A SURVEY OF MICRO-ACTUATOR TECHNOLOGIES

FOR FUTURE SPACECRAFT MISSIONS

Roger G. Gilbertson and John D. Busch

First presented at the conference

“Practical Robotic Interstellar Flight: Are We Ready?”

August 29 - September 1, 1994,
New York University and The United Nations, New York City

First published in

The Journal of The British Interplanetary Society,

Vol. 49, pp. 129-138, 1996

This survey looks at ten different methods of transforming energy into motion, and their applicability for
miniature spacecraft. They include:

• Electromagnetic • Electrostatic
• Thermomechanical • Phase Change
• Piezoelectric • Shape Memory
• Magnetostrictive • Electrorheological
• Electrohydrodynamic • Diamagnetism

Additional actuator technologies not covered in this paper include magnetohydrodynamic, shape changing
polymers, and biological methods (living tissues, muscle cells, etc.)

Roger G. Gilbertson
Mondo-tronics, Inc.
124 Paul Drive
San Rafael, CA 94903
USA

Phone: 415-491-4600
Email: rgg@mondotr o n i c s .com

This PDF file is dated March 2003, and roughly follows the format of the JBIS published version.

Downloadable from:
http://www.RobotStore.com/support.asp
A SURVEY OF MICRO-ACTUATOR TECHNOLOGIES
FOR FUTURE SPACECRAFT MISSIONS
Roger G. Gilbertson and John D. Busch

The development of spacecraft technology has historically resulted in an abundance of commercial spin-offs. Ironically,
future spacecraft may rely on many technologies now under development for commercial markets. The medical, automo-
tive, robotics, and instrumentation markets have stimulated great advances in the field of micro-electro-mechanical sys-
tems (MEMS). Commercial MEMS products today include chemical sensors, acceleration and pressure transducers, and
micro valves. In fact, many of these devices are so small that they are best observed with the aid of a microscope.

The requirements for new types of spacecraft destined to travel throughout our solar system and beyond require
examination of the full range of these new actuation and control methods, to focus on those having appropriate perfor-
mance, efficiency and size. Designers of future spacecraft must consider these new MEMS technologies which will play
key roles in future electronic and mechanical spacecraft components.

This paper reviews ten basic actuator technologies and covers recent micro-actuator developments, their method of
operation, design limitations, comparative performance, and their potential spacecraft applications.

1. INTRODUCTION

For purposes of this survey, we define an actuator as a device Additionally, thermally driven actuators (including thermome-
that transforms electrical or thermal energy into controllable chanical, phase change and shape memory methods) require
motion. cooling to reverse their action. This can occur through passive
Spacecraft utilize various sources of electrical and thermal thermal radiation, or via active cooling systems, both electrical
energy, i..e.: and mechanical.
For the purposes of spacecraft, actuators produce useful
Electrical Energy Sources: motion for performing actions such as:
a. Capture of solar or stellar photons as in solar cells.
b. On-board electrochemical reactions as in batteries and fuel (1) Engaging, disengaging or separating spacecraft compo-
cells. nents.
c. On-board thermoelectric nuclear reactions, including
Peltier junction generators operated by the decay of (2) Opening and closing of covers and shields.
radioactive isotopes.
d. Collected interstellar energy and materials. (3) Deploying, positioning, and retracting sensors, actuators,
antennas and instruments.
Thermal Energy Sources:
a. Captured solar or stellar thermal radiation. (4) Enabling, disabling and controlling electrical, pneumatic,
b. Electrical resistance heating. hydraulic and attitude control systems.
c. Radioactive decay heating.
d. Particle beam heating.
e. Exothermic chemical reaction. 2. TEN METHODS OF TRANSFORMING
f. Mechanical friction. ENERGY INTO MOTION

