Nutribio Minerals and Vitamin

VITAMINS: WATER- and FAT-SOLUBLE
Paolo Robert P. Bueno

OUTLINE
• Vitamin nomenclature, properties,

sources and functions
• Consumption, requirements and
recommendations
• Mechanisms for vitamin absorption,
distribution and excretion
• Vitamin toxicity and deficiency
Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain vitamin nomenclature,
properties, sources and functions
• Discuss vitamin consumption,
requirements and recommendations
• Elucidate mechanisms for vitamin
absorption, distribution and
excretion
• Evaluate vitamin toxicity and
deficiency

containing nitrogen
(the first vitamins discovered contained nitrogen)
VITAMINES
life
accessory growth factors

Casimir Funk necessary for life

VITAMINS
• small organic molecules present in
diet which are required in small
amounts
• Most are not synthesized in the body
• Present in diet as precursors
• Precursor forms of vitamins are
called as provitamins

Organic, essential nutrients required in tiny
VITAMINS amounts to perform specific functions that
promote growth, reproduction and maintenance
of life
• differ from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the following ways:

• Structure: are individual units; they are not linked
• Function:
• do not yield usable energy
• assist enzymes that release energy from carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins
• Food contents: measured in micrograms (μg) or milligrams (mg),
rather than grams (g)

VITAMINS
Classification

VITAMINS
Characteristics FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS WATER-SOLUBLE
VITAMINS
Polarity Apolar or hydrophobic Polar
Absorption Require normal fat absorption Does not require
normal fat absorption
Storage Stored in the liver oradipose No stable storage
tissue form (except
vitamin B-12)
Transport Transported in the blood Does not need protein
by lipoproteins or transporters
specificbinding proteins
Deficiency- prone or not Less prone to deficiency More prone to deficiency
manifestations
Toxicity- prone or not Prone to toxicity Less prone to toxicity
Excretion Excreted thru feces Excreted mainly thru urine

VITAMINS ROLE
IN THE
METABOLIC
PATHWAY

VITAMIN: INDIVIDUAL CONSTITUENTS
• Sources
• Chemistry
• Digestion and Absorption
• Function
• RDA
• Deficiency
• Toxicity

ASCORBIC ACID: VITAMIN C
• Chemistry • Sources
• Very sensitive to oxidation – Citrus fruits

• Rapidly destroyed by alkalies – Tomatoes
• Freezing has no deleterious – Strawberries
effect – Green
• Strong reducing agent vegetables
• Drying vegetables usually – Guava fruit
results in lossof vitamin C. – Green pepper
• Pasteurizing milk destroys
vitamin C

• Digestion and absorption
• Absorbed via sodium-dependent

Vitamin C Transporter
• Dehydroascorbate form are
absorbed via Glut 1 or Glut 3
• Converted to ascorbic acid once
absorbed

• Metabolic Roles
Function:
Ascorbic acid act as antioxidant. It is free radical scavenger. Since it is a strong
reducing agent it protects carotenes, vitamin E and other B vitamins of dietary origin
from oxidation.

• Metabolic Roles
It is required for the absorption of iron in the intestine. It maintains iron in ferrous form.
Catabolism of tyrosine requires ascorbic acid.
Vitamin C is effective in controlling bacterial invasion by inhibiting activity of bacterial

hyaluronidase enzyme. It acts as inhibitor of this enzyme due to structural similarity
to glucuronate of hyaluronin, the substrate of hyaluronidase.

• Metabolic Roles
– coenzyme in the formation of tissue collagen or intracellular cement substance

• Metabolic Roles
– coenzyme in the formation of tissue collagen or intracellular cement substance

• Deficiency
SCURVY
• Spongy gums
• Poor -wound healing

• Deficiency
• Splinter hemorrhages in nails
• Petechial, subcutaneous hemorrhages

• Deficiency
• Scorbutic rosary beads -swelling at the ends of longbones

Ascorbic Acid: Vitamin C
• RDA/AI • TOXICITY
– Adults:60 mg/day • >1g gastrointestinal distress

– Children: 40 mg/day

THIAMIN: Vitamin B1
• a heat labile sulfur-containing vitamin

• contains pyrimidine ring and thiazole
ring which are joined by
methylene bridge

THIAMIN: Vitamin B1
• Exist in free unphosphorylated form in plant foods

• Primarily absorbed in jejunum and ileum
• Absorbed both by active and passive diffusion
• High [thiamin] = passive (2.5mg or more)
• Thiamine-H+ anti-port system
• Affected by thiaminases and anti-thiamin factors
• Thiaminase  cooking
• Polyhydroxyphenols  presence of reducing compounds such as Vitamin C

THIAMIN: Vitamin B1
• Activation

THIAMIN: Vitamin B1
• Metabolic Roles
• Co-enzyme in the decarboxylation reaction
of: Alpha-
Keto acids from
Pyruvate branch-chain amino
ketoglutarate
acids

THIAMIN: Vitamin B1
• Metabolic Roles
• Co-enzyme in the transketolase reactions

– RBCtransketolase in most commonly used in measuring thaimine status in the body

THIAMIN: Vitamin B1
• Deficiency
Beriberi Beri means “weakness”
TYPE OF BERIBERI COMMON SYMPTOMS/FINDINGS
Neuropsychiatric Hallucinations, aggressive behavior,
confusion, nystagmus, ataxia,
ophthalmoplegia
Dry - Neurologic Numbness, muscle weakness, pain in the
lower
> uppper extremities (stocking-glove
distribution) convulsions, exaggerated
tendon reflexes
Wet - High output CVD Tachycardia, respiratory distress, leg
edema, right ventricular dilation, lactic
acidosis
Gastrointestinal Nausea, emesis, megajejunum,
constipation, megacolon, atony
THIAMIN: Vitamin B1
• RDA/AI • TOXICITY
– Adults: 1.1-1.2 mg/day • No UL has been established

