) may be expressed as
follows:
r0
t~
eo = 2=~c | T~(r) rdr
Or
Id
ri
+ a,c[An + A~] T~(rO, (17)
and
n0
re
--[Tc(r), QTKc--Po] }rdr (c°nducti°n)'
tO
ri
[LTc(r) + Q r-K-c
- Po] 4}rdr (radiation).
J
Because some of the indicated integrations are not
easily accomplished in actual use, it is convenient to
173
approximate the integrations by summations. Rather
than rewrite Equations (16-18) in terms of finite sums,
only the general formula that applies to all of these
equations is given by:
rO
ff(r)rdr= ~=lf(r,+ (n -- ~]---~--]l~r°--r'~
ri
where f(r) refers to any of the integrands in Equations
(16-18), n is the summation index, and N is the number
of terms in each sum by which it is desired to approxi-
mate the integrals. Obviously, the greater the value of N
the more closely the intergrals are approximated.
Equation (16) represents the heat balance at the
heat-reception plate. The corresponding relationship for
the heat-rejection plate is given by Equation (17).
Equation (18) describes the direct shunt heat transfer
beLween the two plates. However, a relationship is still
needed to describe the heat transfer between the plates
that takes place through the thermoelements. This rela-
tionship is obtained from detailed heat balancing at
either the hot or the cold junctions of the thermoelements.
For the hot junction, the following relationship can be
written:
05)
Qr - Qs = Kr[THj -- Tcj] + IStIjTtlj
-- ½12RI -- ½Ilz[TsJ -- Toj], (20)
where Kr is the thermal conductance of the thermo-
couple; T~rj and Toj are the hot- and cold-junction
temperatures, respectively; I is the current flowing in
the thermocouple; S s j is the absolute value of the
Seebeek coefficient difference between the n- and p-type
thermoelements at the hot junction; R1 is the total
internal electrical resistance of the thermocouple; and
/~ is the temperature-averaged net Thomson coefficient
of the thermoelements. The first term, on the right-hand
side of Equation (20), represents the heat conducted
through the thermoelements. The second term describes
the heat absorbed at the hot junction as a result of the
Peltier effect. The third term accounts for the fact that
one-half of the Joule heat generated in the legs of the
thermocouple as a result of current flow is conducted
to the hot junction. The last term makes a similar
assumption about the heat generated (absorbed) in the
legs as a result of the Thomson effect. Equation (20) is
valid when Joule and Thomson heats are small in
comparison to the conduction heat and when electrical
resistivity, thermal conductivity, and Thomson coefficient
[8] are independent of temperature. The former condi-
tion generally applies to practical thermoelectric devices
and the latter is approximately validated through the
use of averaged property values.
Current I in the thermocouple may be expressed in
terms of electrical resistances, junction temperatures, and
(18) Seebeck coefficient values, as follows:
S m
I- [THJ -- TcJ], (21)
RLl+m
 174
where S is the temperature-averaged absolute value of
the difference between the Seebeck coefficients of the
n- and p-type thermoelements, RL is the value of electrical
load resistance, and m is the ratio of the load to internal
electrical resistance. By substituting Equation (21) in
Equation (20) and solving for THj, it is found that
b[~ ;]1/2b
THJ = + - 2a'
where a, b, and c are given by
1 S 1 it is a relatively simple matter to modify the above
a = SHJ
21+m 2 tz'
b -- RL 1 + m Kr -- SnjTcJ + STo__~J+ tzTcj,
S m l+m
C --
RL 1 + m KrTcs + 1 ST ~cJ + 1
S m ~2 1 +----m ~2tzT~J
+ RLI+m ( Q ~ , - Qs).
s m
Equation (22) relates the hot- and cold-junction tempera-
tures of the thermoelements in terms of thermocouple
material characteristics, electrical load resistance, and
the total heat transported to the hot junctions of the
thermoelements.
