THE THEORY OF THIN WINGS

IN SUBSONIC FLOW
THE THEOR Y OF THIN WINGS
IN SUBSONIC FLOW

Sergei Mikhailovich Belotserkovskii

Central Aero-Hydrodynamics Institute
Moscow, USSR

Translated tram Russian

Translation Editor
Maurice Holt
Professor of Aeronautical Sciences
University of California
Berkeley, California

<±? Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 1967

Serge] Mikh ailovich Belotserkovskii, born in 1920, .w a s graduated from the
Moscow State University i n 1941 and completed his studies at the N. E .
Zhukov Military Aero-Engineering Academy in 1945. He i s currently as-
sociated with both that institution and with the Central Aero-Hydrodynamics
Institute in Moscow.

ISBN 978-1-4899-6161-7 ISBN 978-1-4899-6299-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-6299-7

The o ri gi n a l Russian text, published by Nauka Press, Mos cow, in 1965, has
been revised by the author for the American Edition.
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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 66-17189

Plenum Pr ess
© 1967 Springer Seience- Business Media New York
Originally published by Plenum Press in 1967.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover Ist edition 1967

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any

form without written permission from the publisher
 FOREWORD

This monograph contains a complete exposition of the theory of thin lifting wings at
moderate and high subsonic speeds. The basic theory is developed for incompressible flow, and
subsonic compressible flow is treated by means of the Prandtl-Glauert correction. The earlier
chapters set out the formal solution to the problem of flow past a wing in terms of potential
theory, which reduces the problem to an integral equation for a distribution of vortices over
the wing. This equation can be solved exactly only in very special cases, and for wings of
general plan form approximate methods of solution must be used. These are based on the
representation of the wing either as a single horseshoe vortex (Prandtl lifting line theory) or by
aseries of horseshoe vortices. Alternatively the wing may be approximated by aseries of local
horseshoe vortices (vortex lattice theory).
These approximate methods have been developed and refined both in the Soviet Union and
in Western countries during the past 30 years. The present volume gives a full description of
Russian work, including the classical contribution of Zhukovskiiand Chaplygin and extending to
the more recent work of Kochin, Chushkin, and the author. In addition to single monoplane
wings, cascades of wings, multiplanes, and annular wings are considered.
Many books are available in English dealing with Wing Theory; these include well known
works by Abbott and Doenhoff, Betz (in the Durand volumes), Glauert, Milne-Thomson, Carafoli,
Robinson and Laurmann, and Woods. Arecent article in Handbuch der Physik by Weissinger
(in German) should also be mentioned. With the exception of the works by Woods and Weissin-
ger the main material in these' books is at least 10 years old. The value of the present mono-
graph is that it is very recEmtly written, covers a large amount of Soviet work not readily avail-
able from Western sources, yet provides a complete treatment of the subject. It will serve as
a valuable manual to the many aerodynamicists who continue to be concerned with subsonic air-
craft design. It can also be used as the basis for a graduate course in Wing Theory.

Berkeley, California Maurice Holt

March 1967

v
 PREFACE

This book is devoted to one of the most completely developed sections of gas dynamics-
wing theory. In the book we describe various types of thin lifting surfaces (monoplane wings
of arbitrary shape in plan, annular wings of arbitrary aspect ratio, profile cascades),
and we study most of the aerodynamic characteristics of wings on the basis of linear theory.
This theory deals with small disturbances and so the problems can be greatly simplified. In the
case of subsonic velocities for three-dimensional bodies, however, even with this simplifica-
tion, it is difficult to obtain solutions in closed form. Therefore, numerical methods using elec-
tronic digital computers are the most effective.
The results of such calculations can be used not only in the qualitative explanation of
phenomena, but also often lead to satisfactory quantitative results.
Wing theory has been studied in great detail both in the USSR and abroad. The original
work was done by N. E. Zhukovskii, S. A. Chaplygin, and L. Prandtl. The ideas of N. E. Zhu-
kovskii concerning bound vortices were especially fruitful. On the one hand these ideas sup-
plied a basis for the explanation of the mechanism of lift in a perfect medium, and on the other
hand they were used as a starting point for obtaining methods of numerical calculation.
The hypothesis of the coalescence of streamlines from the trailing edge of a lifting sur-
face due to S. A. Chaplygin and N. E. Zhukovskii was of fundamental importance.
Even though the branch of aerodynamics described above is quite weIl developed, to the
author's knowledge there is no sufficiently complete exposition of wing theory at subsonic
speeds which is up-to-date. In practical applications it is also important to present effective
methods of calculating aerodynamic characteristics which can be used with modern computers,
and methods of checking the results of calculations. The author has written the present mono-'
graph in the hope that it will to some extent fill this gap in the literature.
The book can be divided into three sections. The first section (Chapters I-VI) is devoted
to the general theory of lifting surfaces. The problems considered in this section were chosen
mainly on the basis of the methods used in their solution. For example, we consider not only
translational motion, but also steady rotation of monoplane and annular wings. This enables us
to obtain rather simply aseries of new results by employing the consequences of the revers i-
bility theorem (forces and moments for reversed wings, the efficiency of attached controls, the
influence of deformation of the wing surface on aerodynamic characteristics, etc.). The ap-
parent mass of a wing is also considered, and this makes it possible to take account of the ac-
tion of the medium in the case of oscillations of a wing in situ. All problems are discussed for
lifting surfaces, so me in the linear and some in the nonlinear formulation.
In the second part of the book (Chapters VII-IX) we describe methods for the calculation
of aerodynamic characteristics of thin lifting systems of arbitrary form. Basically only one

