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Behaviour and Design of Concrete Industrial Ground Floor Slabs

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 EPSRC Grant Final Report

Grant Number GR/L66786

Behaviour and Design

of
Concrete Industrial Ground Floor Slabs

S A Austin, P J Robins and J W Bishop

Department of Civil & Building Engineering

December 2000
 Index

page

1 Background 1

2 Aims and Objectives 1

3 Methodology 1

4 Project Plan Review 3

5 Industrial Collaboration 3

6 Key Advancements and Achievements 5

6.1 Long Strip Floors 5
6.2 Mesh Reinforced Jointed Large Area Pours 9
6.3 Fibre Reinforced Jointed Large Area Pours 11
6.4 Fibre Reinforced Jointless Large Area Pours 11
6.5 Material Performance Modelling 13

7 The Objectives, Associated Deliverables and Dissemination 14

8 Implications for Engineering Practice 14

References 18

Publications written by the research team 18

Publications not written by the research team 19

Presentations 19
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 1

1 Background
Many businesses are reliant on the ground floor industry and are placing growing demands on ground floor performance in
terms of flatness, joint integrity, reduced cracking and resistance to wear. In many buildings the floor forms the working
platform, so any failure in the floor can have a significant impact on the operational performance. Much theoretical and
experimental work has been carried out on the performance of floors under loads - starting with Westergaard [1], however,
there has been little work on the early-life behaviour of slabs. Much of the detail design guidance currently in existence is
based on unsubstantiated empirical values, which also date back to forms of construction which are no longer widely in
use, i.e. long strip.
The purpose of this research was to address this lack of understanding of the early life behaviour of industrial ground floor
slabs, by instrumenting a series of commercial slabs during construction. The data from this large scale monitoring of slabs
will enable the development of more robust design methods based on a combination of full-scale empirical data and
theoretical analysis. This will reduce the number and extent of failures and allow more cost effective slabs to be built.

2 Aims and Objectives

The aim of the research was to advance the understanding of how industrial concrete floors behave, through in-situ
monitoring during and after construction. In particular how the early-age development of the concrete’s material properties
can be made to interact with the joint arrangement and the climate and curing to form a lightly stressed concrete that can
effectively carry the subsequent stresses due to the imposed load. The objectives are as listed in the accompanying IGR
form.

3 Methodology
An extensive literature review identified: little work on the early-age behaviour of industrial floors; a range of relevant
information on thermal and moisture induced concrete movements; and several material models already in existence which
were suitable for incorporation in either finite element or spreadsheet based models of concrete behaviour.
Initially the ambient temperature, relative humidity (rh) and wind speed were identified as the parameters most likely to
affect the behaviour of the slabs. Instrumentation was chosen to monitor these ambient characteristics as well as the internal
temperature of the slab, and in some cases the internal rh, and dew point of the slab. The movement of the concrete and of
the saw-cut joints were recorded by several types of vibrating wire (vw) strain gauges, which were chosen for their long-
term stability, precision and sensitivity. The instruments were connected to dataloggers which stored the results until they
were downloaded into a portable computer.
An iterative procedure was used to develop the techniques required to locate the strain gauges correctly in the slab and to
connect them reliably and efficiently to the datalogger. This was developed in the laboratory and then further refined on a
trial instrumentation before embarking on a full-scale site instrumentation. Initial problems were quickly overcome leading
to the development of a methodology which is flexible, reliable and sufficiently robust to stand the rigours of site. In order
to overcome problems monitoring movement across day-joints, where existing gauges were unsuitable, a new gauge type
was developed with a removable extension arm (Figure 1). The first part of the gauge could be cast into the first pour,
leaving the extension arm to be fitted just before the second pour was commenced (Figure 2). In order to measure the large
movements sometimes encountered at day-joints in jointless floors, gauge pairs were developed where the second gauge
began to take readings just before the first gauge failed.
Precision level surveys were carried out on some of the floors to allow comparison of floor shape immediately after
construction and at later dates in order to try and identify curling. Where permission was obtained from the client Demec
pips were placed across saw-cut joints. This allowed more points to be monitored, and over a greater range than was
possible with vibrating wire strain gauges.
Meteorological Office weather data has been made available to the research team by the British Atmospheric Data Centre
allowing analysis of long-term strains when data logging of temperatures was suspended or had ceased.
Data collection was carried out on most sites for at least one month after construction resulting in over 40,000 data points
per slab. Monitoring was continued on some sites either by replacing the data logger or one-off site visits, as shown in
Figure 3. Macros were written to process the data before analysis was carried out in Matlab, Origin and MS Excel. A
common set of graph templates was developed to enable the comparison of results from different sites.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 2

Figure 1 - Modified day-joint gauge without extension arm prior to installation

Figure 2 - Modified day joint with extension arm attached prior to commencement of the second pour