2.1 Electromagnetic

Work Electromagnetism arises from electric current moving through a

Actuator Output conducting material. Attractive or repulsive forces are generated
Energy Mechanism adjacent to the conductor and proportional to the current flow.
Input Structures can be built which gather and focus electromagnetic
Motion!
Electric Machine Geometry forces, and harness them to create motion.
+ & Typical examples of electromagnetic devices include electric
Thermal
Material Properties Heat motors, solenoids, relays, speaker coils, and cathode ray tubes.
Electromagnetic fields arise and disappear rapidly, thus per-
Loss mitting devices with very fast operation speeds. Since electro-
magnetic fields can exist over a wide range of temperatures,
performance is primarily limited by the properties of the mate-
Figure 1 - Schematic of actuator function rials used in constructing the actuator.

1
 • Arises from motion of an electric current • Force arises from build-up of free electrons
Magnetic
Field Attractive
Flow Positive Negative
Current Charge Force Charge
Electric Conductor

Figure 2 - Electromagnetism Figure 4 - Electrostatic force

2.1.1. Examples oppositely charged objects, or a repulsive force on similarly

charged objects.
The Bulova “Accutron” watch (c 1970) gives an example of a Structures can be built which harness the electrostatic force to
mass produced miniature electromechanical resonator. It uses create motion. Van de Graaf generators produce large electro-
an electromagnet to vibrate a tiny tuning fork at 100 Hz. static charges that literally make hair stand on end. Rubbing an
Attached to one side of the fork, a tiny pawl advanced a gear inflated balloon or walking across a carpet on a dry date can
wheel at about 380,000 steps per hour, driving the watch mech- develop a small but noticeable charge.
anism. [1] As with the electromagnetic fields, electrostatic fields also
One example of a micro fabricated electromagnetic actuator is arise and disappear rapidly. Such devices will likewise demon-
a micro valve developed in Japan which uses a small electro- strate very fast operation speeds, and be little affected by ambi-
magnetic coil wrapped around a silicon micro machined valve ent temperatures.
structure. [2]
2.2.1. Examples
p
Oscillating Electromagnet Recent investigations have produced many examples of minia-
ture devices using the electrostatic force for actuation. One cat-
Motion of egory includes tiny silicon micro motors having rotors on the
Pawl order of 100 micrometers in diameter, operating at 25 to 36 V
at speeds of 2,500 to 15,000 RPM, and producing torques of up
Tuning to 13 pN-m [3]
Fork Other examples include larger silicon micro motors [4], wob-
(<3 mm Drive
Gear ble type micro motors [5], electrostatically driven silicon micro
wide) valves [6], and a novel set of micro tweezers 200 micrometers
From Pisano, 1989 in length and 2.7 micrometers wide. [7]

p
Figure 3 - The Bulova “Accutron” watch Rotor
Diameter
2.1.2. Benefits / Drawbacks 130 µm
Electromagnetic devices have found wide ranging applications Gap Charge
in spacecraft, using motors and solenoids to position antennas 25-36 Volts
and solar panels. However, the downward scaleability of elec-
tromagnetic actuators into the micro and nano realm may be
limited by the difficulty of fabricating small electromagnetic
coils. Further, most electromagnetic devices require perpendicu- From Mehregany, 1990
larity between the current conductor and the moving element,
presenting a difficulty for planar fabrication techniques com-
monly used to make silicon devices. Figure 5 - Silicon micro motor
An important advantage of electromagnetic devices is their
high efficiency in converting electrical energy into mechanical 2.2.2. Benefits / Drawbacks
work. This translates into less current consumption from the
power source. Electrostatic fields can exert great forces, but generally across
very short distances. When the electric field must act over larg-
2.2 Electrostatic er distances, a higher voltage will be required to maintain a
given force. The extremely low current consumption associated
Electrostatic charge arises from a build up or deficit of free with electrostatic devices makes for highly efficient actuation.
electrons in a material, which can exert an attractive force on