vii
viii PREFACE

numerical method is used in the solution of such systems. It is based on the replacement of
the continuously distributed vortex layer modeling the wing by a discrete-vortex system.
Thus the flow past a multiplane is constructed by using vortex filaments of infinite span;
the simplest vortex system for a profile grid is an infinite chain of such filaments. The vortex
surface of an annular wing is constructed from annular bound vortices with a corresponding
sheet of free vortices; the surface of a rectangular wing is constructed from ordinary horse-
shoe vortices; the surface of a monoplane wing of very general shape in plan is constructed
from a set of so-called oblique horseshoe vortices. By increasing the number of very simple
systems, we can reproduce a continuous vortex layer with any desired degree of accuracy.
This type of approach leads to the replacement of one- or two-dimensional integral, dif-
ferential, or integrodifferential equations by a system of algebraic equations which possesses
many important useful properties. The resulting numerical method is flexible, efficient, and
very convenient for use with an electronic digital computer.
In the third section (Chapters X-XIV) the use of numerical methods is explained. Nu-
merical results for various lifting surfaces arepresented and used in the analysis of the in-
fluence of geometrical parameters and the Mach number on the aerodynamic characteristics
of wings of various forms. Calculated and the theoretical results are compared.
The thin lifting-surface scheme can be used to calculate the over-all characteristics of,
and aerodynamic loads on, a wing for plane flow and also in three-dimensional problems (and
for small angles of attack). Important differences between theoretical and experimental re-
sults are observed only for wings of very small aspect ratio; these differences are due to im-
perfections in the linear scheme. The effect of the thickness of a profile in a dense multiplane
or a dense cascade must also not be neglected.
It should be noted that a combination of vortex singularities with distributed dipoles or
sources and sinks can be used in the investigation of solid (not infinitesimally thin) lifting
surfaces. This is important primarily in problems in which it is necessary to know the pres-
sure distribution on the surface of a body. These methods are somewhat specialized, however,
and they require aseparate investigation.
In addition to known reslilts, including some that have already been published by the
author and his collaborators, we also present some completely new results.
This book has been written for engineers and scientific workers in the field of aero-
dynamics using the results obtained in this area, and also for students of universities and
technological schools.
The author wishes to thank B. K. Skripan and V. G. Tabachinkov for their valuable dis-
cussions of the material in this book and for their help in the preparation of the manuscript.

S. M. Belotserkovskii
 CONTENTS

Basic Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .• xiii

Chapter 1. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 1

§ 1. Coordinate systems . • . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . • • . • • • • . . • • • . . • . . . • 1
§2. The Monoplane wing and its geometrical parameters • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • 2
§3. The annular wing and its geometrical parameters . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
§4. Cascades of airfoils . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . • • . • • . . • . • . . . • . . . . . . . •. 6
§5. Some basic experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
§6. Statement of the problem. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
§7. Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
§8. Apparent mass of a wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14

Chapter II. Some General Properties of Induced Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 19

§1. General relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
§2. Disturbed velocities close to a vortex sheet • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
§3. Disturbed velocities at infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Chapter III. Some Generalizations of the Zhukovskii Lift Theorem. Induced Drag • . . .. 29
§ 1. The Theorem. . . • . . . • . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . 29
§2. The Zhukovskii theorem "in the small" for flow with circulation • • . . . . . .. 30
§3. The Zhukovskii theorem "in the small" for irrotational flow . • • • . . • . . . .. 32
§4. The Zhukovskii theorem for a profile in a cas9ade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .33
§5. Suction force. . . . . • • • . • . . . • . . • • . . . • • . . . . . .• . . . . • . . • . . . . .. 36
§6. General relations for the induced. drag of a lifting surface. . • . . . . . • . . • .. 37
§7. The induced drag of a monoplane wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
§8. The induced drag of an annular wing • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . .

Chapter IV. Some General Properties of Aerodynamic Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43

§ 1. Monoplane wings . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
§2. Annular wings . .. . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
§3. Profile cascades • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
§4. The center of pressure, the focus, and the lift-drag ratio. . . . . . . . . . • . .. 54
§5. The mean aerodynamic chord of a monoplane wing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
§6. Calculation of aerodynamic coefficients • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
§7. The apparent masses of a monoplane wing • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
§8. The apparent masses of an annular wing • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter V. The Conversion of Aerodynamic Characteristics to Values for

High Subsonic Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
§ 1. The basic transformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

ix
x CONTENTS

§2. The geometrical parameters of the transformed wing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

§3. The conversion of aerodynamic charac.teristics of a wing to values for
high subsonic velocities . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
§4. The conversion of aerodynamic characteristics of a profile cascade and
multiplane to values for high subsonic velocities. . . . . . . . . 73

Chapter VI. The Flow Reversal Theorem and its Consequences. • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

§ 1. The theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
§2. Some generalizations of the theorem. . . • . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . 79
§3. Some consequences of the theorem. . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
§4. The calculation of over-all aerodynamic effects of the deformation of a
monoplane wing. . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 84
§5. The calculation of aerodynamic moments and lift due to the deflection of
flaps and ailerons ~ . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
§ 6. Experimental verification of some consequences of the
flow revers al theorem. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . 88

Chapter VII. Fundamental Vortex Systems. • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

§1. Horseshoe vortices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 91
§2. Oblique horseshoe vortices. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
§3. General relations for annular vortices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
§4. Annular vortices of constant strength • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
§5. Annular vortices with strength proportional to cos q; ••••••••.••••••• 97
§6. Vortices of infinite span. Chains of vortices of infinite span. . . . • . . . . 101
§7. Broken bound vortices of variable strength along the span. . • . . . . . . 102

Chapter VIII. Equations for Determination of the Strength of aBound Vortex Sheet. 105
§1. Profile cascades and multiplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. 105
§2. Annular wings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 109
§3. Monoplane wings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
§4. Apparent masses of monoplane wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
§5. Apparent masses of annular wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
§6. The effect of flow boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 125

Chapter IX. Some Exact Solutions of the Equations and Limiting Values of the
Aerodynamic Characteristics . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
§1. Profile cascades and multiplanes . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
§2. Wings of infinite aspect ratio. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • . . . . . •. 130
§3. The side-slipping wing . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . • • . . . . . . . . 133
§4. Annular wings of very small aspect ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. 135
§5. Rectangular wings of very small aspect ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138

Chapter X. Profile Cascades and Multiplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

§1. So:me problems in methods of calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
§2. Lift coefficients of profiles in cascades• • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 146
§3. Moment coefficients of profiles in cascades • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 149
§4. Multiplanes of infinite span. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . ...... . 154
§5. The effect of the Mach number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Chapter XI. Annular Wings. . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • .. • • • • . • . • • • . . . . • . •• 159

§1. Some problems in methods of calculation. . . . . • • . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . •• 159
§2. Aerodynamiccharacteristics of annular wings . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . •. 160
 CONTENTS xi

§3. A comparison of annular wings and rectangular wings with the same over-all
dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
§4. The effect of the Mach number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
§5. A comparison of some calculated and experimental results. 171

Chapter XII. Monoplane Wings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

§ 1. Some problems in methods of calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . 171
§2. Rotational-derivative coefficients and the focus. . . . . . . . 173
§3. Induced drag and suction force . . • • . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 183
§4. So me results concerning distributed characteristics . . . . . . . . 186
§5. The effect of the Mach number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
§6. A comparison of theoretical and experimental results • . . . . . . 191