Finite element and spreadsheet based models were used to compare theoretical predictions of behaviour with that actually
measured by the instruments. These used established constitutive models of concrete taking into account prevalent ambient
conditions, the mix proportions of the concrete, the dimensions of the structure itself, and the material which the floor was
cast upon. Using concrete hydration data, the finite element models can determine the thermal changes in the slab, based on
the mix constituents, and use this information to predict the concrete material properties with time. Springs are used to
model vertical edge restraint and frictional boundary elements separate the slab and sub-base elements, allowing analysis of
most slab arrangements.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 3

4 Project Plan Review

Based on data from the Association of Concrete Industrial Flooring Contractors (ACIFC) on relative proportions of floors
under construction in the UK, and on recommendation from the steering group, four floor types were identified that
represent the majority of current and future construction:
• Long strip • Mesh reinforced jointed large area pour
• Fibre reinforced jointed large area pour • Fibre reinforced jointless large area pour
A programme was developed to instrument these floor types whilst also encompassing some variety in the environmental
variables previously identified. Anecdotal evidence suggested that most problems were encountered when floors were
constructed in spring and autumn, due to the large difference between day and night-time temperatures. The 36 month
research programme (see Figure 3) has seen the instrumentation of 7 floors, whereas the original proposal planned 4 or 5.
This has been made possible by the assistance received from Gazeley Properties Ltd. and Stuarts Industrial Flooring Ltd.
who have each provided funding for instrumentation in additional floors; this allowed some floor types to be repeated and
one other floor type (freezer floors) not originally under investigation to be monitored.
The types of floors which have been investigated can be seen in Table 1 together with the type of data collected.
Laboratory testing of cube samples to determine compressive strength has been carried out, together with drying shrinkage
tests, where a shrinkage reducing admixture was used in one of the pours. No other testing of site samples was carried out
because of the difficulties in carrying out temperature matched curing on site, and the availability of extensive published
data which was sufficient to determine the early-age material properties based on the concrete constituents.

Table 1- Instrumentation details of the investigated floors

Floor Type No of embedment No of joint No of concrete Duration of
strain gauges gauges temperature sensors initial readings
1 Mesh reinforced long strip 12 6 24 8 weeks
2 Fibre reinforced jointed large 35 25 10 3 weeks
area pour (LAP)
3 Fibre reinforced jointless LAP 5 8 5 4 weeks
4 Mesh reinforced jointed LAP 12 14 8 4 weeks
5 Fibre reinforced jointless LAP 41 16 19 3 weeks
6 Mesh reinforced jointed LAP 19 40 26 12 weeks
7 Mesh reinforced jointed wide 6 16 2 12 weeks
area pour (Freezer slab)

The project was co-ordinated by a Steering Group consisting of the investigators and representatives from Sprigg-Little,
Burks Green, Somero Enterprises Ltd., Stuarts Industrial Flooring Ltd., Stanford Industrial Concrete Flooring Ltd. and the
Concrete Society. The Group chaired by Andrew Keen (Somero Enterprises Ltd.) met at 3-4 monthly intervals to receive a
formal presentation and report by the Research Assistant, to review the programme (including milestones) and make
decisions on the direction of the research. The level of industrial commitment at these meetings was high and went well
beyond that envisaged in the application.

5 Industrial Collaboration and Project Expenditure

Substantial assistance has been received from the members of the steering group in: anecdotal evidence of floor behaviour;
negotiations with clients to set-up instrumentations; assistance from site personnel; access to old sites and designs to assess
performance, and, in the case of Stuarts Industrial Flooring Ltd. and Gazeley Properties, financial support to carry out
additional instrumentations. When this offer was made the research team and steering group agreed to modify the project
programme to take advantage of this opportunity to gather more data.
The instrumentation was purchased as per the proposal, however, modifications made to the techniques used to connect the
instruments to the datalogger (notably multi-core cable) allowed savings to be made. Only around £2000 was required for
cabling, which was a saving of about £5000, allowing additional expenditure on further instruments, including more
expensive joint gauges. Furthermore the provision of approximately £10,000 from Stuarts Industrial Flooring and Gazeley
Properties allowed instruments and other materials to be purchased to carry out two further investigations.
Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 4

Figure 3 - Final project programme

 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 5

6 Key Advances and Achievements

This section describes the main findings of the research, divided up according to the floor type. Where multiple
floors of a given type have been instrumented, the key points from each are summarised without necessarily
identifying the site. It shows how the project has met its objectives and the findings disseminated.
In all of the slab types thermal effects have played the largest role in the early life behaviour of the slab. The
overnight cooling of the slab has triggered joint openings in all cases, and diurnal variations in the strains match the
temperature fluctuations. Long-term changes in shape can be attributed to drying shrinkage which is dependant on
ambient relative humidity and temperature.
Air movement on site can be quite considerable during the construction period if the building is not fully enclosed.
Several floors have subsequently cracked in the areas around doorways and openings, which is believed to be due to
the rapid drying caused by air movement through the opening combined with thermal shock due to the increased
exposure.
6.1 Long strip floors
The long-strip construction was the first floor type to be investigated and as such contained a smaller number of
instruments than later floor types. The vibrating wire (vw) strain gauges monitored movement across a transverse
joint (TJ) and a contraction joint (CJ) as well as at several locations and depths between these joints as detailed in
Figure 4 and Table 1. All gauges contained thermistors to temperature correct the measured strains and monitor the
thermal changes during hydration (Figure 5).