2

• Material dimensions change with temperature
Material B
Material A
Material A
Figure 6 - Thermomechanical changes
2.3 Thermomechanical
Thermomechanical systems use the physical expansion or con-
traction that occurs in materials as they undergo temperature
changes within their phase (solid, liquid or gas).
Structures can be built which harness the forces exerted by
the physical change in dimension. Typical examples include
bimetallic thermostat elements used in home temperature regu-
lation and toaster mechanisms. These devices use the differing
expansion rates of two materials bonded together to produce a
curving displacement.
Thermal changes result from the conduction of heat energy
into a material, and may occur over a wide range of speeds.
Nakajima and team have demonstrated a micro Sterling cycle
engine having a high thermal efficiency. [8] The tiny gas filled
engine can be operated with any heat source and can be driven
in reverse to make an active cooling system.
Thermomechanical actuators generally require the removal of
heat energy to reestablish the previous condition. Because heat
dissipation is directly related to the volume to be cooled, ther-
mal cycling occurs much faster in micro devices than in macro
devices.
2.3.1. Examples
Several devices have demonstrated the usefulness and speed of
thermal dimensional change in micro devices. Bimetallic can-
tilever micro actuators using gold on silicon with a beam length
Material A
Material A
of 500 micrometers produced deflections of up to 100 microm-
eters, while using about 200 mW of power. [9]
A 200 micrometers long thermally activated cantilever beam
made only of silicon, silicon oxides and phosphorous doped sil-
icon - standard elements of CMOS-type electronic circuits -
produced a displacement of 4 micrometers and operated at a
frequency of over 1 kHz. [10]
p resistive heater (2 by 60 micrometers) to heat a non-conductive
Heating Element
From Parameswaran, 1990
Figure 7 - Cantilever actuator
2.3.2. Benefits / Drawbacks
Thermomechanical actuators are, by their very nature, affected
by changes in temperature. Therefore, performance and energy
consumption of these devices will be directly related to the sur-
rounding temperature.
Temperature changes may be induced using resistive heating
Material B
at low voltages, thermally, radioactively, or ultrasonically.
Thermal actuators may require passive or active cooling sys-
tems for their reverse transformation. They behave in a linear
fashion with respect to temperature.
2.4 Phase Change
Phase change systems use the dimensional changes (expansion
and contraction) that occur in materials as they undergo
changes between phases (solid, liquid and gas).
Actuators can be built which harness the forces exerted by the
phase changes, and they generally demonstrate full reversibility.
Depending on the material, a phase change may be induced
electrically, thermally, or ultrasonically, and may happen over a
wide range of speeds and pressures.
• Dimensional changes: solid, liquid, gas
Figure 8 - Phase change
2.4.1. Examples
The novelty toy known as the “drinking bird” demonstrates a
form of phase change actuation on a macro scale. Evaporation
from the bird’s beak cools the working fluid sealed inside, shift-
ing the device’s center of gravity and causing it to tip.
Pin puller type actuators filled with paraffin wax have flown
on many space missions. Paraffin exhibits a significant increase
in volume as it changes from solid to liquid. [11] Similar mate-
rials have been used successfully in commercially available
micro valves [12], with an overall actuator size of 0.5 mm3.
With all such actuators, activation speeds and cycle rates are
relatively slow due to the heat transfer properties of the work-
ing material.
The micro steam engine developed by Lin et al uses a tiny
Beam Length fluorine-based working fluid and create a small gas bubble. The
200 µm bubble, from 34 to 76 micrometers in diameter, lifts an etched
silicon plate by up to 25 micrometers. With power removed, the
Vertical bubble quickly cools and collapses in place, lowering the plate.
Deflection The device requires only 20 to 40 mW to create the bubble, and
4 µm can be fully cycled at 10 Hz. [13]
Oscillation 2.4.2. Benefits / Drawbacks
Rate >1 kHz
Phase change transformations are, by their very nature, greatly
influenced by the surrounding temperature and pressure. Phase
change systems require cooling in order to undergo their
3
 Resistive Etched plate Captive Vapor Bubble Example - Silicon Water Pump Si Diaphragm
Heater and beam 50 µm thick
Stroke Height Piezo Stack
25 µm 54 mm3 Volume
15 µl/min
Oscillation @ 90 V
Rate 10 Hz
Max Pressure
Non-conductive 780 mm
working fluid Etched silicon base H20/cm2
From Lin, 1991
Out In
From Esashi, 1989