Because the heat-balance equation, (22), is written in
terms of the hot- and cold-junction temperatures, and
because the remainder of the heat-balance equations
(16-18), are written in terms of the temperatures of the
center portions of the heat-reception and heat-rejection
plates TH(r,) and Te(rO, it is necessary to relate these
temperatures. This relationship is achieved by consider-
ing axial conduction of heat through the hot and cold
stacks and the plates. On the cold side, the relation
may be expressed as follows:
QT -- Q~ - Po + Q~. - P o,
Tcj Tc(r~) +
Kcs Kc
where Kcs is the thermal conductance of the cold
stacks and Kc is the axial thermal conductance of the
heat-rejection plate. The corresponding equation on the
hot side has the following form:
T~i(r¢) = THJ -[- QT -- Qs + QT
KHS KH'
where KHs is the thermal conductance of the hot stacks
and Khr is the axial thermal conductance of the heat-
reception plate. Equations (23, 24) are only approximate
because as already stated, they only represent average
values for the axial temperature drops across the heat-
reception and heat-rejection plates. Because the tem-
perature drops are small however, the effect of this
approximation on the final results is negligible.
The above development implies that both the n- and
p-type thermoelements have identical junction tempera-
tures. The validity of this assumption depends primarily
on the relative thermal conductances of the hot and
cold stacks of the thermocouple. The junction tem-
peratures are very close to each other if the stacks are
V. R A A G
highly conductive in comparison to the thermocouple
legs. Because this condition is basic in obtaining optimum
performance from a thermocouple, only highly con-
ductive stacks are generally used in practical thermo-
couples. In some instances, there are no stacks at one or
both sides of the thermoelements; in other instances,
both thermoelements share a common stack. In both
(22) cases, by definition, the junctions have to be at the same
temperature. In all cases, however, the use of identical
temperatures for the junctions of n- and p-type thermo-
dements is considered to be justified. If desired, however,
treatment to account for different temperatures at the
corresponding junctions of the two thermoelements.
One more equation is necessary to complete the
formal exposition of the performance equations for a
solar thermoelectric power generator. This equation is
straightforward and relates electrical power output P0
to the temperatures, the material characteristics, and the
configuration of the thermocouple, as follows:
S2[m] 2
Po = ~ ~ [THj -- Tcj] 2. (25)
Most of the performance equations in the foregoing
treatment contain configuration-dependent quantities
such as conductances and resistances. The precise
definition of these quantities in terms of material proper-
ties and geometry is simple and is discussed later. The
calculation of temperature-averaged thermoelectric pro-
perty data and the computation of thermocouple weight
are also considered later.
There are basically five unknown quantities that must
be determined for completing a characterization of the
performance of a thermocouple. These quantities are
QT, Qs, P0, Tc(rO, and TH(r,). However, the same
number of equations relate these five quantities--Equa-
tions (16--18), (22), and (25). It is assumed that Equation
(23) (22) may be expressed in terms of To(r,) and Tn(r,)
instead of Tcj and THj by means of Equations (23
and 24). By combining some of the five equations, it is
possible to reduce the number of unknown quantities
and the corresponding number of equations. However,
this procedure does not solve the basic problem which
entails a set of simultaneous equations. Because of the
(24) nature of the equations involved, it is impossible to
reduce the set to one equation and one unknown through
analytic techniques. The solution must be obtained by a
method of successive approximations which are described
below.
A fixed thermocouple configuration is assumed. This
configuration is arbitrary because it is not known,
a priori, for what combination of component dimensions
the thermocouple performance is optimized and con-
currently satisfies imposed boundary conditions. Values
are assumed for all required material properties that
enter into the related equations. Because most material
properties are temperature-dependent, and because the
temperature range over which the thermocouple will
operate is unknown, it is sufficient in the first approxima-
tion to choose property values that are averages in the
 Design and Performance Analysis of Panel-Type Solar Thermoelectric Generators 175

temperature range over which it is reasonably expected iterations, and in fact diverge. In such cases, the further
to operate. After a solution is obtained and more precise the initial value of Q~, is from its self-consistency value,
operating temperatures are established, new values for the more rapid is the divergence of the five quantities
the required properties may be substituted and the between successive approximations. Conversely, the
calculation repeated. Because the solution of the problem closer the initial value of QT is to its self-consistency
is obtained by successive approximations, it is sufficient value, the slower is the divergence rate. If the value of
to use the temperatures of a given approximation to Q~, at self-consistency is used initially in the calculation,
calculate the temperature-averaged properties which will the five quantities do not change between successive
be used in the next approximation before the start of approximations and the equations are therefore simul-
each new iteration. This procedure is conveniently taneously satisfied. In cases of non-convergency, it is
accomplished on a computer with the introduction of therefore necessary to search for the proper value of
property data as a function of temperature, either at QT to be used initially. This value also gives self-
fixed temperature intervals, or in the form of equations consistency in the calculations and yields the appro-
obtained from fitting the data. Because the thermoelectric priate values of Q,, Po, Tu(rO, and Tc(r~) for the thermo-
property data generally have the greatest influence on couple. The search is performed either graphically or
the calculated thermocouple performance, it usually numerically.