5.3 m
2 5
mm
300

4 6 8 9
mm
300

7
1 3
mm
300

1m 3m 3m 1m

Figure 4 – Long strip gauge layout

An initial dormant period was measured after the concrete was placed, during which time more heat was lost to the
environment than was generated by the exothermic reaction of the cement hydrating. The readings from the
thermistors show that more heat was lost to the sub-base under the slab than to the air above. This resulted in a
thermal gradient in the slab which remained until after the slab reached its maximum temperature about 14 hours
after it was cast. At this time the thermal gradient in the middle 120mm of the slab was about 0.5°C, indicating that
the slab hardened in a non-uniform thermal state, resulting in minimum thermally induced stresses as the
temperature equilibriated of 0.1N/mm2.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 6

25
26
24
24
23
22
22
20
21
Temperature ( C)

18
0

20
06:00 12:00 18:00 24:00
16

14 B

12 Sensor location
Bottom
10 Middle
Top
8 Ambient
Thermocouple
6

00:00 48:00 96:00 144:00 192:00

Elapsed time since construction [hrs:mins]

Figure 5 - Temperature evolution in the long strip slab

The joints were saw-cut 24 hours after the slab was constructed, although no movement occurred for a further 12
hours. A temperature drop at 37 hours (Figure 5 point B) triggered the contraction joint opening (Figure 6 point B)
which was accompanied by contractions measured by all of the other embedment gauges. These accompanying
movements decreased with distance from the joint, until almost 7m from the contraction joint the movement was
negligible (Figure 7). This demonstrates that not all parts of the slab are going to have the built-up stresses released
by joint movements.

1.00
Gauge Id.
2B
2T
0.75 1B
Measured joint movement [mm]

1T

0.50
0.250

A
0.25 0.125

0.000 B
0.00

18:00 36:00 54:00

-0.25
00:00 120:00 240:00 360:00 480:00 600:00
Elapsed time [hrs:mins]

Figure 6 - Measured movement from the long strip contraction joint

 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 7

The readings from the embedment strain gauges indicate that: the shrinkage increases with distance from the edge of
the slab; the shrinkage decreases with the depth in the slab; and the differential shrinkage between the top and the
bottom of the slab decreases with distance from the joints.
The first trend is indicative of edge restraint provided by the surrounding strips which had been cast prior to the
instrumented strip. The concrete in these strips had already hardened and prevented the fresh concrete from moving
as it attempted to shrink due to cooling and drying. As the distance from the slab edges increased the measured
shrinkage increased for all of the embedment strain gauges, and the movement recorded by the gauges across the
contraction joint increased (Figure 6).

12

10
Measured movement [microstrain]

Data points
8
Linear fit of data
6 95% Confidence limits

-2

-4

-6
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance from contraction joint [m]

Figure 7 - Measured strain changes as the contraction joint opened 37 hours after construction

The second trend reflects the drying shrinkage in the slab which, because of the polythene slip membrane under the
slab, only occurs from the upper surface of the slab. Figure 8 shows the rate of diffusion of moisture through a
concrete slab demonstrating how the upper levels will shrink more and also the timescales involved in moisture loss
from a concrete member. The measured movement from the strain gauges (which includes thermal effects), along
with the concrete drying shrinkage from two gauges for the long-strip slab can be seen compared to the B3 [2]
theoretical predictions of long-term drying shrinkage in Figure 9. This model uses the mix constituents and the
ambient conditions to predict the drying shrinkage.
The third trend showing a change in differential movement with location in the slab was confirmed by the
measurements from the precision level surveys, the first of which was carried out 24 hours after construction. The
warped surface observed before significant thermal changes is symptomatic of ‘false curl’ which can occur as a
result of the construction method (a vibrating beam). Some changes in the surface profile were measured over the
first couple of weeks, however, the main changes in the slab shape occurred over a period of months. The strain
gauge readings and the level surveys were in agreement that the greatest curling occurred near the transverse joints
(Figure 10). These joints were designed to release moment stresses built up when curling was restrained.
Reinforcement in the bottom of the slab is continuous across the joint, and readings have shown that whilst this was
successful in preventing joint opening, it has little moment capacity and will not prevent joint rotation.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 8

100

Elapsed time
(days)
8
90 16
32
Internal relative humidity

48
64
96
128
80 160
240
320
480
640
960
70
1280
1600
2400

60

0 40 80 120 160 200 240

X location in slab [mm]

