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~ he science of astronomy is a rational way of knowing and understanding the origins of Earth the
solar system, and the universe. Earth was once thought to be unique, different in every way from
, anything else in the universe. However, through the science of astronomy, we have discovered
that Earth and the Sun are similar to other objects in the universe and that the physical laws that apply
i on Earth seem to apply everywhere in the universe
How did our understanding of the universe change so drastically‘? In this chapter we examine the
transformation from the ancient view of the universe, which focused on the positions and movements
of celestial objects, to the modern perspective, which focuses on understanding how these objects
came to be and why they move the way they do
FOCUS om CONCEPTS
To assist you in learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions
Q What is the geocentric view of the universe and how does it differ from the heliocentric view?
Q What occurred during the “Golden Age" of early astronomy and where was it located?
Q How does Ptolemy’s model account forthe observed motions of the celestial bodies including retrograde motion?
G Who was the first modern astronomer to advocate a heliocentric model for the solar system?
® What were the contributions to modern astronomy of Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler
Galileo Galilei, and Issac Newton?
Q What are perturbations?
Q How does modern astronomy use constellations?
® What is the equatorial system?
® What are some of the primary motions of Earth?
Q What is the difference between a synodic month and a sidereal month?
@ What causes the phases of the moon?
Q What causes a solar eclipse? What causes a lunar eclipse?
nians are well known for their record keeping. These cultures
recorded the locations of the Sun, Moon, and the five visible plan- E al._..._,%____;_
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ets as these objects moved slowly against the background of “fixed”
stars. Eventually, it was not enough to track the motions of celes-
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Ancient Astronomy 613
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planets was a transparent, hollow celestial sphere on which the
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appears that the stars and planets move across the sky, this effect
‘fl fr; l ' "r --- is actually caused by Earth’s rotation on its axis.) Some early
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cluded that Earth is spherical because it always casts a curved
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shadow when it eclipses the moon. Although most of Aristotle’s
teachings were considered infallible by many for centuries after his
1T1-Pi The Bayeux Tapestry that hangs in Bayeux, France,
shows the apprehension caused by Halley’s comet in A.D. 1066. This death, his beliefin a spherical Earth was lost during the Middle Ages.
event preceded the defeat of King Harold by William the Conqueror.
(“Sighting of a comet. ” Detail from Bayeux Tapestry. Musee de la Tapisserie, Bayeux. Measuring the Earth's Circumference The first successful
“With special authorization of the City of Bayeux. " Bridgeman-Giraudon/Art attempt to establish the size of Earth is credited to Eratosthenes
Resource, NY)
(276—194 B.c.). Eratosthenes observed the angles of the noonday
Sun in two Egyptian cities that were roughly north and south
tial objects; predicting their future positions (to avoid getting mar- of each other—Syene (presently Aswan) and Alexandria
ried at an unfavorable time, for example) became important. ..-/-Ii).
Finding that the angles of the noonday sun differed
A study of Chinese archives shows that the Chinese recorded by 7 degrees, or 1/50 of a complete circle, he concluded that the
every appearance of the famous Halley’s Comet for at least 10 cen-
turies. However, because this comet appears only once every 76
years, they were unable to link these appearances to establish that
The Chinese recorded the sudden appearance of a
what they saw was the same object multiple times. Like most “guest star" in 1054 A.D. The scattered remains of that supernova is
ancients, the Chinese considered comets to be mystical. Gener- the Crab Nebula in the constellation Taurus. This image comes from
ally, comets were seen as bad omens and were blamed for a vari- the Hubble Space Telescope. (NASA)
ety of disasters, from wars to plagues In addition,
the Chinese kept quite accurate records of “guest stars.” Today we
know that a “guest star” is a normal star, usually too faint to be
visible, which increases its brightness as it explosively ejects gases
from its surface, a phenomenon we call a nova (nouns = new) or
supernova.
., , _ _ Post at Mapping the Stars Probably the greatest of the early Greek
. . 7 angle. Alexandria
astronomers was Hipparchus (2nd century B.c.), best known for
Center , S ' P his star catalogue. Hipparchus determined the location of almost
' ofEarth _ T . ' E. "L;-Fl
850 stars, which he divided into six groups according to their
7-..ang|e* _ 7 _ ‘ It at
Syene
brightness. (This system is still used today.) He measured the
(‘/50 ofa circle) - length of the year to within minutes of the modern value and
~ (
* Sun's rays developed a method for predicting the times of lunar eclipses to
within a few hours.
Although many of the Greek discoveries were lost during the
E’.i..»‘fi Orientation of the Sun's rays at Syene (Aswan) and Middle Ages, the Earth-centered view that the Greeks proposed
Alexandria in Egypt on June 21 when Eratosthenes calculated
became entrenched in Europe. Presented in its finest form by
Earth's circumference.
Claudius Ptolemy, this geocentric outlook became known as the
Ptolemaic System.
i"§-Pijiiiiifi . Ii The
i universe according to
5 I- Ptolemy, second
i century A.D. A. Ptolemy
' believed that the star-
studded celestial
sphere made a daily
trip around a
motionless Earth. In
addition, he proposed
that the Sun, Moon,
and planets made trips
of various lengths
along individual orbits.
B. A three-dimensional
model of an Earth-
centered system.