Chapter XIII. Controls Attached to Monoplane Wings. The Effect of Interface. . . 197
§1. Some problems in methods of calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• 197
§2. The efficiency of controls attached to rectangular wings. . . . . . . . . . . . 199
§3. The influence of interfaces on the characteristics of rectangular wings. . . . 204
§4. The effect of interfaces on the efficiency of controls attached to
rectangular wings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
§5. The effect of the Mach nu mb er • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213

Chapter XIV. Apparent Masses of Wings . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . · .. . . 215

§ 1. So me problems in methods of calculation . • . . . • . . . . • . ·... . 215
§2. Annular wings • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . . . .. 217
§3. Monoplane wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · ... 218
§4. A comparison of theoretical and experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Literature Cited • . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 225

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227
 BASIC NOTATION

I. Basic Notation Used for Geometrical Parameters

1. Monoplane Wings

l , wing span
b, root chord of a wing
bk' end chord of a wing
b', chord of the wing section parallel to the root chord
b a , mean aerodynamic chord of a wing (MA C)
S, wing area
z, coordinate of longitudinal section of span
z=2z/l , dimensionless coordinate of a wing section
A. = l 2/S, wing aspect ratio
X0' sweep back angle of leading edge
TI = b/bk' taper ratio of a wing

2. Annular Wings

b, wing chord
D =2r, mean diameter of wing
Q!O' wing aspect ratio
A. =D/b, wing aspect ratio

3. Profile Cascade and Multiplane

b, chord
t, the step equal to the distance between two congruent points of two neighboring profiles
t =t/b, relative step

xiii
xiv BASIC NOTATION

T =bit, density
f , relative curvature of a wing
ß r, geometrical stagger (the angle between a perpendicular to the front of a grid or multiplane,
Le., a straight line joining congruent points of a profile and a chord of the profile)
xf =xf Ib, relative coordinate of the maximum curvature of a profile

II. Basic Notation Used for Kinematic Characteristics

U o, absolute-velocity vector of the moving origin

0, absolute angular-velocity vector of a wing
Wx , Wy ' W z or Wx ' W r, W C(J' projections of the absolute (disturbed) velocity of the medium on
the axes of a rectangular or cylindrical coordinate system
wx, Wy, Wz or wx, wr, w C(J' projections of the dimensionless disturbed velocity of the medium
Ux , Uy ' Uz or Ux , Ur, UC(J' projections of the velocity generated by the bound vortices
Ux, Uy, Uz or Ux, ur, uC(J' projections of the dimensionless velocity generated by attached vortices
Vx, Vy , Vz or Vx , Vr , V C(J' projections of the velocity generated by free vortices
vx, vy ' Vz or Vx, Vr, v C(J' projections of the dimensionless velocity generated by the free vortices
W* , Wo, vector translational and relative velocities
M oo ' Mach number of the undisturbed flow
Uo, mean velocity of a profile cascade (one half the sum of the relative vector velocities of the
medium at infinity in front of and behind a eascade)
q = p 00 u~/2, velocity head (dynamic pressure)
q" potential of a disturbed flow
o!, angle of attack of a monoplane wing (the angle between the root chord and the projection of
the velocity Uo on the plane of symmetry Oxy of the wing)
o!, angle of attack of an annular" wing (the angle between the axis of symmetry of a wing and the
velocity U0)
O!r' geometrical angle of attack of a profile in a cascade (the angle between the geometrical
chord of a profile and the mean velocity U0)
-8, angle between the perpendicular to the front of a cascade and the mean velocity Uo, thus
O!r+ßr=-8·
O!o, angle of zero lift of a cascade (angle between the geometrical and aerodynamic chords of
a profile
O!, aerodynamic angle of attack of a cascade or multiplane (angle between the aerodynamic chord
of a profile and the velocity Uo)
ß, angle of aerodynamic stagger of a profile cascade (angle between the aerodynamic chord of
a profile and the mean velocity Uo); the following relations hold: O! + ß =-8, o!o =ß - ß r
wx = Qxb/U 0' dimensionless angular velocity of bank of a monoplane wing with characteristic
linear dimension b
 BASIC NOTATION xv

WX1 =nxl /2U O' dimensionless angular velocity of bank of a monoplane wing with characteristic
linear dimension 1 /2
Wz =nzb/U o, dimensionless angular velocity of pitch with characteristic linear dimension b

Wza =nzba/U o, dimensionless angularvelocity of pitch with characteristic linear dimension b a