suffices when these data are integrated after each itera- When the five quantities Q~,, Qs, Po, T~rd, and
tion. The remainder of the properties may initially be Tc(rd have been determined for a fixed thermocouple
given approximate, average, values that remain fixed configuration, the remaining performance parameters
throughout the calculation. follow immediately. The current which flows in the
The use of Equation (1) permits the calculation of the thermocouple is calculated from Equations (21) and the
incident heat Qz on the thermocouple for a given value load voltage EL is obtained from the following relation:
of incident solar-heat flux W which is a function of the P0
distance from the sun. Because only a portion of this EL = --. (26)
I
heat is transported through the thermocouple, the
The efficiency ~ of the thermocouple can then be deter-
quantity Q~, is assigned some arbitrary value in the
mined from the following equation:
range of zero to QI. Although it is initially assumed
that P0 and Qs are zero, other equally arbitrary values Po
= QT" (27)
could be used. With values assigned to QT, Qs, and P0
it is apparent that in Equation (17), the only remaining The foregoing development contains various thermal-
unknown is Tc(r~). Because Tc(rd occurs in the integrand, conductance terms which contain the geometry as well
which is raised to the fourth power, as well as outside as the thermal conductivity of the respective components.
the integrand, it is impossible to solve Equation (17) These terms are expressed as follows:
analytically for Tc(rd; graphical or numerical methods AT
are needed. The value of Tc(r~) calculated with the Ku = ~-n kH,
assigned values of Q~,, Qs, and P0 may then be used to
calculate Tcj by Equation (23) which, in turn, is used KHS - - A n + Ap kus,
to calculate Tuj in Equation (22). Equation (24) relates tits
Taj to Tx(rd, which, substituted in Equation (16),
enables the determination of Q~,. The calculated values K~, -- khAn + k~A~, (28)
of Tc(ri), added to the assigned values of QT, Qs, and
l
P0, permit the calculation of Qs by means of Equation
(18). The calculated values of Tuj and Tcj substituted K c s - - An q- A~ kcs,
tcs
in Equation (25) allow the determination of P0. The
values thus determined for QT, Qs, Po, TH(ri), and Kc A~ kc.
=

Tc(rO form first-approximation estimates. By the use of

these first-approximation estimates, the procedure is The subscripts n and p in Equation (28) refer to n- and
repeated to obtain second-approximation values of these p-type thermodements, respectively. The other sub-
quantities. Further repetition of the procedure yields scripts have been previously defined. All t's refer to
higher-order approximations. When the calculated values thicknesses, A's refer to cross-sectional areas, and K's
of the five quantities do not change, within some pre- refer to thermal-conductivity values. The thermal con-
scribed limits, between two successive approximations, ductivities kn and kp refer to values averaged over the
the calculation is complete because self-consistency has temperature range of thermocouple operation. The
been obtained and the equations are simultaneously symbol ! refers to the length of the thermodements. The
satisfied. stacks at both ends of the thermoelements are assumed
Depending on the relative importance of the various to have cross-sectional areas identical to those of the
contributing terms to the equations, the previously thermoelements. Furthermore, it is implicitly assumed
described sequence of calculations is sometimes not that the n- and p-type thermoelements are situated on
self-convergent in that the values of the five quantities common stacks of areas An + A~. As already discussed
do not converge to fixed values as a function of successive such assumptions about the stacks have little bearing on
176 V. RAAG
thermocouple performance and, therefore, are per-
missible. Equations (28) indicate that values are needed
for the respective thermal conductivities, in order to
calculate KHs and Kos. Because stacks usually contain
more than one material, it is necessary to use average
thermal-conductivity values. The average thermal con-
ductivity of a multimember component is defined as
follows:
t + Wcs + Ws + Wo,
= (29)
t~ '
where the subscript i denotes the i-th member and t is
the total thickness of the component.
