NEBB SECTION 1

HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER

A HEAT

1. Heat Intensity

The intensity of heat of a substance is called temperature and is measured by a thermometer or other temperature
indicating device. The Fahrenheit scale is used in the United States, while the Celsius (formerly called Centigrade)
scale is mostly used elsewhere.

The following equation can be used to convert temperature from the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit scale:

Equation 1-1 EF = 1.8EC + 32E

Equation 1-2 can be used to convert Fahrenheit scale temperatures to Celsius scale temperatures.

Equation 1-2 (EF - 32E)

EC = =
1.8

The temperature at which the continued removal of heat from a substance results in the substance having no
molecular action is called absolute zero, which is minus 460EF on the Fahrenheit scale and minus 273EC on the
Celsius scale. The thermodynamic absolute temperature (T) used in temperature/pressure/calculations can be
obtained in degrees Rankine by using Equation 1-3, and in degrees Kelvin by using Equation 1-4. The relationship
between the temperature scales is shown in Figures 1-1 and 1-2.

Equation 1-3 ER = EF + 460E

Where:

ER = Absolute temperature (Rankine)

EF = Fahrenheit temperature

Equation 1-4 K = EC + 273E

Where:

K = Absolute temperature (Kelvin)

EC = Celsius temperature

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 NEBB SECTION 1

FIGURE 1-1 Relationship Between FIGURE 1-2 Comparison of Fahrenheit

Temperature Scales and Celsius Thermometers

2. Heat Quantity

The quantity of heat is found by measuring the temperature and weight of a substance. In the United States the
quantity or amount of heat in a substance is measured in British Thermal Units (Btu) which is defined as the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 59EF to 60EF. In the metric system, the unit of
measurement is called calorie which is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water
from 4EC to 5EC. For electrical resistance heating, 1 watt = 3.412 Btu per hour, and in refrigeration work, 1 ton of
cooling equals 12,000 Btu per hour.

The Btu is seldom used without further definition either as flow rate with time or as a limited quantity of heat contained
in some weight or volume of matter. By using the Btu per hour (Btuh), it is possible to determine the amount of heat
flowing or heat transferred in a given amount of time. Using weight for mass, it is possible to establish the heat
contained in a substance used as a heat source, such as Btu per pound of coal, or Btu per pound of air. A thousand
Btu per hour is abbreviated "MBH".

B HEAT TRANSFER

1. Methods of Heat Transfer

In HVAC systems, as in natural processes, heat is transferred by three means:

(a) radiation
(b) convection
(c) conduction

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 NEBB HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER

a. Radiation

Radiation is a form of energy transfer similar to that of light waves and radio waves, without heating the intervening
space. Energy waves of the sun, for example, can be felt by a person until a heavy cloud layer passes in front of it.
The change is felt immediately, but the air in the space in between was not heated directly by the sun's rays.

b. Convection

Most of the heat transfer in the HVAC industry is by convection. Convection is the transfer of heat by movement of a
fluid such as air or water over a substance. The heat flow can be either to or from the substance or object.

When a fan is used to propel the air across a hot or cold surface, heat transfer generally increases with an increase in
air velocity. Forced convection (air moved across the surface by a fan) therefore is a more efficient method of heat
transfer which produces a greater volume of transferred heat. Major factors in the transfer of heat by convection are:
(a) temperature difference

(b) flow velocity

(c) type of fluid (or gas)

(d) conductivity of heat transfer material

(e) size and shape of the transfer surfaces

(f) condition of the transfer surfaces

c. Conduction

Conduction is the flow of heat through a substance or the flow of heat from one body to another when the bodies are in
direct physical contact with one another. The heat of the handle of a poker placed in a fire is a good example.

d. Thermal Conductivity (k)

The ability of a substance to transfer heat by conduction is called thermal conductivity (k). Conductivity is defined as
the amount of heat in Btu per hour flowing through one inch of thickness of one square foot of a homogeneous material
when the difference in temperature between the faces is one degree Fahrenheit. Therefore, materials having the
lowest conductivity numerical values are the best insulators.

e. Thermal Conductance (C)

Thermal conductance (C) is a heat flow property of an object made of nonhomogeneous material such as hollow clay
tile or concrete blocks where each succeeding inch of thickness is not identical with the preceding inch. Therefore, it is
necessary to indicate the heat flow rate through the entire object. Conductance is defined as the heat flow rate in Btu
per hour per one square foot of nonhomogeneous material of a certain specified thickness for a one degree difference
in temperature between the two surfaces of the material. Care should be taken not to confuse conductivity and
conductance.

f. Thermal Resistance (R)

Thermal resistance (R) or resistivity is the reciprocal of the heat transmission coefficient (U). The overall resistance
(Rt ) is equal to the sum of the resistances and resistivities of the insulation and substances from which the wall,
ceiling, floor, etc. is built. R values can be added together along with the "k values" and "C values".