XT =xT/b, center of a wing (xT is the distance from the origin 0 to the leading edge of the wing)
U1 , U2, U3, U4 , U5 , Us ' the projections of the vectors Uo and n on the Ox, Oy, and Oz axes (U1 =
Uox ' U2 = Uoy ' U3 = Uoz ' U4 = n x , U5 =n y , Us =n z ); notation used in the investigation of
apparent mass
yz+=Uo(Y~Cl!+y~Zwz+Y~xwx), strength ofthe vortex layer attached to a monoplane wing

i; j; f-t; v, subscripts for the numbering of: attached vortices; points where boundary conditions
are satisfied; bound vortex filaments; lines on which boundary conditions are satisfied
r+=U ol/2N (rCl!Cl!+r w wz+r w wx), circulationofboundvortices
·z x
N, number of strips into which multi pans are divided
y+=Uo(YoCl!o+YCl!Cl! cos CP+Ywzwz cos cp), strength of abound vortex layer of an annular wing
i; j, subscripts for the numbering of annular bound vortices and sections x= const, at which
boundary conditions are satisfied
r + = Uor(roao+ r aCl! cos cp+ rwzwz cos cp), circulation of bound vortices of an annular wing
Y = Uo[Y1 sin (Cl! + Cl!o) + Y2 cos (Cl! + Cl! 0) ], strength of bound vortex layer of a profile cascade
r + = 2U ot[r Ü)sin (Cl! + Cl!o) + r(2) cos (Cl! + Cl!o)] , circulation of bound vortices of a profile in a cascade

IIl. Basic Notation Used for Dynamic Characteristics

1. Monoplane Wings without Attached Controls

cy=y/qS, lift coefficient for characteristic ~imension Cy=c~Cl!+CyZWz or (for characteristic

dimensions b a ) by the formula Cy = c? a + c~a za wza
mz = M z/ qSb, longitudinal-moment coefficient for characteristic dimension b, given by formula
a Wz
mz =mz Cl! +mz Wz
mza = Mz/ qSb a , longitudinal-moment coefficient relative to an axis passing through the nose of
the mean aerodynamic chord for characteristic dimension b a given by the formula
m za -Cl!
- mza a +wza
m za wza
mX = Mx/qSb, bank-moment coefficient for characteristic dimension b; given by the formula
-mwx
m x- x Wx
mX1 = Mx/qSl, bank-moment coefficient for characteristic dimension 1 (for m X1) and l/2
(for wxi); given by the formula m X1 = m~r1wX1
xF = XF/b a , coordinate of the focus relative to the nose of the mean aerodynamic chord in units
ofba
cy=dY/qb'dz, lift coefficient of a section; givenby the formula
 xvi BASIC NOTATION

cxi =Xi/qS, induced drag coefficient with suction force

cxi, the same without suction force
k 22 = A 22/P Sb, k44 = A 44P Sb3 , kss = A 66/P Sb3, k 26 = A 26/ P Sb2 , apparent-mass coefficients

2 . Monoplane-Wing Controls

1:1Cy =1:1 Y/qS, increment of lift coefficient due to a deflection Of of a flap; given by the formula
~cy=cyfOf
1:1mz = ~MzI qSb, increment of the longitudinal-moment coefficient due to a deflection 0f of a
flap; given by the formula 1:1mz =m~f öf
~mx = 1:1MxI qSb, increment of the bank-moment coefficient due to a deflection Öa of an aileron;
given by the formula 1:1mx=m~ao a

3. Annular Wings

cy=Y/qDb, lift coefficient; given by the formula Cy=c?CI!+c~zwz

mz = MzlqDb2, longitudinal-moment coefficient; given by the formula m z =m~CI! +m~zwz
XF =XF/b, dimensionless coordinate of the focus relative to the nose of a wing
cxi =Xi/qDb, induced-drag coefficient with suction force
Cxi, the same without suction force
k 22 = A 22/P Sb, ks6 = A 66/ P Sb3 , k26 = A 26/ P Sb2 , apparent-mass coefficients

4. Profile Cascades

Cy = Y/ qb, lift coefficient of a profile; given by the formula Cy = c? sin CI!

m z =Mzlqb 2 , longitudinal-moment coefficient relative to the nose of a profile; given by the
formula mz =- mzo- (m~/2) sin 2C1!- (m~CI!/2) sin2 CI!