As mentioned previously, the factors m and Rr. enter-
ing the above performance equations are related to the
internal thermocouple resistance Rx by m = Rz/Rx.
Therefore, for any desired value of m, it is necessary to
calculate Rx in order that Rz may be specified. The
internal resistance Rt of the thermocouple is given by
R =I pn + p~ ] 2rcn 2rc~ (30)
where On and p~, are the electrical resistivities of the
n- and p-type legs of the thermocouples (averaged over
the temperature range of thermoeouple operation) and
rot and re~ are the average contact "resistivities" (units
of f~-em2) of the interfaces between the n- and p-type
elements and their respective metallic end pieces. The
quantity rs represents the remaining extraneous internal
electrical resistance and is primarily the result of re-
sistance in current-carrying interconnections.
It was mentioned that data on the properties of the
thermoelectric materials are averaged over the tempera-
ture range of thermocouple operation. A general equa-
tion for averaging can be defined as follows:
THJ
~
f ~(T)
TCJ
dT (31)
Till
TC.I
where $ represents the property of which the average is
desired. Thus $ applies equally to k,, k~, S, and t~.
The Seebeck coefficient, S, is defined as S = S~ -- Sn,
and the net Thomson coefficient t~ is defined as
tz = v~ -- rn, where the r's are the Thomson coefficients
of the individual legs. The definition of r is ~"= T dS/dT.
As pointed out by Ure and Heikes [9], the average
electrical resistivity is more appropriately defined by
TH.I
f
TCJ
0(r) k(T) dt
P ~ THJ
f k(t) d r
TCJ
because under open-circuit operating conditions it
results in correct values of internal resistance, thermal
conductance, and voltage.
The weight of the thermocouple is calculated directly
from the dimensions and materials used. Thus, the total
thermoeouple weight Wt is given by
Wt = WH + W x s + Wz + W~,
(32)
where the subscripts of the individual terms have been
previously defined.
The individual weight terms are calculated from
W~ = A,t,8,, (33)
where i refers to the i-th component and 8 is the density
of the component. Because some components, such as
the hot and cold stacks, contain more than a single
member, the density used in calculating the weight must
be an average. The average value of density 8 for multi-
member components is defined as follows:
8- i , (34)
t
where t is the total thickness of the component.
The results developed show that the performance of
a thermocouple is determined by initially assuming
arbitrary dimensions for the various components. In a
practical power generator, however, it is important that
this performance be optimized with respect to some
parameter [such as specific power (W/lb) or efficiency],
which is directly related to the economics of producing
the electrical power for space applications. This optimi-
zation should be made through the varistion of para-
meters. The important parameters in this respect are a
the cross-sectional areas of the elements An and A~,; the
heat-collection and heat-rejection plate areas A~,; the
thermoelement length l; and the ratio of load to internal
electrical resistance m. Each parameter can be varied
independently by fixing the values of the remaining
ones. Performance may thus be optimized with respect
to all parameters. This process is conveniently accomp-
lished with a computer program.
References
[1] A. F. Ioffe, Semiconductor Thermoelements and Thermoelectric
Cooling. Infoseareh, London (1957).
[2] F. E. Jaumot, Proc. Instn Radio Engrs 46, 538 (1958).
[3] P. S. Castro and W. W. Happ, J. appl. Phys. 31, 1314 (1960).
[4] N. Fusehillo, R. Gibson, F. K. Eggleston and J. Epstein,
Advd Energy Cony. 6, 103 (1966).
[5] N. Fuschillo and R. Gibson, Preprint, IEEE Aerospace Conf.,
Seattle, Washington (July 1966).
[6] W. C. Lyon and C. J. Anderson, Proc. 1EEE/AIAA Therm.
Spec. Conf. Washington, D.C. (May 1966).
[7] R. W. Cohen and B. Abeles,J. appL Phys. 34, 1687 (1963).
[8] A. I. Burshtein, Soy. Phys. tech. Phys. 2, 1397 (1957).
[9] R. R. Heikes and R. W. LYre,Jr., ThermoelectricityScience and
Engineering, p. 500. Interscienee, New York (1961).