Ptolemy likely utilized
something similar to
this to calculate the
motions of the
heavens. (Photo by The
Bridgeman Art Library)
A. B.
Ancient Astronomy 6'15
In the Greek tradition, the Ptolemaic model had the planets as he did, considering that he used an incorrect model. The pre-
moving in perfect circular orbits around a motionless Earth. (The cision with which his model was able to predict planetary motion
Greeks considered the circle to be the pure and perfect shape.) is attested to by the fact that it went virtually unchallenged, in
However, the motion ofthe planets, as seen against the background principle if not in detail, until the 17th century. When Ptolemy's
of stars, is not so simple. Each planet, if watched night after night, predicted positions for the planets became out of step with the
moves slightly eastward among the stars. Periodically, each planet observed positions (which took 100 years or more), his model was
appears to stop, reverse direction for a period of time, and then simply recalibrated using the new observed positions as a start-
resume an eastward motion. The apparent westward drift is called ing point.
retrograde (retro = to go back, gradus = walking) motion. This With the decline of the Roman Empire around the 4th cen-
rather odd apparent motion results from the combination of the tury, much of the accumulated knowledge disappeared as
motion of Earth and the planet’s own motion around the Sun. libraries were destroyed. After the decline of Greek and Roman
The retrograde motion of Mars is shown in civilizations, the center of astronomical study moved east to Bagh-
Because Earth has a faster orbital speed than Mars, it overtakes its dad where, fortunately, Ptolemy’s work was translated into Arabic.
neighbor. While doing so, Mars appears to be moving backward, Later, Arabic astronomers expanded Hipparchus’s star catalog
in retrograde motion. This is analogous to what a
driver sees out the side window when passing a
iii-iii?
:2; Ptolemy's explanation of retrograde motion—the backward motion of
slower car. The slower planet, like the slower car, planets against the background of fixed stars. In Ptolemy's model, the planets move on
appears to be going backward, although its actual small circles (epicycles) while they orbit Earth on larger circles (deferents). Through trial
motion is in the same direction as the faster-mov- and error, Ptolemy discovered the right combination of circles to produce the retrograde
ing body. motion observed for each planet.
It is difficult to accurately represent retrograde 1
motion using the incorrect Earth-centered model, I
but that is what Ptolemy was able to accomplish
ztiiifi). Rather than using a single circle for
each planet’s orbit, he proposed that the planets
orbited on small circles (epicycles), revolving along
large circles (deferents). By trial and error, he found
the right combination of circles to produce the
amount of retrograde motion observed for each
planet. (An interesting note is that almost any
closed curve can be produced by the combination
of two circular motions, a fact that can be verified
by anyone who has used the Spirograph“ design-
drawing toy.)
It is a tribute to Ptolemy’s genius that he was
able to account for the planets’ motions as well
616 CHAPTER 21 Origins of Modern Astronomy
Astronomy link to the past and used circles to represent the orbits of the plan-
Ptolemy's Earth-centered universe was not discarded overnight. ets. Because of this Copernicus was unable to accurately predict
Modern astronomy’s development was more than a scientific the future locations ofthe planets. Copernicus found it necessary
endeavor, it required a break from deeply entrenched philo- to add smaller circles (epicycles) like those used by Ptolemy. The
sophical and religious views that had been a basic part ofWestern discovery that the planets actually have elliptical orbits occurred
society for thousands ofyears. Its development was brought about a century later and is credited to Johannes Kepler.
by the discovery of a new and much larger universe governed by Like his predecessors, Copernicus also used philosophical
discernible laws. We examine the work of five noted scientists justifications to support his point of view: “ . . . In the midst of all
involved in this transition from an astronomy that merely stands the Sim. For who could in this most beautiful temple place
describes what is observed, to an astronomy that tries to explain this lamp in another or better place than that from which it can at
what is observed and more importantly why the universe behaves the same time illuminate the whole?”
the way it does. They include Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe,
Iohannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Sir Isaac Newton.
Nicolaus Copernicus
For almost 13 centuries after the time of Ptolemy, very few astro-
Students Sometimes Ask...
nomical advances were made in Europe—some were even lost, If Ptolemy's theory was so successful, why was it
including the notion of a spherical Earth. The first great astronomer rejected?
to emerge after the Middle Ages was Nicolaus Copernicus The discovery of Jupiter's strated that Earth was not the
(1473-1543) from Poland After discovering moons showed that there was a center of all motion. Conse-
Aristarchus’s writings, Copernicus became convinced that Earth is fundamental flaw in the Ptole- quently, at least one of the basic
a planet, just like the other five then-known planets. The daily maic theory, which described tenets of the Ptolemaic model
motions of the heavens, he reasoned, could be more simply motion in the universe. Accord- had to be incorrect.
explained by a rotating Earth. ing to Ptolemy's Earth-centered Astronomers soon demon-
Having concluded that Earth is a planet, Copernicus con- model, all heavenly bodies strated that the other basic
structed a heliocentric model for the solar system, with the Sun at revolved around Earth. When assumptions of the Earth-
the center and the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Iupiter, Galileo, using a crude telescope, centered model were also
and Saturn orbiting it. This was a major break from the ancient saw four moons revolving inconsistent with observations.