Figure 9 - Micro steam engine

reverse transformation, so actuators may require special consid-
erations for heat dissipation.
Materials undergoing phase changes generally exert a very
high force for their mass, and are completely reversible if the
working material is retained by the device. As the phase change
is a bulk property of the actuator material, devices can in theory
be scaled to any dimension, large or small.
2.5 Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric motion arises from the dimensional changes gen-
erated in certain crystalline materials when subjected to an elec-
tric field or to an electric charge.
Structures can be built which gather and focus the force of the
dimensional changes, and harness them to create motion
Typical piezoelectric materials include quartz (SiO2), lead zir-
conate titanate (PZT), lithium niobate, and polymers such as
polyvinyledene fluoride (PVDF).
Piezoelectric materials respond very quickly to changes in
voltages and with great repeatability. They can be used to gen-
erate precise motions with repeatable oscillations, as in quartz
timing crystals used in many electronic devices. Piezo materials
can also act as sensors, converting tension or compression
strains to voltages.
• Dimensional change in crystal subjected to voltage
Figure 11 - Silicon micro fluid pump
2.5.2. Benefits / Drawbacks
Piezo materials operate with high force and speed, and return to
a neutral position when unpowered. They exhibit very small
strokes (under 1 percent). Alternating electric currents produce
oscillation in the piezo material, and operation at the sample’s
fundamental resonant frequency produces the largest elongation
and highest power efficiency [16].
2.6 Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)
Shape memory actuators use a change in material properties
known as the Shape Memory Effect (SME) which arises in
some metal alloys when cycled above or below a specific “tran-
sition temperature”.
The SME transformation involves changes in the material’s
strength, deformability, Young’s Modulus, as well as the ability
of the material to return to a previously trained physical shape.
The shape change effects are generally much greater and
occur over a much smaller temperature range than those of
thermal expansion or contraction.
Typical Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) include combinations
of metal elements such as NiTi (“Nitinol”) and CuZnAl. As the
materials conduct electricity, change in temperature can be
internally generated by resistance heating, or induced by an
external heat source.

+ – • Change in deformability at specific temperature

0
– +
Heating

From Petrucci, 1994

Deforming Cooling
Figure 10 - Piezoelectric effect

2.5.1. Examples

Scanning Tunneling Electron Microscopes use piezoelectric
actuators to rapidly move the sensing tip over a very small
range.
Piezoelectric materials are commonly found in ultrasonic
transducers, (sonar range finder cameras), digital watch beep-
ers, and some small audio speakers.
On the micro scale, piezoelectric materials have been used in
linear inchworm drive devices [14], and micro pumps [15].
4
Figure 12 - Shape Memory Effect
Structures can be built which harness the shape change property
and use them to create motion. SMAs are typically formed into
wires, springs, torsion beams, as well as tubes and vacuum
deposited thin films.
Shape Memory changes can occur over a wide range of
speeds, and are generally reversible upon the removal of heat
energy from the material and with the application of a small so actuators may require special considerations for heat dissipa-
external bias force (typically 10 to 30 percent of the force avail- tion.
able when heated). SMA materials generally exert a very high force for their
However, performance is highly dependent on surrounding mass, but have a low efficiency in converting electrical energy
temperature and heat conduction conditions, as well as strain to motion. As the Shape Memory Effect is a bulk property of
level in the material, prior training, cycling and strain history. the material, SMA nano structures should exhibit the same gen-
eral behaviors as the bulk materials [21]
2.6.1. Examples
Example - Fluid Valve
Actuator devices using the Shape Memory Effect include per- Power
manent “shrink to fit” metal tubing connectors for high perfor- NiTi Diaphragm 1V @ 0.5 A
mance jet engines, spacecraft release mechanisms [17], minia- 10 µm thick Bias Spring
ture walking machines [18], as well as a variety of instrument Cycle Rate
50 Hz
pointing systems, latch release devices and positioning systems.
Micro scale device include fiber optic switching mechanisms Flow Rate
[19] and micro valves using thin film NiTi applied to etched sil- 1 liter/min
icon. [20]
In Out
From Johnson, 1990
Notched bolt
SMA cylinder lengthens broken by Figure 15 - Micro fluid valve
when heated tension
2.7 Magnetostrictive