Figure 8 - Moisture distribution in a slab with time

20

-20
Movement [microstrain]

-40

-60

-80

-100 Bottom Movement

Top Movement
-120 Bottom Shrinkage
Top Shrinkage
-140 Model B3

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Elapsed time since construction [days]

Figure 9 - Measured and theoretical slab shrinkage and movement

 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 9

Figure 10 - Precision level survey results along a long strip slab. (4m and 20m are TJs, 12m is a CJ)

6.2 Mesh reinforced jointed large area pour

Two mesh reinforced jointed large area pours have been instrumented, with one constructed in the spring and one
towards the end of summer, allowing the different seasonal temperature variations to be compared. Three pours
were instrumented in the second floor, which formed part of a chilled distribution centre, allowing the influence of
operating temperature and of a shrinkage-reducing admixture to be investigated. Temperatures in the sub-base and
subgrade were also monitored in this floor (Figure 11).
The instrumentation in the chilled distribution centre showed that as for other sites the concrete initially underwent a
dormant period, but this was much longer for the pour containing the shrinkage-reducing admixture. This finding is
in contrast to existing data [3] which indicates that concrete supply temperature, but not ambient temperature,
affects the rate of hydration. The pour containing the SRA achieved its maximum temperature almost 25% later than
did the other pours, despite being supplied at a higher temperature, and experiencing similar environmental
temperatures.
Samples taken from two of the pours in this floor showed that the concrete containing the SRA had a free shrinkage
less than 40% of the standard concrete. Specimens sealed to replicate the conditions in the slab showed less
difference, however, the samples with the SRA again showed less drying shrinkage. There was only about 200
µstrain difference between the sealed and unsealed specimens containing the SRA, whereas the difference for the
other samples was over 1000 µstrain, indicating that laboratory tests which show large benefits in free shrinkage
samples may exaggerate the benefits to be gained under site conditions.
Readings from the embedment strain gauges showed the same trend as the sealed samples, with drying shrinkage
reduced by approximately 50% in the second pour compared to both the first and fourth pours. Joint movements
were also monitored for these pours, which also show much less movement from the second pour. It is notable that
the second pour only showed appreciable joint movement from the central four joints, whilst the first and fourth
pours showed similar movements at all joints. The shrinkage recorded by the embedment strain gauges reflected this
difference with that at the ends of the second pour being the lowest. This could lead to the concrete at these
locations being more highly stressed than that in the centre of the pour, which is contrary to the assumptions of the
current design advice.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 10

Depth below surface of slab (mm)

18 50
180
16 275
375
705
14
Temperature [degrees celcius]
1035
Ambient
12

10

10/04/00 14/04/00 18/04/00 22/04/00

Date

Figure 11 - Temperatures in the slab, sub-base and subgrade after construction

The results from the other site also showed that only some of the joints opened. This tends to indicate that stresses
are not building up to the levels which are expected – either as a result of sub-base friction being lower than
predicted, because cracks are forming at other locations, or because the initial joints to open are becoming dominant
and opening widely to allow stresses to be released. In the case of this floor the second reason appears likely.
Cracking became apparent in some areas of the slab three months after construction. Inspection of the cracks
revealed that they were discontinuous across the saw-cut joints, with sideways jumps of up to 200mm (Figure 12).
This means that the cracks were not formed until after the concrete had been saw-cut, as they would have been
continuous across the joints otherwise, thus ruling out plastic shrinkage as a method of crack formation. The
cracking was found to be concentrated in areas of the slab which had been constructed as in-fill bays. This means
they will have had greater restraint during their early life from the bays which had already hardened around them.
Although this may not immediately lead to cracking this could leave the slab in a higher state of stress. The cracking
followed a rapid drop in temperature, leading to the conclusion that it was triggered by the resulting thermal
contraction.

Figure 12 - Cracking across a joint in the first mesh reinforced jointed floor
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 11

One of the major cracks, originating near a loading bay (A in Figure 13), was subject to a precision level survey.
This showed that the crack had not curled, indicating that moment failure was unlikely, whilst the proximity of the
crack to the loading bay means it would have been exposed to rapid temperature changes and a drying environment
from the time of construction.