– Children: 1.2 mg/day
– Pregnant/lactating: 1.5 mg/day

RIBOFLAVIN: Vitamin B2
• Synonyms :
– Vitamin B2, Vitamin G,Lactoflavin

• Found in foods non-covalently attached to proteins

• Freed via protein degradation
• Absorbed via energy-dependent, sodium-independent carrier
protein

• Activation

• Metabolic Roles
• Act as prosthetic group of flavoproteins

• Act as co-enzyme for hydrogen transfer

• Metabolic Roles
Flavoproteins:
– Enzymes involved in oxidation – reduction reactions
– FADis required as coenzyme for:
Pyruvate dehydrogenase Carbohydrate breakdown

Succinate dehydrogenase Krebs cycle
Glycerol 3-phosphate Triglyceride synthesis
dehydrogenase phospholipid synthesis
Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase Fatty acid breakdown
Glutathione reductase Anti-oxidation

• Metabolic Roles
Substrate Enzyme Product
Hypoxanthine + O2 + H2O Xanthine Oxidase Xanthine + H2O2

Xanthine + O2 + H2O Xanthine Oxidase Urate + H2O2
Succinate Succinate DH Fumarate
Glycerophosphate Glycerophosphate DH Dihydroxyacetone-PO4
Flavoproteins in electron transport chain
Glutathione reductase – for assaying riboflavin status
Part of pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
complexes

• Deficiency
• Ariboflavinosis causes oral, facial,

ocular lesions
(a) Angular Stomatitis. Lesions of mouth
particularly at corners of mouth.
(b) Cheliosis. Red swollen and cracked Angular stomatitis
lips.
(c) Vascularization of cornea and
conjuctiva and blood
shot eyes
(d) Glossitis. Inflammated magenta
coloured tongue.
Glossitis
• RDA • TOXICITY
– Adults: 2.0 mg/day • No UL has been established

– Children: 1.2 mg/day
– Pregnant/lactating: 2.0 mg/day

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
niacin refers to two pyridine

derivatives
• CO-ENZYMEFORMS
– Oxidized = NADand NADP
– Reduced= NADHAND NADPH

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
• Found in niacin form in

supplements
• Found in NAD or NADP in some
cases
• Absorbed readily in the small
intestine via sodium-dependent
carrier protein

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
• Activation and Formation

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
– Tryptophan can be
converted to NAD
– 60mg Trp = 1 mg
niacin

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
• Metabolic Roles

Examples of Reactions Utilizing NADand NADP

Lactate Pyruvate
Lactate DH
Malate Oxaloacetate
Malate DH
Hydroxybutyrate Acetoacetate
Beta-OH- butyrateDH
Glucose Gluconate
Glucose DH
Isocitrate Alpha-ketoglutarate
Isocitrate DH
Glutamate Alpha-ketoglutarate +
Glutamate DH Ammonia

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
• Deficiency
Pellagra “rough skin” –3D’s
– Dermatitis –skin exposed to sunlight
• Casal’s necklace
• Gloves and stockings lesions
– Diarrhea
– Dementia
– Stomatitis, magenta tongue
– Severe cases, GIT hemorrhagic

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
– Adults: 16-20 mg/day • 1-6 grams ( hyperlipidemia)

– Children: 9-16 mg/day • Dilatation of blood vessels
– Infants: 5-8 mg/day • Flushing
• Skin irritation
• Liver damage

PANTOTHENIC ACID
• Organ meat, liver, milk, whole

cereals, legumes and eggs
are good sources
• Vegetables and fruits are poor

Once called vitamin B5 sources.
“everywhere vitamin”
stable to heat but unstable
to alkali or acid

PANTOTHENIC ACID
• Found in diet as CoA

• CoA  4’-phosphopantetheine 
pantetheine
• Absorbed principally at the
jejunum
• High conc: passive diffusion
• Low conc: sodium-dependent
multivitamin transporter

PANTOTHENIC ACID

PANTOTHENIC ACID
• Metabolic Roles
Pyruvate + CoASH Acetyl CoA
Pyruvate DH complex
α-ketoglutarate- CoASH Succinyl CoA
Alpha-KG DH complex
Fattyl acid +CoASH Acetyl-CoA
Thiokinase
Ketoacyl CoA+ CoASH Acyl CoA+
Thiolase Acetyl CoA
Detoxification of benzoicacid
Synthesis of bile salts

PANTOTHENIC ACID
• Metabolic Roles
• As Acetyl CoA
Combines with Combines with Combines with
oxaloacetic acid to form choline to form sulfonamide drugs to
citric acid– acetylcholine facilitate their excretion
first step in the
Kreb’s cycle
Activation of some
Precursor of cholesterol / amino acids : Essential function in lipid
steroid hormones
valine, leucine and metabolism
isoleucine

PANTOTHENIC ACID
• Metabolic Roles
• As Succinyl CoA
– Involved in heme biosynthesis
• AsAcyl Carrier Protein
– Involved in fatty acidbiosynthesis
– Extra-mitochondrial lipogenesis

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
• Deficiency
• Rare because:
– Very widespread in natural foods

NIACIN: Vitamin B3
– Adults: 5-10 mg/day • No toxicity established

– Children:4-5 mg/day
– Infants: 1-2 mg/day

PYRIDOXINE: Vitamin B6
• Sources
• Chemistry
• Three compounds derived from pyridine

Pyridoxine is stable to heat and
sensitive to light and alkali Whole grains, legumes, liver and yeast are good
sources. Leafy vegetables, milk, meat and eggs are fair
sources
• To be absorbed  dephosphorylated form

• Alkaline phosphatase  pyridoxine, pyridoxal and
pyridoxamine
• Absorbed in the jejunum via passive diffusion