and prevailing idea that a motionless Earth lies at the center of around Jupiter, he demon-
all movement in the universe. However, Copernicus retained a
The Birth of Modern Astronomy 617
Copernicus’s monumental work, De Revolutionibus, Orbium '1. [uni IE5 Trcmwis uni-im: o.r.i Lg--if , "_ ' ' ' " '- ,'
.IDlFll'll’ ET IRITIUIIEHTOIIUP-I 1; ' - l ' P '
Coelestiurn (On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres), which ASTIONUHIFOIUH $T‘|JC'TOlIS.-
flnnulll i_;a7.n-run av: go. i
criticisms that fell on many of his followers. Although Coperni- ‘ii, _ /P" - .-"
"-r -'7' Q’
Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was born ofDanish nobility 3 years after
the death of Copernicus. Reportedly, Tycho became interested in
astronomy while viewing a solar eclipse that had been predicted T
should shift with respect to the more distant stars. Tycho was cor- -_
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rect, but his measurements did not have great enough precision _
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to show any displacement. The apparent shift of the stars is called Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) in his observatory, in
stellar parallax and today it is used to measure distances to the Uraniborg, on the Danish island of Hveen. Tycho (central figure) and
nearest stars. (Stellar parallax is discussed in Apendix D, page 720.) the background are painted on the wall of the observatory within the
The principle of parallax is easy to visualize: Close one eye, arc of the sighting instrument called a quadrant. In the far right,
and with your index finger vertical, use your eye to line up your Tycho can be seen "sighting" a celestial object through the "hole" in
the wall. Tycho's accurate measurements of Mars enabled Johannes
finger with some distant object. Now, without moving your fin- Kepler to formulate his three laws of planetary motion. (Courtesy of The
ger, view the object with your other eye and notice that the object’s Bridgeman Library International)
position appears to change. The farther away you hold your fin-
ger, the less the object's position seems to shift. Herein lay the
flaw in Tycho’s argument. He was right about parallax, but the
distance to even the nearest stars is enormous compared to the
Johannes Kepler
width of Earth’s orbit. Consequently, the shift that Tycho was look- If Copernicus ushered out the old astronomy, Iohannes Kepler
ing for is too small to be detected without the aid of a telescope- (1571-1630) ushered in the new Armed with
an instrument that had not yet been invented. Tycho’s data, a good mathematical mind, and, of greater impor-
With the death of his patron, the King of Denmark, Tycho tance, a strong belief in the accuracy of Tycho’s work, Kepler
was forced to leave his observatory. Known for his arrogance derived three basic laws of planetary motion. The first two laws
and extravagant nature, Tycho was unable to continue his work resulted from his inability to fit Tycho’s observations of Mars to a
under Denmark's new ruler. As a result, Tycho moved to Prague circular orbit. Unwilling to concede that the discrepancies were a
in the present-day Czech Republic, where, in the last year of his result of observational error, he searched for another solution.
life, he acquired an able assistant, Johannes Kepler. Kepler This endeavor led him to discover that the orbit of Mars is not a
retained most of the observations made by Tycho and put them perfect circle but is slightly elliptical About the same
to exceptional use. Ironically, the data Tycho collected to refute time, he realized that the orbital speed of Mars varies in a pre-
the Copernican view of the solar system would later be used by dictable way. As it approaches the Sun, it speeds up, and as it
Kepler to support it. moves away, it slows down.
618 CHAPTER 21 Origins of Modern Astronomy
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Focus Focus
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Focus Focus
1. The path of each planet around the Sun, while almost cir-
cular, is actually an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus Kepler's law of equal areas. A line connecting a planet
(Figure 21.11). (Earth) to the Sun sweeps out an area in such a manner that equal
2. Each planet revolves so that an imaginary line connecting areas are swept out in equal times. Thus, Earth revolves slower
when it is farther from the Sun (aphelion) and faster when it is
it to the Sun sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of
closest (perihelion). The eccentricity of Earth's orbit is greatly
time 1" . =; F1). This law ofequal areas geometrically exaggerated in this diagram.
expresses the variations in orbital speeds of the planets.
Figure 21.12 illustrates the second law. Note that in order for
a planet to sweep equal areas in the same amount of time, it must
travel more rapidly when it is nearer the Sun and more slowly
when it is farther from the Sun.
Kepler was devout and believed that the Creator made an -Q
orderly universe and that this order would be reflected in the posi- January Sun T July
tions and motions of the planets. The uniformity he tried to find Faster Jemo9
eluded him for nearly a decade. Then in 1619, Kepler published
his third law in The Harmony ofthe Worlds:
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was the greatest Italian scientist of the
Renaissance 1. Y ~:. . ' ). He was a contemporary of Kepler and,
like Kepler, strongly supported the Copernican theory of a Sun-
centered solar system. Galileo’s greatest contributions to science
were his descriptions of the behavior of moving objects, which
he derived from experimentation. The method of using experi-
ments to determine natural laws had essentially been lost since
the time of the early Greeks.
All astronomical discoveries before Galileo's time were made
without the aid of a telescope. ln 1609, Galileo heard that a Dutch
lens maker had devised a system of lenses that magnified objects.
Apparently without ever seeing a telescope, Galileo constructed
his own, which magnified distant objects three times the size seen
by the unaided eye. He immediately made others, the best having
a magnification of about 30 .1? 151.1%. ti).