Figure 13 – Crack locations in the first mesh reinforced jointed floor on the 19th November 1999

6.3 Fibre reinforced jointed large area pour

These gauges showed a 3 hour dormant period before temperatures began to rise. Maximum temperatures were
reached about 15 hours after casting similarly to the long strip pour, with a similar spread in temperatures (~2.5°C)
although all of the temperatures were lower; 19-21.5°C as opposed to 22-24.5°C.
The measured pattern of joint opening is similar to that of the mesh reinforced jointed large area pours, with those
joints in the centre of the pours opening, whilst joints at the edges remained closed. Even within the pour the joint
opening is not uniform with alternate joints opening more than their neighbours, although the difference is only of
the order of 15%. Shrinkage measurements seem to match the joint opening, i.e. greater shrinkage is seen where
joints have opened, although insufficient data is available from this site to confirm this finding.
Contraction joints reinforced with dowel bars had been placed in both directions in the middle of one of the
instrumented pours. These joints opened by more than twice the amount of the other joints (up to 3.0mm), but no
decrease in joint efficiency should have resulted because of the load carrying capacity of the dowel bars.
6.4 Fibre reinforced jointless large area pour
Two of these floors were monitored although one floor contained more instrumentation aimed at determining
whether curling occurred and also what length of slab was affected by joint movements.
The first floor consisted of only three pours (Figure 14), with the joints between them and the shrinkage movement
of the second pour being monitored. This floor highlighted one of the problems which can be experienced by
designers when detailing floors for distribution warehouses; the dock-levellers used to link the delivery trailers to
the floor required tying to a structural element for stability. This is often achieved by tying them to the floor slab,
but this restrains its movement. As this slab had dock levellers at both sides it was effectively restrained in one
direction, which was reflected in the strain and joint movement measurements. Joint opening was found to increase
as the distance from the edge of the building increased, whilst the embedment strain gauges within the second pour
showed that the shrinkage across the width of the building was lower than along it’s length (the unrestrained
direction). Additionally the movement reduces with distance from the movement joints, which is indicative of the
frictional restraint forces acting. Movements from the contraction joints at either side of the central pour were found
to be almost identical, indicating that the building was behaving as if it was symmetrical.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 12

Pour 3 Pour 2 Pour 1

Column with data logger
and ambient probes attached

250mm steel strain gauge Diamond dowelled day-joint

Modified 250mm day-joint gauge
Perimeter of slab
140mm acrylic strain gauge

Figure 14 - Gauge layout for the first fibre reinforced jointless floor

Once the initial hydration of the concrete had finished very good agreement was obtained between the measured
shrinkage from the embedment strain gauges and the joint movement gauges. This indicates that there is insufficient
frictional resistance in the longitudinal direction to prevent the slab from moving and thus releasing drying
shrinkage stresses. This finding is in agreement with the finite element results, where all parts of the slab were found
to move when a 40m long slab was subjected to shrinkage of over 300 µstrain. The tensile stresses were
approximately 0.7N/mm2, which is not in itself sufficient to cause tensile cracking. Pettersson [4] looked at slabs up
to 60m in length and also found that, even when the coefficient of friction was increased to twice the value
determined in experiments, the stresses would not exceed the tensile capacity of the concrete.
Cracks were found running parallel to the sides of the building at several places, generally more than 9m from the
walls. It is unlikely that these are a result of restrained thermal warping or differential drying shrinkage induced
curling alone, as these effects would require a thermal differential of over 60°C or more than 400µstrain differential
shrinkage in order to make this the critical section [5]. Given that an average thermal differential is closer to 1°C
and the drying shrinkage differential after 1 year is of the order of 100 µstrain this is unrealistic. The stresses due to
these restrained movements increase with distance from the point of restraint until the critical section, from where
they remain constant. They could, therefore, cause cracking of the slab in combination with frictional restraint, or
load induced stresses at some point after the critical section.
Three pours were also instrumented in the second jointless floor, however, on this occasion 57 strain gauges were
used to identify if there was any detectable difference in movement or curling as the distance from the edge of the
slab increased. The movement between the edge of two pours and the adjacent wall of the building was monitored
in addition to the movement from the contraction joints between the pours. The movement from all of these gauges
was uniform and corresponded quite well to a drop in temperature in the short term (first couple of weeks). The
movement was seen to reduce with distance from the edge of the slab at all instrumented points, although the
differential movement was not always greatest closest to the edge of the pour. This is possibly due to the curling
restraint provided by the adjacent pours, which would tend to lead to a deflected shape as shown in Figure 15.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 13

Figure 15 - Possible deflected shape of fibre reinforced jointless floor slab

The long-term movements continued the trends seen in the early movements. Although the joint gauges had quickly
reached their full range and failed, visual joint opening readings were taken. This showed that the joints in the
middle of the building were uniform in width and generally more than twice as wide as those at the edges.
6.5 Material performance modelling
Finite element models have been developed to model the thermal behaviour of the slab. The site instrumentation
was modified to include extra sensors in the sub-base and subgrade to allow verification of model predictions. Good
agreement has been obtained between the model and the site measured temperatures (Figure 16).