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 NEBB SECTION 1

2. Coefficient of Heat Transfer (U)

The coefficient of heat transfer "U" can be obtained by taking the reciprocal of the resistance as shown in the following
equation:

Equation 1-5 1 1
U= = =
Rt R 1 + R2 + R3 … + Rn

Where:

Rt = overall resistance total (ft2CEF/Btuh)

U = coefficient of heat transfer (Btuh/ft2CEF)
R1 + R2 ... Rn = individual resistances
Equation 1-6 Q = A x U x Ut

Where:

Q = the rate of heat transfer of flow (Btuh)

A = the area of a surface (square feet)
U = coefficient of heat transfer (Btuh/ft2CEF)
ªt = EF temperature difference between the
temperature on each side of the surface.

3. Types of Heat Transfer

a. Sensible Heat

Sensible heat is any heat transfer that causes a change in temperature that can be measured with a thermometer.
Heating or cooling of air or water, measured with a thermometer, indicates an increase or decrease in sensible heat.

b. Latent Heat

Latent heat is any heat transfer that causes a change of state from a solid to a liquid, a liquid to a gas, or vice versa.
Evaporation of water is an example of a latent heat transfer. Latent heat transfer at terminal coils may be defined as
any process which humidifies or dehumidifies the air. Both processes result in a change of actual moisture content in
the air.

c. Total Heat (Enthalpy)

Total heat is the sum of the sensible heat and latent heat in an exchange process. In many cases, the addition or
subtraction of latent and sensible heat at terminal coils appears simultaneously. Total heat also is called enthalpy, both
of which can be defined as the quantity of heat energy contained in that substance.

At any given time, a substance has only one value of enthalpy and a related specific temperature value on the
thermometer. If the enthalpy is increased, the temperature increases. Conversely, if the temperature is decreased, the
enthalpy decreases. The ability to increase or decrease enthalpy and temperature together is the basis for heat
transfer in environmental systems and only differences in enthalpy and temperature are normally of importance.

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 NEBB HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER

C AIR HEAT FLOW EQUATIONS

1. Sensible Heat

Sensible heat was defined as the heat associated with temperature differences as measured by a dry bulb
thermometer. The sensible heat flow equations for air are:

Equation 1-7 For standard air conditions: Q(Sens.) = 1.08 x cfm x Ut

Where:

Q = Heat flow (Btuh)

cfm = Airflow (cu ft/min)
ªt = Temperature difference (EF)

Equation 1-8 For non-standard air conditions: Q(Sens.) = 60 x Cp x d x cfm x Ut

Where:

Cp = Specific heat (Btu/lbCEF)

d = Density (lb/cu ft)

(For standard air, Cp = 0.24 and d = 0.075.)

2. Latent Heat

Latent heat is the heat used to convert a liquid into a gas or vapor without a change in dry bulb temperature (such as
water boiling at 212EF) or the heat released when vapor condenses into a liquid, again without a change in dry bulb
temperature.

Equation 1-9 Q(latent) = 4840 x cfm x UW (lb) or Q(latent) = 0.69 x cfm x UW (gr)

Where:

Q = Heat flow (Btuh)

cfm = Airflow (cu ft/min)
ªW = Humidity ratio (lb water/lb dry air or grains of
water/lb dry air)

3. Total Heat (Enthalpy)

Changes of the enthalpy or total heat content of air use the following equation:

Equation 1-10 Q(Total) = 4.5 x cfm x Uh

Where:

Q = Total heat flow (Btuh)

cfm = Airflow (cu ft/min)

Uh = Enthalpy difference (Btu/lb dry air)

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 NEBB SECTION 1

The answers obtained when using Equations 1-8 and 1-9 on a problem should total and equal the answer
obtained when using Equation 1-10.

4. Hydronic Heat Flow Equation

The heat flow equation used for water systems is:

Equation 1-11 Q = 500 x gpm x Ut

Where:

Q = Heat flow (Btuh)

gpm = Gallons per minute (water only)
Ut = Temperature difference (EF)

D QUESTIONS

1. An exposed wall of 800 square feet in a building has a "U" factor or coefficient of heat transfer of 0.78. By
insulating the wall, "U" becomes 0.08. In a 10 hour period with 65EF inside and 0EF outside, ____________
Btu would be saved.

2. 50 gallons per minute of 160EF water enters a heat exchanger and exits at 200EF. The heat transfer rate is
__________ Btuh or __________ MBH.

3. The temperature difference is __________ EF if the flow rate is increased to 75 gpm of 160EF water in
Question 2. The heat transfer rate remains the same.

4. The absolute temperature of 95EF is __________ ER.

5. The "R values" for materials in a frame wall are: 1.5, 3.2, 2.1, 9.0 and 0.8. The value of "U" is __________
Btuh/ft2CEF.

6. An 80% efficient furnace with an input of 160,000 Btuh has a 55EF temperature rise. The airflow is
__________ cfm.

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