With the telescope, Galileo was able to view the universe in a
new way. He made many important discoveries that supported
;l~. Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used a
the Copernican view of the universe, including the following: new invention, the telescope, to observe the Sun, Moon, and planets
in more detail than ever before. (Nimatallah/Art Resource, N.Y.)
1. The discovery of ]upiter’s four largest satellites, or itL "1;-I. . One of Galileo's telescopes. Although Galileo did not
moons 1%).This find dispelled the old idea invent the telescope, he built several—the largest of which had a
that Earth was the sole center of motion in the universe; magnification Of 30. (Photo by Gianni Tortoli/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
for here, plainly visible, was another center of motion-
Iupiter. It also countered the frequently used argument
that the Moon would be left behind if Earth revolved
around the Sun.
2. The discovery that the planets are circular disks rather
than just points of light, as was previously thought. This
indicated that the planets must be Earth-like as opposed
to star-like.
R ?!u\J1C’}/.|?_ _* _* * O was a dialogue that expounded both the Ptolemaic and Coperni-
can systems, publication was allowed. However, Galileo’s detrac-
tors were quick to realize that he was promoting the Copernican
ii. it *0 .,, view at the expense of the Ptolemaic system. Sale of the book was
quickly halted, and Galileo was called before the Inquisition. Tried
I'1.~H.¢f-ii-%_' -q- O *H 1 g
and convicted of proclaiming doctrines contrary to religious
I?-7h‘*¢1-I’ _-K’ -fluo I- teachings, he was sentenced to permanent house arrest, under
which he remained for the last 10 years of his life.
i4<(~»~Z. -it .4 t Q it Despite this restriction, and his grief following the death of
P 76-(“f.~';-if
to to # Q in-as it VJ Pm J
his eldest daughter, Galileo continued to work. In 1637 he became
totally blind, yet during the next few years he completed his finest
scientific work, a book on the study of motion in which he stated
rz.¢4f,..,.,_" F QQ that the natural tendency of an object in motion is to remain in
F’ - ' . _ --1 — 1 ~ __ i_
jg=_ +(')# xx- motion. Later, as more scientific evidence in support of the Coper-
‘-'l-?i~041.1, -PF -it O I- 4!»
nican system was discovered, the Church allowed Galileo's works
to be published.
1° '3?‘ 5! 1*
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Sir Isaac Newton
1 '-" .Sketch by Galileo of how he saw Jupiter and its four Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was born in the year of Galileo’s
largest satellites through his telescope. The positions of Jupiter's four death (1 5 . His many accomplishments in mathemat-
largest Moons (drawn as stars) change nightly. You can observe ics and physics led a successor to say, “Newton was the greatest
these same changes with binoculars. (Yerkes Observatory Photograph!
University of Chicago)
genius that ever existed.”
|
Venus has phases just like the Moon. A. In the Ptolemaic
l (Earth-centered) system, the orbit of Venus lies between the
Sun and Earth, as shown in Figure 21.5A. Thus, in an Earth-
centered solar system, only the crescent phase of Venus
would be visible from Earth. B. In the Copernican (Sun-
centered) system, Venus orbits the Sun and hence all of the
phases of Venus should be visible from Earth. C. As Galileo
observed, Venus goes through a series of Moonlike phases.
Venus appears smallest during the full phase when it is
farthest from Earth and largest in the crescent phase when
it is closest to Earth. This verified Galileo's belief that the
Sun was the center of the solar system. (Photo courtesy of Lowell
Observatory)
Although Kepler and those who followed attempted to explain Thus, gravitational force decreases with distance, so that two
the forces involved in planetary motion, their explanations were objects 3 kilometers apart have 32 or 9, times less gravitational
less than satisfactory. Kepler believed that some force pushed the attraction than if the same objects were 1 kilometer apart.
planets along in their orbits. Galileo, however, correctly reasoned The law of gravitation also states that the greater the mass of
that no force is required to keep an object in motion. Instead, an object, the greater its gravitational force. For example, the large
Galileo proposed that the natural tendency for a moving object mass of the Moon has a gravitational force strong enough to cause
that is unaffected by an outside force is to continue moving at a ocean tides on Earth, whereas the tiny mass of a communications
uniform speed and in a straight line. This concept, inertia, was satellite has very little effect on Earth.
later formalized by Newton as his first law of motion. With his laws of motion, Newton proved that the force of
The problem, then, was not to explain the force that keeps the gravity—combined with the tendency of a planet to remain in
planets moving but rather to determine the force that keeps them straight-line motion—would result in a planet having an ellip-
from going in a straight line out into space. It was to this end that tical orbit as established by Kepler. Earth, for example, moves
Newton conceptualized the force of gravity. At the early age of 23, forward in its orbit about 30 kilometers (18.5 miles) each sec-
he envisioned a force that extends from Earth into space and holds ond, and during the same second, the force of gravity pulls it
the Moon in orbit around Earth. Although others had theorized the toward the Sun about 0.5 centimeter (I/8 inch). Therefore, as
existence of such a force, he was the first to formulate and test the Newton concluded, it is the combination of Earth’s forward
law ofuniversal gravitation. It states: motion and its “falling” motion that defines its orbit
If gravity were somehow eliminated, Earth would
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a move in a straight line out into space. Conversely, if Earth’s for-
force that is directly proportional to their masses and inversely ward motion suddenly stopped, gravity would pull it, crashing
proportional to the square of the distance between them. into the Sun.