Figure 16 - Comparison of finite element predicted and measured temperatures in a slab

Several different structural models have been used with increasing complexity allowing more realistic modelling of
the slab behaviour. Initial models treated the concrete as linear elastic, this was then modified to allow non-linear
tensile cracking although the concrete was still treated as homogeneous. Frictional properties were introduced
between the slab and the sub-base using contact elements. This allowed relative movement to occur, although the
results showed that even when the friction coefficient was increased to twice the maximum value determined by
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 14

Timms [6] and Pettersson [4] experimentally, it was not sufficient to prevent movement in all parts of a 40m long
slab. The contact elements also had non-linear properties in the vertical direction, releasing the slab when contact
forces became negative, which was essential in order to model curling behaviour. A variety of thermal gradients
were applied to the slab to mimic the long term drying based on 1-Dimensional modelling of diffusion carried out in
a spreadsheet. This was done because although several models of drying shrinkage are built in to the finite element
code, these predict an average drying shrinkage across an equivalent section and do not allow the drying shrinkage
at a given point due to its hygral state to be determined. In order to model curling this differential shrinkage due to
the hygral gradient already shown in Figure 8 is essential. The predictions of curling over a couple of meters near
the slab edges agrees with simplified spreadsheet models based on Rollings [7] and Eisenmann & Leykauf [5] and
the data from the precision level surveys and embedment strain gauges.
The inclusion of joints (both brittle and with residual tensile capacity) was made to identify the effects of saw-
cutting. This showed how stress release occurs as the joints open; however, due to the lack of variability in the
material properties, this model behaves perfectly symmetrically (Figure 17). Further development is required to
either bring in phased construction, allowing some parts of the model to be older than other parts (as in real
construction), or to allow variation in the material properties.

7 The Objectives, Associated Deliverables and Dissemination

The research has produced new insights in our understanding of the behaviour of concrete industrial ground floor
slabs. Combinations of existing constitutive material models were used in developing finite element models of
ground supported slab behaviour. Stress development due to thermal restraint has also been modelled using a
spreadsheet based solution (Objective (i)). A number of site instrumentations have been carried out providing a
large amount of performance data, which was previously unavailable, meeting Objective (ii). These instrumented
slabs have been monitored into service, and when continuous data logging had been discontinued, access has been
gained to take further readings at regular intervals (Figure 3). The instrumentation has been designed so that it will
be possible to continue taking manual readings, given permission by the building operator, thus meeting Objective
(iii). The finite element models have been modified and parameter studies have been undertaken to assess the
sensitivity to various parameters, such as the sub-base friction coefficient for example, in light of the findings of the
site instrumentations (Objective (iv)). It has been shown that there is less sensitivity to the value of the friction
coefficient than is currently assumed in design guidance [8].
The research team recognises the importance of disseminating the information into and beyond the academic
community. This has been, and continues to be, undertaken by publication in conferences and seminars [11,14 &
15], academic and professional journals [12,13 & 17] plus nine internal reports [16]. A major deliverable of the
research is a Guidance Document to be published by the Concrete Society and the ACIFC [18], which will allow
engineers to explore the early-age behaviour of the different types of industrial floor construction using a case-study
style approach. In addition substantial input is being made by the investigators into the ongoing re-write of TR34:
Concrete Industrial Ground Floors – A guide to their design and construction [8], which is the main guidance
document available to engineers for the design of industrial ground floor slabs in the UK. This work is funded by a
PII project managed by the Concrete Society, involving Loughborough University in conducting research, chairing
the Design Working Group and membership of the Steering Group. A web site [19] has been maintained throughout
the project and four further journal papers [20-23] are in preparation. There have also been eight articles in the trade
press on the project [24-31]. In this way and with the presentations made at seminars and conferences dissemination
of the information in appropriate form to practising engineers has been achieved in accordance with the final
Objective (v).

8 Implications for Engineering Practice (research impact and benefits to society)

The results obtained indicate that the current dependence on the friction coefficient for determining the degree of
reinforcement required in a slab may not be valid. This approach fails to account for the variation in stress along the
length of the slab, thus heavily over reinforcing for much of the slab length, and also neglects to accommodate the
tensile capacity of the concrete. If this approach is to be used when carrying out structural design, some initial
compensation must be made for the reduction in tensile capacity remaining after the slab has undergone both
thermal and drying shrinkage movements.
One way of controlling the formation of cracks in all of the joints may be to vary the depth of the saw-cut. At
present all of the joints are saw-cut to the same depth, however, if stresses are lower at the ends of a slab then saw-
cutting to a greater depth (than in the middle), would allow the crack to form at a lower stress. The adoption of this
proposal would require tighter quality controls on the concrete delivered to site, however, as variations in tensile
strength also affect the probability of cracking occurring at a given location [9].
The finite element results also show that variations in the coefficient of friction are unlikely to be sufficient to cause
cracking in the slab as it shrinks. Variation of the slab thickness and restraint to movement caused by unevenness
and rutting in the sub-base are possible causes which are currently under investigation.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 15

Figure 17 - Plot of Sxx stresses in a 40m long slab with four joints as temperature uniformly decreased
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 16

The research emphasises the benefits of a building being totally weather proof before construction of the slab. This
has implications for project programmes and in many cases may be inconvenient. However, when a cost benefit
approach is taken, a floor which does not require remedial work is far more important to the end user.
Thermal changes, which currently do not form any part of design, should be an integral part of the process. These
changes occur both on an annual and a daily basis causing uniform length changes and warping respectively. These
length changes will either counter some of the early drying shrinkage or add to this effect, causing much higher risks
of cracking, depending on the season of construction (Figure 18 to Figure 21).