• Activation

• Metabolic Role
• Physiological importance:
– Amino acid metabolism
– Synthesis of ceramide
– Synthesis of the neurotransmitters
serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine
& GABA.
– Synthesis of the histamine.
– Synthesis of porphyrins
– Glycogenolysis - phosphorylase

• Co-enzyme in protein metabolism
– Transamination – acts as an amino group carrier

decarboxylation, trans-sulfuration, desulfuration and non-
oxidative deamination reactions
– Conversion of 3-hydroxykynurenine to 3-OH-anthranilic acid

– Conversion of Tryptophan to serotonin
– Deamination – serine and threonine

• Deficiency
• rare in human adults

– Epileptiform seizures in infants
– Pellagra-like skin lesions
– GIT involvement- distention, vomiting ,diarrhea
– Anemia- hypochromic and microcytic

• Roughly proportional to the • 100mg/day to avoid neuropathy

protein content of thediet
– 0.02 mg/g of proteinintake
– 1.5-2.0 mg/day for normaladult
– Increased during pregnancy and
lactation

BIOTIN: Vitamin B7
• Chemistry • CHARACTERISTICS:
– Widely distributed in naturalfoods
– From synthesis of bacteria -
deficiency is caused by defects in
utilization and not dietary
– Long-term antibiotic treatment or
excessive consumption of raw egg
• sulfur containing vitamin
• consist of imidozole ring fused to tetrahydro
thiophene with valerie acid side chain
• stable to heat but alkaline sensitive

BIOTIN: Vitamin B7
• Protein-bound biotin requires digestion of enzymes

• Pepsin and other proteases free biotin, biotinyl peptides, biocytin
• Biotinyl peptides  peptidases in the SI
• Biocytin  free biotin + lysine via biotinidase in intestinal brush border and
pancreatic juices
• Absorbed in the small intestine and reaches liver and other tissues through
circulation

BIOTIN: Vitamin B7

BIOTIN: Vitamin B7
• Metabolic Role
CARBOXYLATION REACTIONS:
Acetyl CoA Malonyl CoA
acetyl CoA carboxylase
Propionyl CoA Methylmalonyl

Propionyl CoA CoA
carboxylase
Pyruvate Oxaloacetic acid
pyruvate
carboxylase
BIOTIN: Vitamin B7
• Deficiency
• Man (rare)
– Fine scaly skin desquamation
– Anorexia
– Nausea
– Lassitude
– Muscle pains
– Depression/hallucination
– Alopecia
– Graying of hair
BIOTIN: Vitamin B7
– Adults: 30-35μg/day • No toxicity established

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
• Chemistry • Folic acid and folate are not
interchangeable terms
• folic acid: oxidized form found in
supplements
• folate: reduced form found in natural
foods
•Sources
• Green leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage, ladyfinger,
curry and mint leaves, pulses like black gram, green
gram, eggs and liver are good sources. Coconuts, whole
cereals and milk are fair sources.

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
• Must be in monoglutamate form

• Folypoly y-glutamyl/glutamate carboxypeptidases
• Highly absorbed in the duodenum via proton-coupled folate
transporter (PCFT)

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
• In the liver, THF is found

as:
• THF (33%)
• 5-methyl THF (33%)
• 5 or 10-methyl THF (33%)

FOLATE: Vitamin B9

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
For utilization of the n ty.

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
• Metabolic Role
Carrier of one-carbon group moieties

Form Formula Name
Most reduced CH3 Methyl
Intermediate CH2 Methylene
Most oxidized CHO Formyl
CHNH Formimino
CH= methenyl

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
• Metabolic Role
Form Decription
N5-methyl- THFA Most prevalent form transported in theblood
N5, N10-methylene THFA Provides methyl group in the formation of thymidylate for DNA
synthesis and erythrocyte formation
N10 formy; THFA Provides Catom that becomes C2 of purine nucleus
N5-formimino THFA Histidine catabolism

N10-hydroyxymethyl THFA Thymine synthesis

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
• Metabolic Role

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
• Deficiency:
Blood Cell Macrocytic Anemia- impaired production
Blood Cell Microcytic Anemia
Results when RBC are unable to

divide…

FOLATE: Vitamin B9
– Adults: 400μg DFE/day • UL: 1 mg folic acid/day

* 1 DFE = 1 μg food folate
– Pregnant: 400 μg synthetic folic
acid /day

COBALAMIN: Vitamin 12
• Chemistry
1
3 4
5
1. Corrin ring system - central 2. 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole

portion of the molecule: riboside
similar to a porphyrinring 3. Aminopropanolol
4. Propionic acid
2
5. Cobalt-occupies the center
of the corrin ringsystem

– Synthesized by microorganisms in the bacterial

flora
– Liver, whole milk, eggs
– oysters, fresh shrimp, pork, chicken

• Metabolic Role
– Synthesis of methionine
– Isomerization of methylmalonyl CoA

• Metabolic Role
– Involved in the rearrangement of methylmalonyl
•Involved in the transfer of a methylgroup from methylTHFA to CoAto succinyl CoAby methylmalonyl CoA
homocysteine to form methionine . isomerase

• Metabolic Role
Forms Content
Cobalamin Without cyanide
Cyanocobalamin with cyanidegroup
Hydroxocobalamin with hydroxyl group, moreactive in enzyme
systems; retained longer in the body
Methylcobalamin major form in theplasma

5’-deoxyadenosyl readily binds to plasma-binding proteins
cobalamin

• Deficiency
• Causes:
– Chronic dietary deficiency of vitaminB-12.
– Poor absorption due to lack ofintrinsic factor.
• Presence of antibodies to the intrinsic factor in the gastric juice.
• Lack of secretion of intrinsic factor (due to gastric mucosal
cell atrophy or due to totalgastrectomy.
• Extensive resection of the smallintestines.
– Increased requirements as in pregnancy.