Magnetostrictive materials exhibit very small but strong shape

changes when subjected to magnetic fields. The displacements
exert high forces but over small dimensional changes, typically
less than 1 percent. Devices can harness these high forces to
Separation plane create moving mechanisms.
Typical magnetostrictive materials include combinations of
Heater coil From TiNi Alloy Company, 1992 rare earth elements with iron such as TbFe (“Terfenol”) and
TbDyFe (“Terfenol-D”). They are often activated by an external
magnetic field such as a coil wound around the shape changing
Figure 13 - Frangibolt® SMA Release Mechanism. core.
Magnetostrictive materials operate extremely fast, and follow
2.6.2. Benefits / Drawbacks the presence or absence of the magnetic field. Their perfor-
mance generally decreases with higher temperatures. Some of
Shape Memory changes are affected by, and greatly dependent the strongest materials only operate at cryogenic temperatures
on, the surrounding temperature conditions. SMA actuators (below 150 Kelvin), while others perform as high as 400 °C.
require cooling in order to undergo their reverse transformation,

To computer 100 µm dia SMA wires

interface

Figure 14 - Boris, an
SMA-actuated walking
Full motion: machine
walk forward,
back, rotate Length 14 cm
left and right Weight 30 gr
From Mondo-tronics, 1992

5
 • Dimensional changes in a magnetic field • Applied voltage changes fluid viscosity

High Magnetic
No Magnetic Field 0 +
Field (>500 Oe) –

Figure 16 - Magnetostrictive effect Figure 18 - Electrorheology

Rod Extends 10 µm Locks in place Fast, High Strength, Input Output

Reversable Shaft Shaft
No power required to
hold position

Controllable to better
than 1 µm Voltage ER Fluid Seal
Plates Cavity
TeFe Rod Electromagnets From Roth, 1992 From Hosseini-Sianaki, 1992

Figure 17 - Magnetostrictive linear wave motor Figure 19 - Electrorheological fluid clutch

control [27], and a sophisticated hydraulic actuator system for

2.7.1. Examples steering flight surfaces in aerospace applications. [28]

Demonstrated devices include miniature linear inchworm 2.8.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