500
25
Drying shrinkage [microstrain]

400
20

Temperature [ C]
300

0
15
200

10
100

0 5

10 100 1000 10000 100000

May Aug Nov Feb May Aug Nov Feb May
Elapsed time [days] Date

Figure 18 - Theoretical drying shrinkage curve Figure 19 - Idealised annual temperature profile
(model B3) [after reference 10]

600
500
Theoretical movement [microstrain]

500
Theoretical movement [microstrain]

400

400
300

300
200

200
100

100
0

0 10 100 1000
-100
1 10 100 1000 Elapsed Time [days]
-100 Elapsed Time [days] -200

Figure 20 - Superimposed drying and thermal effects Figure 21 – Superimposed drying and thermal
for a slab cast in August effects for a slab cast in February

In order to maintain serviceability requirements for long strip slabs, which tend to have a high flatness tolerance, it
may be advantageous for designers to cease detailing transverse joints. The surveys have shown that this is where
the majority of the upward curling occurs, whilst the strain gauges have confirmed that there is no joint opening to
reduce longitudinal stresses at this location. The contraction joints are much better at controlling the vertical
movements due to curling and for this reason it may be more beneficial to place reinforcement in the upper portion
of the slab to try and control moment cracking, but to otherwise leave the slab to crack in this manner. Some small,
distributed cracks would provide less of a serviceability problem for a building operator in the long-term than a
joint with a large degree of curl which could begin to pump.
There is a continuing need to educate building operators, owners and engineers as to what is an acceptable floor.
Clients are often promised perfect floors with no cracks, but concrete is liable to crack in both the plastic and
hardened states due to stresses which it intrinsically sustains by the nature of its constituent materials and
environment. All concerned need to accept that such cracks are almost inevitable and specify appropriate
performance levels.
Finally designers must be encouraged to take a more holistic approach to the design of a floor. All too often the
implications of different aspects of the design are not considered, e.g. the impact on the floor of two adjoining areas
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 17

of a building being at different operating temperatures. Additionally the effects of adjacent bays and bay pouring
sequences should be considered. The research has shown that edge restraint causes differential movement in slabs,
and also indicates that infill bays are at higher risk of cracking. Many of the cracks encountered could have been
avoided with more consideration at the design stage.
The most apparent immediate benefits of this research will be:
• Raised awareness amongst engineers of the need for a holistic approach to design. A whole life cost benefit
approach must be taken as initial savings for the client, made by constructing a very thin slab, may be lost in
later life due to loss of service if remedial work is required. Special attention must also be paid to areas where
restraint could arise or conditions may dictate different behaviour, i.e. dock-levellers tied into slabs, or chill
stores adjacent to ambient storage areas.
• A readily available source of performance information (with commentary) covering all types of ground
supported floors commonly under construction in the UK published by the Concrete Society and the ACIFC.
This can be used by engineers when assessing the points mentioned above.
• A direct input to the re-write of TR34 which will assist engineers in other parts of the world as well as the UK
when designing all forms of ground supported industrial floors.
These will in the longer term improve operation and reduce disruption and maintenance costs for clients and
building owners.
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 18

References

1. Westergaard, H.M. (1926): Stresses in concrete pavements computed by theoretical analysis, Public Roads.
Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 25-35.
2. Bazant, Z.P. et al. (1995): Creep and shrinkage prediction model for analysis and design of concrete structures -
model B3, Materials and Structures. Vol. 28, No. 180, pp. 357-365.
3. Lachemi, M. and Aïtcin, P.-C. (1997): Influence of ambient and fresh concrete temperatures on the maximum
temperature and thermal gradient in a high performance concrete structure, ACI Materials Journal. Vol. 94,
No. 2 (March/April), pp. 102-110.
4. Pettersson, D. (1998): Stresses in Concrete Structures from Ground Restraint. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of
Structural Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden. 113 pps.
5. Eisenmann, J. and Leykauf, G. (1990): Simplified calculation method of slab curling caused by surface
shrinkage. In: 2nd International Workshop on the Theoretical Design of Concrete Pavements. 1st ed. Vol. 5.
(Ed: PIARC Committee on Concrete Roads - Cembureau) Centre ROW, Ede, pp. 185-197.
6. Timms, A.G. (1963): Evaluating subgrade friction-reducing mediums for rigid pavements, Highway Research
Record. No. 60, pp. 28-38.
7. Rollings, R.S. (1993): Curling failure of steel-fiber-reinforced concrete slabs, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities. Vol. 7, No. 1(February), pp. 3-19.
8. Barnbrook, G. et. al. (1994): Technical Report 34: Concrete Industrial Ground Floors - A guide to their
Design and Construction. Second ed. The Concrete Society, Slough. 145 pages.
9. Saraf, C.L. and McCullough, B.F. (1986): Controlling longitudinal cracking in concrete pavements,
Transportation Research Record. Vol. 1043, pp. 8-13.
10. Thomlinson, J. (1940): Temperature variations and consequent stresses produced by daily and seasonal
temperature cycles in concrete slabs, Conc. & Const. Eng. Vol. 35, No. 7 (July), pp. 352-360.