• Deficiency
• Clinical effects: “Pernicious Anemia”

• No healthy RBC
• Characterized by:
– Megaloblastic or macrocytic
anemia.
– Lesions of the nervous system
– Mucosal atrophy and
inflammation of thetongue
(glossitis), mouth (stomatitis) and
pharynx(pharyngitis)

– Children: 2ug/day
• No toxicity established
– Adults 3 ug/day
– Pregnancy and lactation: 4 ug/day

LEARNING OUTCOMES
excretion
deficiency

OUTLINE
• Vitamin nomenclature, properties,

sources and functions
• Consumption, requirements and
recommendations
• Mechanisms for vitamin absorption,
distribution and excretion
• Vitamin toxicity and deficiency

LEARNING OUTCOMES
excretion
deficiency

VITAMINS
Classification

Fat-soluble Vitamins
• VitaminA retinol, B-carotenes
• Vitamin D cholecalciferol
• Vitamin K phylloquinones, menaquinones
• Vitamin E tocopherols

VITAMIN A
• Chemistry
• Also known as retinoids

• Generally used to refer to a group of
compounds possessing
biological activity of all-trans
retinol
• Contain β-ionone ring (methyl
substituted cyclohexenyl ring) and
polyunsaturated side chain (two
isoprene units with four conjugated
double bonds)

• Sources
In nature vitamin A occurs in two forms:
Retinol esters - in the foods of animal
origin carotenes - in plant foods as
provitamin
(a) Animal sources: Marine fish oils , liver, butter, egg, and milk
(b) Plant sources: Leafy vegetables, yellow-
pigmented fruits and vegetables

• Sources


VITAMIN A
1. Retinal is required for normal and
color vision.
• Metabolic Roles 2. Retinol is required for reproduction
and growth.
3. Retinol is required for differentiation
and function as steroid hormone.
4. Retinoic acid is required for the
synthesis of glycoproteins or
mucopolysaccharides.
5. Retinoic acid also act as steroid
hormone. It also promote
growth and differentiation.
6. Retinol and retinoic acid are
involved in regulation
of gene expression.

VITAMIN A
• Metabolic Roles

VITAMIN A: RETINOL and RETINOIC ACID
• Metabolic Roles

VITAMIN A: RETINAL
• Metabolic Roles
Retinal and colour vision
• Threelight sensitive pigments
present in cones:
• porphyropsin, iodopsin and
cyanopsin
•All three pigments contain 11-cis retinal
and are sensitive to red, green and blue
colours respectively.
• When the photon (light) strikes retina
depending on the colour of the light a
particular pigment is bleached. This leads to
generation of nerve impulse and perception
of colour by brain.
.

VITAMIN A: RETINAL
• VISUAL CYCLE

VITAMIN A:
• Deficiency
1. Night Blindedness
• In early stages, the affected individual is not able to see clearly in dim light or night
due to block in the resynthesis of rhodopsin.
• In the later stage of deficiency the affected individual cannot see or read in dim
light.
• Thus loss of night vision (night blindness) is the major initial symptom of Vitamin A
deficiency.
• Night blindness in adults or in preschool children is common in countries where
intake of vitamin A is low.
2. Growth of bone and formationof tooth are defective. Thick and long bones are
formed.
3. Nerve growth also affected. Degeneration of myelin sheath occurs.

VITAMIN A:
• Deficiency
4. Keratinisation of mucous secreting epithelial cells (hyperkeratosis) lining

respiratory tract and reproductive tract occurs. Mucous secretion by salivary and
lacrymal glands is also affected.
5. Deposition of keratin in skin (xeroderma) gives rise to characteristic toad
skin appearance.
6. Reproductive disorders like testicular degeneration, resorption of foetus or foetal
malformation are observed.
7. Degenerative changes in kidneys.

VITAMIN A:
• Deficiency

VITAMIN A:
• Deficiency

VITAMIN A:
• RDA and TOXICITY

VITAMIN D
• Chemistry
• also called sunshine vitamins
• considered to be a seco-steroid (one of its four
rings is broken)
• contains three intact rings (A, C, and D) with
a break between carbons 9 and 10 in the B
ring
• Active forms: vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol)
and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
• Calcitriol is the most active form of vitamin D
that acts as steroid hormone

VITAMIN D
• Sources
Liver, especially from beef and eggs are good sources of
vitamin D3. In addition, the vitamin is found in fatty fish
(and their oils) and Cheeses are also good sources

VITAMIN D

VITAMIN D
•absorbed from a micelle, in association with fat and with

the aid of bile salts, by passive diffusion into the intestinal
cell
• can be transported by chylomichrons or may be

transferred from the chylomicron to vitamin D–binding
protein (DBP).

VITAMIN D
• Metabolic Roles
– 1,25-dihydrocholecalciferol- a
steroid hormone
– Stimulates gene
expression or repress
gene transcription
– Regulates plasma
levels of calcium and
phosphorus

VITAMIN D
Functions of calcitriol
1. Major action of calcitriol is to increase absorption of calcium and phosphate in
the intestine particularly in duodenum and jejunum.
2. Calcitriol is required for bone formation and mineralisation of bone. It increases
synthesis of osteocalcin a calcium binding protein of bone. Osteocalcin is involved
in deposition of calcium salts in bone.
3. Calcitriol affects calcium and phosphorus excretion by kidney. It reduces the
excretion of calcium and phosphorus.
4. Vitamin D is involved in maintenance of normal muscle tone.
5. Calcitriol is an immuno regulatory hormone. It stimulates cell mediated immunity. It
plays a vital role in monocyte/macrophage activation.