622 CHAPTER 21 Origins of Modern Astronomy
;i'.i?4:i.-"1
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Astrology—the
Forerunner of
Astronomy
Many people confuse astrology and astron- FIGURE 21.B Stonehenge, an ancient observatory in England. On June 21-22
omy to the point of believing these terms to (summer solstice), the Sun can be observed rising above the heelstone. (Robin
be synonymous. Astronomy is a scientific Scagell/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
probing of the universe aiming to determine
the properties of celestial objects and the
laws under which the universe operates. Therefore, the planets, Sun, and Moon all day of spring (vernal equinox) occurred
Astrology, on the other hand, is based on appear to move along a band around the sky when the Sun was viewed against the con-
ancient superstitions that hold that an indi- known as the zodiac. Because Earth's Moon stellation Aries. However, during each suc-
vidual's actions and personality are based cycles through its phases about 12 times ceeding vernal equinox, the position of the
on the positions of the planets and stars each year, the Babylonians divided the Sun shifts very slightly against the back-
now, and at the person's birth. Scientists do zodiac into 12 constellations (Figure 21.A). ground stars. Now, over 2,000 years later,
not accept astrology, regarding it as a pseu- Thus, each successive full Moon can be seen the first day of spring occurs when the Sun
doscience (false science). Today, many peo- against the backdrop of the next constella- is in Pisces. In about 600 years, it will occur
ple read horoscopes as a pastime and do not tion of the zodiac. when the Sun appears in the constellation
let them influence daily living. The dozen constellations of the zodiac Aquarius. (Hence, the “Age of Aquarius" is
Apparently astrology had its origin more (“Zone of Animals, " so named because I coming.)
than 5,000 years ago when the positions of some constellations represent animals) are Although astrology is not a science and
the planets were plotted as they regularly Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, has no basis in fact, it did contribute to the
migrated against the background of the Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, science of astronomy. The positions of the
"fixed" stars. Because the solar system is Aquarius, and Pisces. These names may be Moon, Sun, and planets at the time of a per-
"flat," like a whirling Frisbee, the planets familiar to you as the astrological signs of son's birth (sign of the zodiac) were consid-
orbit the Sun along nearly the same plane. the zodiac. When first established, the first ered to have great influence on that personls
life. Even the great astronomer Kepler was
required to make horoscopes part of his
duties. To make forward-looking horoscopes,
FIGURE 21.A The 12 constellations of the zodiac. Earth is shown in its autumn astrologers attempted to predict the future
(September) position in orbit, from which the Sun is seen against the positions of the celestial bodies. Conse-
background of the constellation Virgo. quently, astronomical observatories were
built in order to obtain more accurate predic-
tions of events such as eclipses, which were
North celestial pole considered highly significant in a person's
Celestial life.*
sphere‘ Even prehistoric people built observato-
ries. The structure known as Stonehenge, in
England, was undoubtedly an attempt at
better solar predictions (Figure 21.B). At the
time of midsummer in the Northern Hemi-
sphere (June 21-22, the summer solstice),
the rising Sun emerges directly above the
heel stone of Stonehenge. Besides keeping
the calendar, Stonehenge may also have pro-
vided a method of determining eclipses. The
remnants of other early observatories exist
elsewhere in the Americas, Europe, Asia,
and Africa.
such as Orion the hunter Sometimes it takes a bit Some of the brightest stars in the heavens were given proper
of imagination to make out the intended subjects, as most con- names, such as Sirius, Arcturus, and Betelgeuse. In addition, the
stellations were probably not thought of as likenesses in the first brightest stars in a constellation are generally named in order of
place. Although we inherited many of the constellations from the their brightness by the letters of the Greek alphabet-—alpha (a),
Greeks and their names from Greek mythology, it is believed that beta (B), and so on—followed by the name of the parent constel-
Greeks acquired most of their constellations from the Babyloni- lation. For example, Sirius, the brightest star in the constellation
ans, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians. Canis Major (Larger Dog), is also called Alpha (oz) Canis Majoris.
Although the stars that make up constellations all appear to
be the same distance from Earth, this is not the case. Some are
many times farther away than others. Thus, the stars in a partic- The Equatorial System
ular constellation are not associated with each other in any impor- The equatorial system divides the celestial sphere into coordi-
tant physical way. In addition, various cultural groups, including nates that are similar to the latitude and longitude system we use
Native Americans and the Chinese, attached their own names, for establishing locations on Earth’s surface _ _1;).55
pictures, and stories to the constellations. For example, the con- Because the celestial sphere appears to rotate around an imagi-
stellation Orion the hunter was known as the White Tiger to nary line extending from Earth’s axis, the north and south celes-
ancient Chinese observers. tial poles are aligned with the terrestrial North Pole and South
Today, 88 constellations are recognized, and they are used to Pole. The north celestial pole happens to be very near the bright
divide the sky into units, just as state boundaries divide the United star whose various names reflect its location: “pole star,” Polaris,
States. Every star in the sky is within the boundaries of one ofthese and North Star. To an observer in the Northern Hemisphere, the
constellations. Astronomers use constellations when they want stars appear to circle Polaris, because it, like the North Pole, is in
to roughly identify the area of the heavens they are observing. For the center of motion ( :1 shows how to
the student, constellations provide a good way to become famil- locate the North Star using two stars in the easily located con-
iar with the night sky. stellation the Big Dipper.)
