Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16

www.elsevier.com/locate/ultras

Non-contact ultrasonic techniques

Robert E. Green Jr. *

Materials Science and Engineering Department, Johns Hopkins University, 102 Maryland Hall, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore,
MD 21218-2689, USA

Abstract

Non-contact generation and detection of acoustic and ultrasound waveforms is of practical importance, since it permits making
acoustic and ultrasonic measurements at elevated temperatures, in corrosive and other hostile environments, in geometrically dif-
ficult to reach locations, in outer space and doing this at relatively large distances from the test structure. Non-contact acoustical
and ultrasonic techniques currently available are laser generation, optical interferometric detection, electromagnetic acoustic
transducers (EMATs), air(gas)-coupled systems and hybrid combinations of the above. The present paper will describe how several
such systems have been used in unique materials characterization applications.
Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Non-contact; Acoustic emission; Interferometers; Holography; EMATs; Lasers; Air(gas)coupling

1. Introduction Non-contact techniques can make measurements in hot

A problem which can arise with conventional ultra-
sonic techniques used for measurements in solids is the
requirement that piezoelectric transducers be acousti-
cally coupled to the test structure with an acoustical
impedance matching coupling medium such as oil or
grease or immersing the entire material structure to be
tested in a tank of water or using a water squirter sys-
tem. For velocity measurements the coupling medium
can cause transit time errors, while partial transmission
and partial reflection of the ultrasonic energy in the
couplant layer may cause a change in the shape of the
waveform leading to errors in attenuation measure-
ments. Other techniques must be developed if we are to
be able to meet future needs. One of the most unique of
these is non-contact ultrasound.
2. Non-contact methods
Non-contact techniques permit generation and
detection of acoustic waves with less modification of the
detected waveform or frequency spectrum, although all
systems are bandwidth limited, some more than others.
*
Tel.: +1-410-516-8924; fax: +1-410-516-5293.
and cold materials and in other hostile environments, in
geometrically difficult to reach locations and at rela-
tively large distances from the test structure. Several
non-contact acoustical techniques are presently avail-
able using air(gas)-coupling, electromagnetic acoustic
transducers (EMATs), laser generation and optical
holographic or interferometric detection.
3. Acoustic emission
In the 1970s, a US government agency calibrated
piezoelectric transducers for acoustic emission applica-
tions [1]. This was done by using a large solid cylindrical
‘‘transfer block’’ which was polished to a high degree of
flatness. A test specimen was coupled to the transfer
block through a thin layer of liquid or grease. When the
test specimen was deformed by a threaded indenter,
acoustic emission signals were picked up by a piezo-
electric transducer. After observing this system, the
present author spoke to a colleague who was an expert
in optical measurements. As a result, a compact portable
optical interferometric system was developed which
permitted recording of acoustic emission events very
accurately in a simple fashion using the detected normal
displacement signal detected on a half-space [2]. An
example is shown in Fig. 1 where the optically detected

0041-624X/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ultras.2004.01.101
10 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16

Fig. 1. Acoustic emission waveforms from fracture of a glass capillary

as detected optically and piezoelectrically. Left: 200 ms and right: 2 ms
records; (a) and (c) interferometric, (b) and (d) piezoelectric. The
optically detected signal to the left of the vertical dashed line agrees
with theoretical predictions of the displacement associated with the
source. Arrow indicates enlarged view of this portion of waveform.

signal to the left of the vertical dashed line agrees with

theoretical predictions of the displacement associated
with the source. Other research continued in this area
for several years [3–5].

Fig. 2. Holographic interferometry full-field image of ultrasonic waves

propagating in a graphite–epoxy composite showing anisotropic layup
4. Holographic imaging and delamination on left side.

Optical holographic interferometry permits full-field

imaging of ultrasonic wave propagation in materials. In
one application [6,7], a full-field laser pulse was used to
record a holographic image of the front surface of a
composite panel. Then, a point source laser pulse, pos-
sessing sufficient energy to cause ultrasonic wave gen-
eration in the material by thermoelastic heating, was
directed to the center of the panel back surface. After
sufficient time for the thermoelastically generated
acoustic wave to travel to the front surface and progress
away from the center, a third full-field laser pulse was
used to re-expose the holographic plate. The resulting
interference pattern, Fig. 2, shows the wavefront trav-
elling outward from the source with the anisotropic
character of the composite panel evident as well as a
delamination between the layers on the left.

Fig. 3. Types of scanning ultrasonic systems.

5. Types of ultrasonic scanning systems

There are various types of ultrasonic scanning sys-
tems, Fig. 3 and some of them may be used in a non-
contact manner, Fig. 4.
6. Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs)
distance between the EMAT’s face and the surface of
the test object. The footprint of a generating EMAT
transducer is much larger than a detecting one. They can
only be used for electrically conducting materials and
are much better detectors than generators of ultrasound.

Also since the late 1970s, EMATs have been suc- 7. Laser generation and interferometric detection
cessfully used for inspection of metal bars, tubes, pipes
and plates [8–11]. One major problem with EMAT’s In 1963 White reported the generation of elastic
is that their efficiency rapidly decreases with lift-off waves in solid materials by transient surface heating [12]
 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16 11

for both the generating and receiving sources as well as

new interferometer designs. More sophisticated methods
such as laser generation of narrow-band, tone-burst
signals and use of spatial arrays have also been investi-
gated [13–26].