Response to low
plasma calcium
Response to low
plasma calcium
Response to low
plasma calcium
VITAMIN D
Deficiency symptoms
1. Rickets
• In children vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, results in soft bones. This leads to
deformities in skull, chest, spine, legs and pelvis.
2. Osteomalacia
• Vitamin D deficiency causes osteomalacia in adults. It is seen in pregnant women
and women with inappropriate diet. Skeletal pain is early sign. Deformities of ribs,
spine, pelvis and legs are seen.
3. Osteoporosis
• Vitamin D deficiency causes osteoporosis in old people.
Photolysis of provitamins dcreases with age. This and together with decreased
sex hormone production may lead to deficiency.
• Symptoms are bone pain and porous bones. Bone fractures are common.

VITAMIN D
• DEFICIENCY
– Rickets
– Osteomalacia
(demineralization of bone)
• TOXICITY
– Most toxic of allvitamins
– Deposition of calcium in organs
and arteries, kidney stones

VITAMIN D:
• RDA and TOXICITY

VITAMIN E
• Chemistry
Chemically they are tocopherol
They are derivatives of tocol or 6-hydroxy chromane ring with phytyl side chain.
• Tocopherols are alkaline sensitive and their vitamin activity is destroyed by

oxidation.
• Among all tocopherols α-tocopherol is most potent and widely distributed in nature.
Cooking and food processing may destroy vitamin E to some extent.

VITAMIN E
• Cereal germ oils like wheat germ oil, corn germ oil and vegetable oils like coconut
oil, sun flower oil, peanut oil, ricebran oil, palm oil, mustard oil, cotton seed oil and
soyabean oil are rich sources of vitamin E.
• Vegetables, fruits and meat are relatively poor sources of vitamin E.

VITAMIN E
Absorption, transport and storage
• Dietary tocopherols are absorbed in small intestine in the presence of bile
salts.
• Absorbed tocopherols are incorporated into chylomicrons in mucosal cells of
intestine and enters circulation via lymph.
• In plasma tocopherols are released from chylomicrons by lipoprotein lipase.
Liver takes up half of tocopherol and it is stored.
• Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue also stores vitamin E.
• From the liver tocopherols are transported to other tissues in β-lipoprotein.

VITAMIN E
Functions
1. α-tocopherol in cell membrane and cytosol function as antioxidant. It is present in
high concentration in tissues which are exposed to high O2 pressure like
erythrocytes, lungs, retina etc.
• It acts as chain breaking antioxidant.
2. Vitamin E is involved in maintenance of muscle tone
3. Vitamin E increases synthesis of hemeproteins
4. Vitamin E prevents dietary vitamin A and carotenes from oxidative damage.

VITAMIN E

VITAMIN E

VITAMIN E

VITAMIN
Chemistry
K
• Chemically they are quinones
• Vitamin K1also called as phylloquinone, is the major form of vitamin found in plants
particularly in green leafy vegetables.
• Vitamin K2 also known as menaquinone is the vitamin K present in animals
and synthesized by intestinal flora.

VITAMIN K
Absorption and Transport
• Vitamin K of dietary origin is absorbed in small intestine in presence of bile
salts.
• In mucosal cells of intestine absorbed vitamin K is incorporated into
chylomicrons.
• It reaches liver after entering circulation through the lymph. Liver distributes
• vitamin K to other tissues.
• It rarely accumulates in liver and peripheral tissues.
Sources
Plant Sources
• Cauliflower, Cabbage, spinach, turnip greens, peas and
soybean are rich sources.
Animal sources
• Dairy products like cheese, butter and farm products like eggs and liver are good
sources.

VITAMIN K
Functions of Vitamin K
• Vitamin K is required for the synthesis of blood clotting factors like prothrombin
(factor II), cothromboplastin (factor VII), (factor IX) and (factor
X).
• It is required for the carboxylation of the γ-carbon atom of
glutamic residues of these factors. The γ-carboxylation generates calcium binding
sites which is essential for blood clotting process.

VITAMIN K
Functions of Vitamin K

Warfarin is a vitamin Kantagonist that inhibits the
recycling of vitamin Kat two dithiol-dependentsteps.
VITAMIN K
Deficiency Symptoms of vitamin K
1. Haemorrhage in the new born is most common vitamin K deficiency symptom.
uncontrolled bleeding through nose (epitaxis) and gastrointestinal tract is likely to
occur. However it can be treated successfully with intra muscular injections of
vitamin K.
2. In adults vitamin K deficiency rarely occurs. However prolonged use of antibiotics
may cause vitamin K deficiency due to elimination of intestinal flora.

VITAMIN K

LEARNING OUTCOMES
excretion
deficiency

WATER AND MINERALS
OUTLINE
• Water and the Body

• Major and Trace Minerals:
Functions
• Mechanisms for mineral
excretion
• Mineral toxicity and deficiency
Water and Minerals

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
•Evaluate role of water in the
body
•Examine mineral sources and
function in the body
•Elucidate mechanisms for
mineral absorption, distribution
and excretion
•Evaluate mineral toxicity and
deficiency
Water and Minerals

Water in the body
 60% of body weight
 2/3 intracellular (within cells), 1/3 extracellular
 Cell membranes are permeable to water // Water

crosses the membrane by osmosis to dilute dissolved
solutes
 Blood pressure is generated by the heart to move

water through blood vessels and into tissues
Water and Minerals

Water in the body
Water and Minerals

Water balance
 Water is not stored
 Water in must equal water out
 In: consumption of water, fluids, foods and

production during cellular respiration
 Out: excretion in urine and feces, evaporation

from the skin and lungs, and sweating
Water and Minerals

Water balance
Water and Minerals

Increased water loss stimulates thirst
Water and Minerals

Kidneys regulate body water
 Kidneys act as a filter
 Water moves from the blood into kidney

tubules
 Blood cells and proteins are too large and

remain in the blood
 Needed substances are reabsorbed back into

the blood
 Un-needed substances are excreted in urine
Water and Minerals

Water and Minerals
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
 If more water is lost than taken in, then the
concentration of solutes in the blood increases
 This stimulates thirst and secretion of antidiuretic

hormone (ADH) from the brain
 ADH stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb water (to

keep the blood from becoming more concentrated)
Water and Minerals

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Increased Decreased
blood ADH Water blood
secretion reabsorption
sodium sodium
Water and Minerals