Now, imagine a plane through
Earth's equator, a plane that extends
outward from Earth and intersects
~; . '-. 2': Constellation Orion the hunter. A. Artist's depiction of Orion based on descriptions the celestial sphere. The intersection
from Greek mythology. B. Photo showing the brightest stars in Orion. The bright star in the upper left of this plane with the celestial sphere
iS named Betegeuse—a red supergiant. (Photo by John Chumack/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
is called the celestial equator (Fig-
ure 21.20). In the equatorial system,
the term declination is analogous to
latitude, and the term right ascension
is analogous to longitude (Fig-
ure 21.20). Declination (cleclinare =
to turn away), like latitude, is the
angular distance north or south of
the celestial equator. Right ascen-
sion (ascenclere = to climb up) is the
angular distance measured eastward
along the celestial equator from the
position of the vernal equinox. (The
vernal equinox is at the point in the
sky where the Sun crosses the celes-
tial equator, at the onset of spring.)
While declination is expressed in
degrees, right ascension is usually
expressed in hours, where each hour
A. is equivalent to I5 degrees. (Earth
rotates 15 degrees each hour.) To
visualize distances on the celestial
sphere, it helps to remember that the
Moon and Sun have an apparent
width of about 0.5 degree.
Celestial
sphere Star
.-_
iii1:5-éiiliiiii Locating the North Star (Polaris) from the pointer stars
Celestial in the Big Dipper, which is part of the constellation Ursa Major. The
equator Big Dipper is shown soon after sunset in December (lower figure),
April (upper figure), and August (left).
The difference between a solar day and a sidereal day. Locations X and Y are directly opposite each other. It
takes Earth 23 hours and 56 minutes to make one rotation with respect to the stars (sidereal day). However, notice that
after Earth has rotated once with respect to the stars, point Y is not yet returned to the “ noon position" with respect to the
Sun. Earth has to rotate another 4 minutes to complete the solar day.
Why do we use the mean solar day to measure time rather than Precession
the sidereal day? Consider the fact that in sidereal time, “noon”
occurs 4 minutes earlier each day. Therefore, after a span of 6 A third and very slow movement of Earth is called axial preces-
months, “noon” would occur at “midnight.” However, observato- sion. Although Earth’s axis maintains approximately the same
ries use clocks that keep sidereal time because the stars appear to angle of tilt, the direction in which the axis points continually
move through the sky in sidereal time. Simply, if a star is sighted changes (i+‘ign;i.-e :%'i.;2s'n.). As a result, the axis traces a circle on the
directly south of an observatory at 9:00 P.M. (sidereal
time) ’ it_ will appear in the same direction at that time rr rtottitttK Earth’s orbital motion causes the apparent position of the Sun to
every (sidereal) daY- shift about 1 degree each day on the celestial sphere.
;‘~1’."-'=. .i-.1'.":'=_~; Precession of Earth’s axis. A. The precession of CONCEPT cmzcx 2 1.4
Earth’s axis causes the North Pole to “trace” a circle through the sky Q Describe the three primary motions of Earth.
during a 26,000-year cycle. Currently, the North Pole points toward
Q Explain the difference between the mean solar day and the
Polaris (North Star). In about 12,000 years, Vega will be the North
Star. Around 3000 BC, the North Star was Thuban, a bright star in the sidereal day.
constellation Draco. B. Precession illustrated by a spinning toy top. Q Define the ecliptic.
C. The circle shows the path of the North Pole among some Q Why does the axial precession have little effect on the
prominent stars and constellations in the northern sky. seasons?
namely the phases ofthe Moon and the occasional eclipses ofthe the naked eye low in the western sky just after sunset. During the
Sun and Moon. following week, the illuminated portion ofthe Moon that is visible
from Earth increases (waxing) to a half- circle (first-quarter phase)
that can be seen from about noon to midnight. In another week,
Lunar Motions the complete disk (fall-Moon phase) can be seen rising in the east
The cycle of the Moon through its phases requires 29% days—a as the Sun sinks in the west. During the next 2 weeks, the per-
time span called the synodic month. This cycle was the basis for centage of the Moon that can be seen steadily declines (waning),
the first Roman calendar. However, this is the apparent period of until the Moon disappears altogether (new-Moon phase). The cycle
the Moon’s revolution around Earth and not the true period, soon begins anew with the reappearance of the crescent Moon.