motors [22], low frequency, high power sonar transducers, slow
speed high torque motors [23], and active damping devices.
[24]
2.7.2. Benefits / Drawbacks
Magnetostrictive driven devices require high magnetic biases
for operation, and can operate at low voltages. The current gen-
eration of materials exhibit small displacements (0.1 to 0.5 per-
cent), but with very high work output per unit mass.
Magnetostrictive materials are generally very brittle, difficult to
machine and develop heat during operation which must be dis-
sipated to prevent damage to the actuator. [25]
2.8 Electrorheological
Subjecting certain fluids to an electric field creates a change in
their viscosity or flow rate (their rheology). Devices can be
built which harness the change in rheology to control or gener-
ate fluid motion, and activate mechanical components as with
hydraulic systems.
Typical electrorheological fluids consist of a fine powder sus-
pended in a nonconducting fluid. When subjected to an electric
field, the particles can react in the millisecond range lining up
and causing the fluid to become thicker or even non-flowing.
2.8.1. Examples
Demonstrated primarily on the macro scale, electrorheological
devices include clutches and transmissions having few or no
moving parts [26], variable shock absorbers providing vibration
6
The bulk conductance of the carrier fluid can present a difficul-
ty to power usage, true non-conducting fluids work best.
Problems with separation of fluid and particles due to evapora-
tion, sedimentation, centrifugal forces, and electrophoresis
(electrical induced separation) can lead to device failures. [29]
Wear due to abrasion from particles in fluid also cause device
failure. Electrorheological fluids have a high sensitivity to
ambient temperatures. Water based fluids can develop thermal
runaway problems if not adequately cooled, thermal stresses
can dry out the working fluid, and low temperatures cause
problems, especially around the fluid’s freezing point. [30]
2.9 Electrohydrodynamic
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) motion arises when the particle of
a polar fluid are subjected to a strong electric field. The result-
ing motion can be used to generate a fluid pressure, and create
flow or fluid circulation.
2.9.1 Examples
An as-yet fictional macro scale EHD application is represented
by the “caterpillar drive” depicted in the movie “The Hunt for
Red October”. It shows a submarine using unspecified voltages
to pump huge quantities of sea water through tubes to drive the
craft without the noise of rotating propellers.
On the factual side, a micro scale ethanol pump has been
demonstrated that develops a pressure of up to 2480 Pa at 700
Volts and a flow rate of up to 14 ml/min. [31] The charged
grids were constructed from etched silicon.
 • Electric force induces flow in dielectric fluids • Reflection of a magnetic field
Permanent N Diamagnetic Material
Magnet (Usually
Fluid Filled Direction of S
Channel induced flow Superconducting)

S
Alternating 3-phase traveling wave
(positive, negative, neutral) Reflection Generated in Material

Figure 20 - Electrohydrodynamic effect Figure 22 - Diamagnetism (the Meissner effect)

Out Slider (10 mm long) Levitation:

Pressure
2480 Pa S S S S 1 mm
Silicon Grids: N N N N
3 mm x 3 mm Bias: 700 V Horizontal
30 µm thick Drive Force:
Flow Rate: 31 mg
14 ml/min
Fluid Reservoir Stator Superconducting thin
film elements From Kim, 1989
From Richter, 1990

Figure 21 - Solid state electrohydrodynamic ethanol pump Figure 23 - Levitating Linear Motor

2.9.2. Benefits / Drawbacks Kim et al demonstrated a micro scale superconducting linear

Electrohydrodynamic devices have an inherently simple design,
providing direct conversion of electricity to fluid flow. They
produce the fluid motion without moving parts that can stick or
wear. They require high operating voltages, but at low currents.
Their operation depends greatly on the electric properties of the
working fluid. They can produce a high volume of flow com-
pared to piezoelectric or thermally driven pumps, and have the
potential to can act as drivers for pumps to move other types of
fluids unsuitable for direct EHD flow.
2.10 Diamagnetism (Meissner Effect)
actuator made of the high temperature superconductor YBCO
with a transition temperature of 90 K. Under a 180 mg load, the
1 x 1 x 10 mm slider levitates about 1 mm and could be driven
horizontally with about 31 mg of force. [33]
2.10.2. Benefits / Drawbacks
Devices levitated using the diamagnetic effect require no lubri-
cation, and remain in operation as long as proper temperature
conditions exist. The forces are generally very weak per unit
mass, and diamagnetic materials are highly susceptible to impu-
rities.