Kidneys regulate
body water
Water and Minerals

Water and Minerals
Water functions
 Acts as a solvent: solutes (for example:
glucose, proteins, minerals) dissolve in water
 Participates in chemical reactions
 Transports nutrients, oxygen, waste materials,

hormones, etc. as the main component of blood
 Protects and cushions body structures
 Regulates pH and temperature
Water and Minerals

Water functions
Water and Minerals

Dehydration
 Water loss is greater than

water intake
 Reduces blood volume which

reduces blood pressure
Water and Minerals

Water And The Body Fluids
Water and Minerals

Dehydration
© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Water intoxication (over hydration)
 Water intake is greater than water loss
 Sodium in blood is diluted causing hyponatremia
 Hypo means low, Na is the chemical symbol for sodium,

emia means in the blood
 Water moves by osmosis from the blood into the tissues to

try to dilute the higher concentration of solutes causing
tissue swelling, or edema
Water and Minerals

Meeting water needs
 AI: men = 3.7 liters/day, women = 2.7
liters/day
 Need increased intake with:
 Increased activity
 Increased temperature
 Decreased humidity
 Low-calorie diet
 High-salt diet
 High-fiber diet
 Alcohol intake
Water and Minerals

Fluid And Electrolyte
Balance
Dissociation of
salt in water
Ions
Electrolyte
solution
Water and Minerals

Balance
Electrolytes attract
water
Water follows
electrolytes
Solutes
Osmosis
Osmotic pressure
Water and Minerals

• Vegetables
“sweat” when
sprinkled with
salt
• Raisins plump
up when
immersed in
water
Water and Minerals

Balance
Proteins regulate flow of fluids and ions
Regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance
Sodium and chloride most easily lost
Different solutes lost by different routes
Water and Minerals

Imbalance
Imbalance
Replacing lost fluids
and electrolytes
Oral
rehydration
therapy (ORT)
Water and Minerals

Minerals
 20 needed by the body in small amounts
 Maintain structure and regulate chemical reactions

and body processes
 Major mineral: need >100 milligrams/day
 sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus,

magnesium, and sulfur
 Trace mineral: need <100 milligrams/day
 iron, copper, zinc, selenium, iodine, chromium,

fluoride, manganese, molybdenum, and others
Water and Minerals

Minerals
Minerals
Major Trace
Electrolytes Bone Health
Sodium Calcium Iron Chromium
Potassium Phosphorus Copper Fluoride
Chloride Magnesium Zinc Manganese
Sulfur Selenium Molybdemum
Water and Minerals

Minerals
Water and Minerals

Minerals from food
 From plant and animal sources
 Affected by:
 Amount in soil
 Processing // Added (for example, during fortification) or

// Removed (for example, by cooking or removing skins,
bran, or germ)
 Absorption and bioavailability // Inhibited by substances in

plants, other minerals, or amount in body
Water and Minerals

Minerals from food
Water and Minerals

Mineral functions
 Contribute to body structures
 Regulate body processes
 Regulate water balance
 Regulate energy metabolism
 Affect growth and development through their

role in the expression of certain genes
 Act as cofactors needed for enzyme activity
Water and Minerals

Mineral functions
Water and Minerals

Mineral
functions –
as a cofactors
Water and Minerals

Electrolytes
 Ions = charged atoms
- charge: gained a negative electron (anion)
+ charge: lost a negative electron (cation)
 Fluid balance maintenance, nerve

impulse conduction, cellular signaling
Water and Minerals

Electrolytes
 Sodium
+ charge: lost a negative electron
 extracellular: outside of cells
 Potassium
+ charge: lost a negative electron
 intracellular: inside of cells
 Chloride
 – charge: gained a negative electron
 extracellular: outside of cells
Water and Minerals

Electrolyte functions
Water and Minerals

Electrolyte
functions
Water and Minerals

Hypertension
 Blood pressure consistently at or above 140/90 mm
mercury
 Caused by: increased contractions of the heart,

increased blood volume, or decreased radius of blood
vessels
 Results in: atherosclerosis, heart attacks, strokes, death
 Treated with: diet, exercise, and medication
 Risks: genetics, race, age, obesity, diet, activity
Water and Minerals

Hypertension and diet
Water and Minerals

Water and Minerals

Water and Minerals

Electrolyte imbalance
 Deficiency:
 Results in: acid–base imbalance, poor

appetite, muscle cramps, confusion,
apathy, constipation, irregular heartbeat,
death
 Caused by: heavy/persistent sweating,

chronic diarrhea or vomiting, kidney
disorders, or medications
Water and Minerals

Electrolyte imbalance
 Excess:
 Excess potassium from supplements

can cause the heart to stop
 Excess sodium from consumption or

dehydration
Water and Minerals

Electrolyte recommendations
 Sodium:
 UL: 2300 mg/day

 Over 51 years old, African American or with
medical conditions = 1500 mg/day
 Typical consumption = 3400 mg/day
 Potassium:
 DRI = 4700 mg/day