which takes only 27% days and is known as the sidereal month. The lunar phases are a consequence of the motion of the
The reason for the difference of nearly 2 days each cycle is shown Moon and the sunlight that is reflected from its surface
in .1-‘l".§.f”'-‘Ti-'-3. Notice that as the Moon orbits Earth, the (Figure 21.27B). Half of the Moon is illuminated at all times (note
Earth-Moon system also moves in an orbit around the Sun. Con- the inner group of Moon sketches in Figure 21.27A). But to an
sequently, even after the Moon has made a complete revolution earthbound observer, the percentage ofthe bright side that is vis-
around Earth, it has not yet reached its starting position with ible depends on the location of the Moon with respect to the Sun
respect to the Sun, which is directly between the Sun and Earth and Earth. When the Moon lies between the Sun and Earth, none
(new-Moon phase). This motion takes an additional 2 days. of its bright side faces Earth, so we see the new-Moon (“no-
An interesting fact concerning the motions of the Moon is that Moon”) phase. Conversely, when the Moon lies on the side of
its period ofrotation around its axis and its revolution around Earth Earth opposite the Sun, all of its lighted side faces Earth, so we
are the same—27§- days. Because of this, the same lunar hemi- see the full Moon. At all positions between these extremes, an
sphere always faces Earth. All ofthe landings ofthe manned Apollo intermediate amount of the Moon’s illuminated side is visible
missions were confined to the Earth-facing side. Only orbiting from Earth.
satellites and astronauts have seen the “back” side of the Moon.
Because the Moon rotates on its axis only once every 27% days,
any location on its surface experiences periods of daylight and
darkness lasting about 2 weeks. This, along with the absence of an CONCEPT CHECK 2 1.5
atmosphere, accounts for the high surface temperature of 127° C Q Compare the synodic month with the sidereal month.
(261° F) on the day side of the Moon and the low surface temper- Q What is the approximate length of the cycle of the phases of
ature of -173° C (-280° F)on its night side. the Moon?
Q What phenomenon results from the fact that the Moon's
period of rotation and revolution are the same?
Phases of the Moon Q The Moon rotates very slowly (once in 27% days) on its axis.
The first astronomical phenomenon to be understood was the reg- How does this affect the lunar surface temperature?
Q What is different about the crescent phase that precedes the
ular cycle of the phases of the Moon. On a monthly basis, we
new-Moon phase and that which follows the new-Moon
observe the phases as a systematic change in the amount of the
phase?
Moon that appears illuminated We will choose the Q What phase of the Moon occurs approximately one week after
“new-Moon” position in the cycle as a starting point. About 2 days the new Moon? Two weeks?
after the new Moon, a thin sliver (crescentphase) can be seen with
it The difference
between the sidereal month
(2 7 -§— days) and the synodic month
(2 9 % days). Distances and angles
are not shown to scale.
Eclipses of the Sun and Moon 629
Fm‘
B. S
itPhases of the Moon. A. The outer figures show the phases as seen from Earth. B. Compare these photographs with
the diagram. (Photos © UC Regents/Lick Observatory)
Eclipses of the Sun and Moon Why does a solar eclipse not occur with every new-Moon
phase and a lunar eclipse with every full Moon‘? They would, if
Along with understanding the Moon’s phases, the early Greeks the orbit of the Moon lay exactly along the plane of Earth’s orbit.
also realized that eclipses are simply shadow effects. When the However, the Moon’s orbit is inclined about 5 degrees to the
Moon moves in a line directly between Earth and the Sun, which plane of the ecliptic. Thus, during most new-Moon phases, the
can occur only during the new-Moon phase, it casts a dark shadow of the Moon passes either above or below Earth; and
shadow on Earth, producing a solar eclipse (eclipsis = failure to during most full-Moon phases, the shadow of Earth misses the
appear) §?i'l'll.Ii-llili-). Conversely, the Moon is eclipsed (lunar Moon. An eclipse can only take place when a new- or full-Moon
eclipse) when it moves within Earth’s shadow, a situation that is phase occurs while the Moon’s orbit crosses the plane of the
possible only during the full-Moon phase I3.l"'l.Tl'_,T§-'i.fEIi). ecliptic.
630 CHAPTER 21 Origins of Modern Astronomy
Moon is seen covering the complete solar disk, and only the Sun’s
brilliant white outer atmosphere is visible (Figure 21.28). Total
solar eclipses are visible only to people in the dark part of the
Moon's shadow (umbra), while a partial eclipse is seen by those
in the light portion (penuntbra) (Figure 21.28).
Partial solar eclipses are most common in the Polar regions,
because it is these areas that the pentunbra blankets when the dark
umbra of the Moon’s shadowjust misses Earth. A total solar eclipse
is a rare event at any given location. The next one that will be visi-
ble fiom the contiguous United States will occur on August 21, 2017.
CONCEPT cnrzcx 21 .6
Q Sketch the locations of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a
solar eclipse and during a lunar eclipse.
Q How many eclipses normally occur each year?
I; 5' This sequence of photos starting from the upper left Q Solar eclipses are slightly more common than lunar eclipses.
to the lower right shows the stages of a total solar eclipse. (From Vllhy, then, is it more likely that your region of the country will
Foundations of Astronomy, Third Edition, p. 54, by Michael Seeds. © 1992. Reprinted experience a lunar eclipse?
with permission of Brooks/Cole Publishing, a division of Thomson Learning.) Q How long can a total eclipse of the Moon last? How about a
total eclipse of the Sun?
GIVE IT SOME
l Refer to Figure 21.4 and imagine that Eratosthenes had measured the difference in the angles of
the noonday Sun between Syene and Alexandria to be 10 degrees instead of 7 degrees. Consider
how this new measurement would have affected his calculation of Earth’s circumference to answer
the following questions.
a. Would this new measurement lead to a more accurate calculation?
b. Would this new measurement lead to an estimate for the circumference of Earth that is larger
or smaller than Eratosthenes’s original estimate?