Superconductor materials exhibit diamagnetism: the ability to 3. COMPARISON OF BASIC ACTUATOR

reflect an external magnetic field. A magnet floating steadily
above a superconductor sample represents a common image of
the Meissner Effect at work.
Surprisingly, some non-superconducting materials, notably
bismuth, graphite and silicon, also possess this ability, but at
very low levels. Pelrine has demonstrated that these diamagnet-
ic materials may be used to generate the Meissner Effect in
micro mechanical devices. [32]
Diamagnetic materials can levitate magnets against gravity,
while operating below specific temperatures. Above their oper-
ating temperature range, the materials generally lose their field
reflecting abilities.
2.10.1. Examples
The diamagnetic effect may be used to create frictionless, self-
levitating bearings, and to prevent or reduce wear, especially in
micro and nano scale devices which are highly susceptible to
stiction and friction.
8
PROPERTIES
While all the technologies described above have been studied
and tested in the laboratory, not all have been applied yet in
commercial products or spacecraft components. However, all of
these techniques have the potential for miniaturization, and per-
mit the creation of very small devices to save considerable
space and weight, thereby reducing cost. However, miniaturiza-
tion of these technologies into the micro and nano scale brings
new challenges for design and manufacturing.
The six most developed micro actuator technologies are elec-
tromagnetic, electrostatic, piezoelectric, thermomechanical,
phase change, and shape memory alloy. Table I presents these
methods and some of their basic properties. This data reflects
only one set of comparisons, actual performance depends great-
ly on the specific application and actuator design.
The actuators have varied but flexible driving requirements.
Electromagnetic, electrostatic, and piezoelectric typically
require 70 to 100 volts to perform reasonable amounts work on
a microscopic basis. In each of these cases, the force generated
is directly proportional to the voltage level. The primary advan-
tages of these three technologies are their rapid actuation poten-
tial and low power consumption. Further, electromagnetic and
electrostatic devices can be highly efficient actuators.
The phase change, thermomechanical, and shape memory
alloy technologies all require heat as a primary driving mecha-
nism. With indirect heating, such as with a nearby heater,
impedance may be tailored to match the available power sup-
ply. This is especially true with thermomechanical and phase
change actuators. Shape memory alloys may be heated external-
ly as well, and their inherently high resistivity also permits
direct joule heating by passing an electrical current through the
material. In some SMA applications the design of the actuator
can achieve impedance matching by using multiple small paral-
lel elements instead of one larger element, and by other
schemes.
The phase change, thermomechanical, and shape memory
alloy technologies have a disadvantage in their thermodynamic
inefficiencies. Thermally driven actuators lose heat to the envi-
ronment and to adjacent components. Thermal isolation
requires additional space and material, and generally increases
the time required to remove heat for de-actuation.
In general, thermally driven actuators exhibit slower cycle
rates than other methods. The piezoelectric micro actuators are
typically capable of cycle rates in the thousands of cycles per
second range. Electromagnetic and electrostatic devices can
often operate equally fast, and are usually only limited by their
mechanical design and their driving electronics.
The materials used in constructing a micro actuator greatly
influence its method of manufacture. Most current actuator
technologies rely on methods developed for fabricating silicon
integrated circuits. Other materials and methods may become
available as techniques advance.
Device design and performance also rely on the materials
used for construction, and how the device will interact with
associated components, and its environment. For spacecraft
applications, designs may have to consider exposure to radia-
tion and highly corrosive atomic oxygen.
Actuator designs must also consider ambient operating condi-
tions and temperature fluctuations. With thermally driven actua-
tors (thermal, phase change, and shape memory), the energy
required for actuation depends greatly on the difference
between the surrounding temperature and the temperature
required for activation. If the local temperature can vary (as in
space applications), the actuator’s heating source may need to
accommodate a wider range in power levels for operation. If
the ambient temperature becomes too great, problems with
auto-actuation might occur.
Conversely, variations in temperature do not greatly impede
performance of the electromagnetic, electrostatic, or piezoelec-
tric devices, provided that their component materials can toler-
ate the changes.
An actuator’s work output density, or work output per unit
volume, provides a key measure for comparing various actuator
technologies. Reducing spacecraft mass directly lowers the
launch costs, hence the overall mission price. The launch cost
for every piece of material placed into Earth orbit by the U.S.
Space Shuttle equals more than half the item’s weight in gold.
[41] Therefore, technologies which perform more work with
less mass have great economic value. Even for methods having
lower thermodynamic efficiencies, the savings from reduced
mass can make them preferable over more thermodynamically
efficient methods.