 DV = 3500 mg/day
 Typical consumption = 2000-3000 mg/day
Water and Minerals

Sodium in processed foods
Water and Minerals

Sodium in processed foods
Water and Minerals

Water & electrolyte summary
Water and Minerals

Minerals
Minerals
Major Trace
Water and Minerals

Strong bones
 Protein matrix: mostly collagen
 Hardened by minerals: mostly calcium, phosphorus,

also magnesium, sodium, fluoride, other minerals
 Require:
 Protein and vitamin C to maintain collagen
 Calcium and other minerals to ensure solidity
 Vitamin D to maintain calcium and phosphorus

levels
Water and Minerals

Bones
 Living tissue
 Support weight and participate in movement
 Constantly broken down and re-formed during

bone remodeling
 Peak bone mass: maximum bone density

attained life, usually in young adulthood
 Osteoporosis: more bone loss than formation

resulting in fractures
Water and Minerals

Bones
Bones
Water and Minerals

Osteoporosis
 More bone loss than formation
 Results in: fractures
 Risks: level of peak bone mass and rate at which

bone is lost; affected by genetics, gender, age,
hormones, low body weight, and lifestyle (smoking,
alcohol, exercise, diet)
 Women have more age-related bone loss than

men when estrogen levels decrease after
menopause
Osteoporosis
Water and Minerals

Calcium
 99% in bones and teeth
 In body cells and fluids, needed for:

 Muscle contraction
 Neurotransmitter release
 Blood pressure regulation
 Cell communication
 Blood clotting
 Levels regulated by hormones:

 Too high: calcitonin “tones” it down
 Too low: PTH and calcitriol “try” to bring it up
Water and Minerals

Calcium hormones
Stimulate
intestinal
Decreased Increased
absorption,
blood PTH & blood
kindey
calcium Calcitriol
reabsorption & calcium
secretion
bone resorption
Increased Decreased
blood Calcitonin Inhibit bone blood
calcium secretion resorption calcium
Water and Minerals

Calcium hormones
Water and Minerals

Calcium
 RDA: 19-50 years = 1000 mg/day; UL= 2500 mg/day
 Sources: dairy products, dark green vegetables, fish with

bones, foods processed and fortified with calcium
 Deficiency: Osteoporosis
 Excess: caused by cancers, increased PTH, excessive

calcium and/or vitamin D intake causing altered availability of
iron, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus; constipation; loss of
appetite, abnormal heartbeat, weight loss, fatigue, frequent
urination, soft tissue calcification, kidney stones and damage
Water and Minerals

Calcium sources
Water and Minerals

Calcium supplements
Water and Minerals

Phosphorus
 Most found with calcium in bones and teeth
 In soft tissues, needed for:
 Phospholipid, DNA, RNA, and ATP structures
 Enzyme activity regulation
 Cellular acidity maintenance // Phosphate

Buffer System
Water and Minerals

Phosphorus functions
Water and Minerals

Phosphorus
 RDA: adults = 700 mg/day; UL= 4000 mg/day
 Sources: dairy products; meat; cereal;, bran; eggs; nuts; fish;

and food additives used in baked goods, cheese, processed
meats, and soft drinks
 Deficiency: rare; due to chronic diarrhea or poor absorption due

to overuse of aluminum-containing antacids; causes bone loss,
weakness, loss of appetite
 Excess: high dietary phosphorus does not appear to be harmful

for healthy adults, concern with sodas
Water and Minerals

Magnesium
 50-60% in bones
 In cells and fluids, needed for:
 Calcium regulation
 Blood pressure regulation
 ATP structure stabilization which is important for:
 Energy release from carbohydrate, fat, and protein
 Nerve and muscle functioning
 DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis
Water and Minerals

Magnesium
 RDA: men = 420 mg/day; women = 320 mg/day
 Sources: leafy greens, nuts, seeds, legumes, bananas,

germ and bran of whole grains
 Deficiency: rare; causes osteoporosis, nausea, muscle

weakness and cramping, irritability, mental derangement,
blood pressure, heartbeat changes
 Excess: no effects from foods; drugs or supplements can

cause nausea, vomiting, low blood pressure, and other
cardiovascular changes
Water and Minerals

Magnesium sources
Water and Minerals

Sulfur
 Part of:
 amino acids and proteins

 glutathione – needed for detoxification
 B vitamins thiamin and biotin
 Regulates acidity
 RDA: none
 Sources: part of dietary proteins and sulfur-

containing vitamins, found in some food
preservatives
 Deficiency: none known
Water and Minerals

Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium & Sulfur
Water and Minerals

Trace minerals: Iron
 Part of hemoglobin which transports oxygen to
body cells and carries carbon dioxide away from
them for elimination by the lungs
 Needed for other iron-containing proteins such as

myoglobin, a muscle protein which increases
oxygen available for contraction
 Essential for ATP production
 Heme iron in proteins is absorbed more than twice

as efficiently as the nonheme iron in plant sources
Water and Minerals

Iron availability
Water and Minerals

Iron
 RDA: adults = 8 mg/day; UL = 45 mg/day
 Sources: red and organ meats, legumes, leafy greens,

whole and enriched grains

 Deficiency: iron-deficiency anemia causing fatigue,

weakness, headache, decreased work capacity, body
temperature problems, behavior changes, increased
infection, impaired development, lead poisoning
 Excess: intestinal lining damage, abnormal body acidity,

shock, liver failure; iron overload from inherited
hemochromatosis
Water and Minerals

Iron sources
Water and Minerals

Iron deficiency
Water and Minerals

Iron deficiency
Water and Minerals

Iron excess
Water and Minerals

Copper
 A copper-containing protein is needed for

iron transport from intestinal cells
 Component of proteins and enzymes

involved in:
 Connective tissue synthesis

 Lipid metabolism
 Heart muscle maintenance
 Immune and central nervous system functions
Water and Minerals

Copper
 RDA: adults = 900 micrograms/day; UL = 10 mg/day
 Sources: organ meats, seafood, nuts, seeds, whole-

grain breads and cereals, chocolate
 Deficiency: iron-deficiency anemia, decreased collagen,

high blood cholesterol, impaired growth, heart and
nervous system degeneration, hair color and structure
changes, increased infections, decreased antioxidants
 Excess: from supplements, copper containers,

contaminated water, causing abdominal pain, vomiting,
diarrhea
Water and Minerals