2. Use Kepler’s third law to answer the following questions:
a. Determine the period of a planet with a solar distance of 10AU.
b. Determine the distance between the Sun and a planet with a period of 5 years.
c. Imagine two bodies, one twice as large as the other, orbiting the Sun at the same distance.
Which of the bodies, if either, would move faster than the other?
3. Galileo used his telescope to observe the planets and moons in our solar system. These observa-
tions allowed him to determine the positions and relative motions of the Sun, Earth, and other
objects in the solar system. Refer to Figure 21.16A, which shows an Earth-centered solar system,
and Figure 21.16B, which shows a Sun- centered solar system, to complete the following:
a. Describe the phases of Venus an observer on Earth would see for the Earth-centered model of
the solar system.
b. Describe the phases of Venus an observer on Earth would see for the Sun-centered model of
the solar system.
c. Explain how Galileo used observations of the phases of Venus to determine the correct posi-
tions of the Sun, Earth, and Venus.
4. Refer to the accompanying diagram, which shows three asteroids (A, B, and C). They _
are being pulled by the gravitational force exerted on them by their partner asteroid """ "
shown on the left. How will the strength of the gravitational force felt by each asteroid "' iii‘
(A, B, and C) compare? (Assume all of these asteroids are composed of the same
§ .a"-
material.) *?"5?'*I. .
‘ti ‘-3%; ---------------------------$3“;
Refer to the accompanying diagram, which
to
5U \1'_9. 1’
. Imagine that Earth rotates on its axis at half its current rate. How much time would be required to
capture the photo shown in Figure 21.21?
7 . If we were able to reverse the direction of Earth’s rotation, would the solar day be longer, shorter, or
stay the same?
8 . Refer to Figure 21.A to complete the following:
a. What constellation is located in the sky near the Sun on the day illustrated?
b. After Earth has been moving around the Sun for 5 months, which constellation will be near the
Sun at noon?
c. Which constellation will be high in the sky at midnight‘? Explain your reasoning.
9. Imagine that today is your birthday. Would you be able to see the stars of your astrological birth
sign? Explain your answer.
10. Refer to the accompanying photo to complete the following.
a. When you observe the phase of the moon shown, is the moon waxing or waning?
b. What time of day can this phase of the moon be observed?
1 1. Imagine you are looking up at a full moon. At the same time, an astronaut on the Moon is viewing
Earth. In what phase will Earth appear to be from the astronaut’s vantage point? Sketch a diagram to
illustrate your answer.
12. If the moon’s orbit were precisely aligned with the plane of Earth’s orbit, how many eclipses (solar and
lunar) would occur in a 6-month period of time? If the moon’s orbit were tilted 90 degrees with respect
to the plane of Earth's orbit, how many eclipses (solar and lunar) would occur in a 6-month period?
which averages about 24 hours. In contrast, the sidereal day is as the sidereal month. The difference of nearly 2 days is due to
‘ . the time it takes for Earth to make one complete rotation with the fact that as the Moon orbits Earth, the Earth—Mo on sys-
respect to a star other than the Sun, a period of 23 hours, tem also moves in an orbit around the Sun.
56 minutes, and 4 seconds. Earth revolves around the Sun in In addition to understanding the Moon’s phases, the early
an elliptical orbit at an average distance from the Sun of 150 Greeks also realized that eclipses are simply shadow effects.
million kilometers (93 million miles). At perihelion (closest to When the Moon moves in a line directly between Earth and
the Sun), which occurs in January, Earth is 147 million kilo- the Sun, which can occur only during the new-Moon phase, it
meters from the Sun. At aphelion (farthest from the Sun), casts a dark shadow on Earth, producing a solar eclipse. A
which occurs in July, Earth is 152 million kilometers distant. lunar eclipse takes place when the Moon moves within the
The imaginary plane that connects Earth's orbit with the shadow of Earth during the full-Moon phase. Because the
celestial sphere is called the plane of the ecliptic. Moon’s orbit is inclined about 5 degrees to the plane that
0 One of the first astronomical phenomena to be understood contains the Earth and Sun (the plane of the ecliptic), during
was the regular cycle of the phases of the Moon. The cycle of most new- and full-Moon phases no eclipse occurs. Only if a
the Moon through its phases requires 29% days, a time span new- or full-Moon phase occurs as the Moon crosses the
called the synodic month. However, the true period of the plane of the ecliptic can an eclipse take place. The usual
Moon’s revolution around Earth takes 27% days and is known number of eclipses is four per year.
Key Terms
aphelion (p. 626) heliocentric (p. 614) retrograde motion (p. 615)
astronomical unit (AU) (p. 618) lunar eclipse (p. 629) revolution (p. 625)
axial precession (p. 625) mean solar day (p. 625) right ascension (p. 624)
celestial sphere (p. 613) perihelion (p. 626) rotation (p. 625)
constellations (p. 622) perturbation (p. 622) sidereal day (p. 625)
declination (p. 624) phases of the Moon (p. 628) sidereal month (p. 628)
ecliptic (p. 626) plane of the ecliptic (p. 626) solar eclipse (p. 629)
equatorial system (p. 624) Ptolemaic system (p. 614) synodic month (p. 628)
geocentric (p. 613)
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