TABLE 1:

Actuator Method Work per Typical Temperature Power Ref.

and Device Voltage Unit Vol. Response Sensitive? Use #

Electromagnetic 100 volts 0.9 J/cm3 <<1 ms No Very Low [34]

(theoretical)

Electrostatic 100 volts 0.4 J/cm3 <<1 ms No Very Low [35]

(theoretical)

Thermomechanical 12 volts 0.02 J/cm3 100 ms Yes Medium [36]

Micro valve

Phase Change 15 volts 4 J/cm3 300 ms Yes Medium [37]

Micro valve

Piezoelectric 90 volts 0.02 J/cm3 <20 ms No Low [38]

Micro valve

Piezoelectric 2 volts 0.01 J/cm3 <1 ms No Low [39]

Meander line actuator

Shape Memory 5 volts 6 J/cm3 30 ms Yes Medium [40]

Micro valve

8
 4. CONCLUSIONS

A number of technologies presently exist for micro spacecraft
actuator systems. Researchers are currently exerting significant
efforts towards miniaturizing them for both scientific and com-
mercial purposes. Many micro mechanical commercial devices
exist including micro thermostats, valves, pumps, and position-
ers. Additionally, researchers are studying many new technolo-
gies.
The actuator methods which have already been realized as
micro machined products or in advanced laboratory studies
include electromagnetic, electrostatic, piezoelectric, thermome-
chanical, phase change, and shape memory alloy technologies.
Methods for actuation which have been demonstrated in the
laboratory on a micro scale include electrohydrodynamic, mag-
netostrictive and diamagnetism technologies. The other meth-
ods have been demonstrated in macro devices and will likely be
studied in micro devices in the near future.
For present consideration as micro actuators in small space-
craft, several general conclusions can be drawn. First, electro-
static and electromagnetic type devices provide efficient opera-
tion and low forces. Piezoelectric devices are excellent for large
force, small displacement applications where higher voltages
are available.
Phase change actuators exhibit large amounts of work output
per unit volume and are good choices for applications where
ambient temperatures remain fairly constant. Shape memory
alloy devices provide extremely high work output density and
can be actuated directly by joule heating. Both of these tech-
nologies, as well as thermomechanical methods, are best suited
to applications with moderate ambient temperature variations.
Several methods await appropriate space applications.
Magnetostrictive can provide extremely high work output den-
sity and fair energy efficiency. Electrorheological and electro-
hydrodynamic techniques provide ways of directly manipulat-
ing fluids and may provide great mass savings by reducing the
supporting parts needed for pneumatic and hydraulic systems.
Superconducting materials exhibiting the Meissner effect
should find wide use in space applications, where low operating
temperatures are readily produced.
Additionally, appropriate combinations of various methods
should lead to synergetic gains. For example, the Meissner
effect may find application in reducing friction in micro scale
electromagnetic and electrostatic devices, thereby increasing
their performance and efficiency. Expect many more beneficial
combinations as techniques advance.
As the past twenty years have seen great advances in micro
electronics, the next twenty should bring similar progress in
micro electromechanical devices. The commercial prospects for
the technologies explored here should continue to drive
research and development efforts, and lead to an ever larger
number of micro and nano scale actuator systems.
###

Method Efficiency Speed Power Density

1 Electromagnetic high fast high
2 Electrostatic very high fast low
3 Thermomechanical very high medium medium
4 Phase Change very high medium high
5 Piezoelectric very high fast high
6 Shape Memory low medium very high
7 Magnetostrictive medium fast very high
8 Electrorheological medium medium medium
9 Electrohydrodynamic medium medium low
10 Diamagnetism high fast high

Figure 24 - Summary of methods and properties

9
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