Zinc
 Involved in the functioning enzymes involved in:
 Scavenging free radicals

 DNA and RNA synthesis
 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Acid–base balance
 Absorption of folate from food
 Storage and release of insulin
 Mobilization of vitamin A from liver
 Stabilization of cell membranes
 Influences hormonal regulation of cell division
Water and Minerals

Zinc & gene expression
Water and Minerals

Zinc
 RDA: men = 11 mg/day; women = 8 mg/day
 Sources: meat, liver, eggs, dairy products,

vegetables, legumes, seeds
 Deficiency: decreased growth, development

and immunity; skin rashes; diarrhea
 Excess: from supplements causing

gastrointestinal irritation; vomiting; appetite
loss; diarrhea, abdominal cramps;
headaches; decreased immunity, HDL,
copper and iron absorption
Water and Minerals

Zinc sources
Water and Minerals

Selenium
 Incorporated into the structure of certain proteins:
 Glutathione peroxidase which decreases oxidative

damage
 A protein needed to make thyroid hormones
 RDA: adults = 55 mg/day; UL = 400 mg/day
 Sources: seafood, kidney, liver, eggs, grains, nuts, seeds
 Deficiency: Keshan disease = heart disease in China ///

increased risk of cancer
Water and Minerals

Selenium
Water and Minerals

Selenium deficiency
Water and Minerals

Iodine
 ¾ of mineral found in the thyroid gland
 Component of thyroid hormones which

regulate metabolic rate, growth, and
development and promote protein
synthesis
Water and Minerals

Iodine
Water and Minerals

Iodine
 RDA: adults = 150 mg/day; UL = 1100
mg/day
 Sources: seafood, iodinized salt, food

contaminants and additives
 Deficiency: decreased thyroid hormones

causing decreased metabolic rate, fatigue,
weight gain; goiter (enlarged thyroid); during
pregnancy causes spontaneous abortions,
stillbirths, cretinism (brain damage)
 Excess: goiter
Water and Minerals

Chromium
 Component of “glucose tolerance factor,” a
small peptide required to maintain normal
blood glucose levels
 RDA: ages 19–50: men = 35 micrograms/day;

women = 25 micrograms/day
 Sources: liver, brewer’s yeast, nuts, whole

grains
 Deficiency: rare in US
 Excess: little evidence
Water and Minerals

Fluoride
 Incorporated into crystals in tooth enamel

which protects against cavity-causing acids
produced by bacteria
 In saliva, decreases bacterial acid production,

inhibits dissolution of tooth enamel by acid, and
increase enamel re-mineralization after acid
exposure
 Incorporated into crystals in bone
Water and Minerals

Fluoride
 RDA: 0.05 mg/kg/day; UL = 0.1 mg/kg/day for infants
and children less than 9 years old and 10 mg/day
between 9 and 70 years
 Sources: in small amounts in almost all soil, water,

plants, and animals; toothpaste; tea; marine fish with
bones; fluoridated water
 Deficiency: tooth decay
 Excess: fluorosis causing black and brown stains

and cracking and pitting of the teeth
Water and Minerals

Fluoride
Water and Minerals

Manganese
 Constituent of some enzymes and activator of
others involved in:
 Carbohydrate and cholesterol metabolism

 Bone formation
 Urea synthesis
 Oxidative damage prevention
 RDA: men = 2.3 mg/day; women = 1.8 mg/day
 Sources: whole grains, nuts, legumes, leafy

green vegetables
Water and Minerals

Molybdenum
 Needed to activate enzymes functioning in:
 Metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids and nitrogen-

containing compounds in DNA and RNA
 Production of uric acid (waste product)
 Oxidation and detoxification of other compounds
 Readily absorbed from foods
 Regulated by excretion in the urine and bile
 RDA: adults = 45 mg/day
 Sources: milk and milk products, organ meats, breads, cereals,

legumes
Water and Minerals

Trace minerals
Water and Minerals

Trace minerals
Water and Minerals

What should I eat?
 Stay hydrated
 Increase potassium intake
 Decrease sodium intake
 Get calcium into your body and your bones
 Don’t fret about phosphorus
 Maximize your magnesium
 Add more iron and increase iron absorption
 Think zinc
 Trace down your minerals
Water and Minerals

Minerals
Minerals
Major Trace
Water and Minerals

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
•Evaluate role of water in the
body
•Examine mineral sources and
function in the body
•Elucidate mechanisms for
mineral absorption, distribution
and excretion
•Evaluate mineral toxicity and
deficiency
Water and Minerals

WATER AND MINERALS

Nutribio Minerals and Vitamin

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VITAMINS: WATER- and FAT-SOLUBLE

Paolo Robert P. Bueno

• Vitamin nomenclature, properties,

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

accessory growth factors

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• differ from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the following ways:

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Very sensitive to oxidation – Citrus fruits

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Absorbed via sodium-dependent

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Catabolism of tyrosine requires ascorbic acid.

Vitamin C is effective in controlling bacterial invasion by inhibiting activity of bacterial

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Splinter hemorrhages in nails

• Petechial, subcutaneous hemorrhages

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Scorbutic rosary beads -swelling at the ends of longbones

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

– Adults:60 mg/day • >1g gastrointestinal distress

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• a heat labile sulfur-containing vitamin

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Exist in free unphosphorylated form in plant foods

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Co-enzyme in the transketolase reactions

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

– Adults: 1.1-1.2 mg/day • No UL has been established

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Found in foods non-covalently attached to proteins

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Act as prosthetic group of flavoproteins

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Pyruvate dehydrogenase Carbohydrate breakdown

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Substrate Enzyme Product

Hypoxanthine + O2 + H2O Xanthine Oxidase Xanthine + H2O2

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Ariboflavinosis causes oral, facial,

– Adults: 2.0 mg/day • No UL has been established

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

niacin refers to two pyridine

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

• Found in niacin form in

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble

Vitamins: Water- and Fat-soluble