Publications written by the Research Team

11. Bishop, J.W. (1998): Behaviour and Design of Concrete Industrial Ground Floors, Concrete Day ’98, Concrete
Society and the ACIFC, June 1998, Brunel University.
12. Behaviour and design of concrete industrial ground floors, Concrete Engineering International, Vol.2, No.8,
p.59.
13. Austin, S.A., Robins, P.J. & Bishop, J.W. (1998): Behaviour and design of concrete industrial ground floors,
Concrete, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp 8-10. (Invited)
14. Austin, S.A., Robins, P.J. and Bishop, J.W. (1999): Techniques for the early-life in-situ monitoring of concrete
industrial ground floor slabs. In: Specialist techniques and materials for concrete construction - Proceedings of
the International Conference held at the University of Dundee on 8th to 10th October. 1st ed. (Eds: Dhir, R.K.
and Henderson, N.A.) Thomas Telford, London, pp. 317-329.
15. Austin, S.A., & Bishop, J.W. (2000): Monitoring of concrete industrial ground floor slabs, Seminar on
Developments in Industrial Concrete Ground Floors, 31st October 2000, Aston University, England.
16. Bishop, J.W., Quarterly Internal Reports Nos.1-9, Department of Civil and Building Engineering,
Loughborough University, U.K, November 1997-July 2000.
17. Austin, S.A., Robins P.J. & Bishop, J.W. (2000): In-Situ Instrumentation of Industrial Concrete Ground Floor
Slabs, Submitted to The Structural Engineer.
18. Austin, S.A., Robins, P.J & Bishop, J.W. (2001): Technical Report: Early-life behaviour of concrete industrial
ground floor slabs, Concrete Society in association with the ACIFC.
19. Project web page, maintained by J.W.Bishop. Http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~cvjwb/index.html
20. Robins, P.J., Bishop, J.W. & Austin, S.A. (2001): Analysis of joint movements from industrial ground floors,
Proceedings of ICE: Structures and Buildings. (In preparation)
21. Bishop, J.W., Austin, S.A. & Robins, P.J. (2001): Temperature effects in industrial ground floors, Cement and
Concrete Research. (In preparation)
22. Austin, S.A., Robins, P.J. & Bishop, J.W. (2001): Early-age finite element modelling of industrial ground
floors, The Structural Engineer. (In preparation)
23. Robins, P.J., Bishop, J.W. & Austin, S.A. (2001): A statistical study of the impact of altering the saw-cut
depths in industrial ground floors, Materials and Structures. (In preparation)
 Behaviour and Design of Industrial Concrete Ground Floors 19

Publications not written by the Research Team

24. Better concrete floors (Trade News), Concrete, Vol. 33, No. 2, February 1999, p.42.
25. Concrete floors take the strain, Measurement News – (Campbell Scientific Magazine) No. 18, January 1999,
pp. 4-5.
26. Louch, K (2000): Floors claims (response to article in Nov/Dec Concrete), Concrete, Vol. 34, No. 2, February,
p.6.
27. News from the ACIFC, Editorial, Concrete, Vol. 34, No. 2, February 2000, p.26.
28. ACIFC looks forward, Editorial, Concrete, Vol. 34, No. 3, March 2000, p57.
29. Hulett, T (2000): Concrete project gets off the ground, Concrete, Vol. 34, No. 8, September 2000, pp. 20-21.
30. Constructive floors forum, Editorial, Concrete, Vol. 34, No. 8, September 2000, p.37.
31. The research project has been cited as an example application for the datalogging equipment used on the
Campbell Scientific web site. The web address is : http://www.campbellsci.com/centers/structure-zcement.html

Presentations

1. ACIFC Conference “Optimising Lifetime Performance of Industrial Concrete Floors”, September 1997
Loughborough University.
2. The Concrete Society / ACIFC “Concrete Day 98”, Brunel University June 1998
3. Gazeley Properties, Milton Keynes August 1999
4. “Creating with Concrete” Conference, Dundee. September 1999
5. ACIFC & The Concrete Society “Technical Report 34 Forum”, Loughborough University. May 2000
6. Seminar on “Developments in Industrial Concrete Ground Floors”, Aston University. October 2000

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