8. Air-coupled generation and detection

Air-coupled generation and detection has been used

to detect splits, checks, delamination and voids in vari-
ous materials in a non-contact manner. Highly aniso-
tropic and inhomogeneous materials such as wood and
Fig. 4. Types of non-contact ultrasonic systems. wood products, with surface layers of gesso, gesso and
linen, paper and wood veneer have been inspected. Two
paintings were tested; one was an oak-cradled panel
and research has continued in this field up to the present painting, Fig. 5, and the other was illustration board
time. Pulsed lasers are able to simultaneously produce mounted on hardboard. In all cases, the air-coupled
shear and longitudinal bulk waves as well as surface ultrasound technique yielded information additional to
modes. Laser beam ultrasound generation and detection that provided by visual examination, xerography and
permits non-contact ultrasonic measurements in both infrared thermography [27–30].
electrically conducting and non-conducting materials, in
materials at elevated temperatures, in corrosive and
other hostile environments, in geometrically difficult to
reach locations and at relatively large distances from the
test object surface.
Three different mechanisms account for the genera-
tion of ultrasonic waves by the impact of pulsed laser
beams on a solid: radiation pressure, ablation and
thermoelasticity. Radiation pressure is the least efficient
and is, therefore, of little importance for practical
applications. At the other extreme, when a laser pulse
possessing high power density strikes the surface of a
material the electromagnetic radiation is absorbed in a
very thin layer and vaporizes it. The amplitude of the
ultrasonic wave generated in the material by this abla-
tion process can often be increased by placing a coating
of a material possessing different thermal properties on
the surface of the test object. Although the surface of the
test object is slightly damaged when ablation occurs, in
certain cases the amount of damage is acceptable when
such a generation process is the only way to generate
ultrasonic waves of sufficient amplitude in a non-contact
manner.
The thermoelastic process consists of absorption of a
laser pulse possessing moderate energy in a finite depth
of the material such that thermal expansion causes a
volume change and consequently an elastic wave. Thus,
the thermoelastic process is the only process which is
truly non-destructive and still capable of generating an
ultrasonic wave of sufficient amplitude for non-
destructive evaluation purposes.
Fig. 5. Air-coupled ultrasonic transmission scan of a cradled panel
Since a laser interferometer receiver is somewhat less painting from the 17th century made from two planks of radially cut
sensitive than its piezoelectric counterpart, methods for oak. Large arrows at top mark open splits,  marks a check, s marks
enhancing sensitivity involve the use of very bright lasers grain of a split, and small arrows mark craquelure in paint layer.
12 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16
9. Laser generation/air-coupled detection
Fiber tow-placement is used in aerospace applications
for large scale non-autoclave processing of high-tem-
perature thermoplastic composites. To improve the
overall quality and performance of the final part, real-
time process control is necessary. Ultrasonic surface
waves are well-suited for this application. One non-
contact system used for this purpose consisted of laser
generation of narrowband surface waves and an air-
coupled transducer [31], Figs. 6 and 7. An optical fiber
delivered Nd:YAG pulsed light at an average of 10 ns
and a 20 Hz repetition rate, without signs of fiber dam-
age. Narrowband surface waves were accomplished by
Fig. 6. Non-contact laser generation/optical interferometric detection
system for ultrasonic process monitoring of tape laying with on-the-fly
curing.
Fig. 7. Detection of two-ply deep poor consolidation using laser generation/air-coupled detection C-scan system.
a spatial modulation technique employing a periodic
transmission mask. The toneburst center frequency of
the resulting ultrasonic pulse was controlled by changing
the line spacing of the illumination source transmission
mask. This permitted control of the surface wave pene-
tration depth, which is determined by the wave frequency
content. Spatial modulation allowed more light to illu-
minate the test surface while retaining the thermoelastic
generation condition, increasing signal detectability
without material damage. The air-coupled transducer
detector was a high-sensitive capacitive device with fre-
quency bandwidth from 100 kHz to nearly 2 MHz. The
liftoff afforded by the fiberoptic bundle and the air-cou-
pled transducer made the system flexible. A similar sys-
tem for sensing bond quality in tow-placed thermoplastic
composites has been used more recently [32].
10. Inspection of railroad rails and wheels
Non-destructive inspection of railroad rails and wheels
is one of the greatest problems facing the transportation
industry today. Ranging from visual inspection, to
magnetic induction and water coupled ultrasonics, the
techniques currently used are far from ideal. Conven-
tional water-coupled contact ultrasonics using piezo-
electric transducers in rolling rubber wheels filled with
water or oil can detect both surface and internal hori-
zontal cracks (parallel to the rail top surface), but cannot
detect transverse cracking, vertical cracking or any
cracks inclined to the top surface. Researchers in
the Johns Hopins University Center for Non-destruc-
tive Evaluation (CNDE) have developed non-contact
 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16 13

Power
ultrasound techniques for railroad rail and wheel
Supply inspection [33–37], Figs. 8–13. These systems can operate
Laser effectively at distances of several inches from the metallic
Oscilloscope
Pluse surfaces, which are sufficient to prevent contact with any
IR
Charge Amplifer rivets, tie-downs, or other protrusions from the rail. Re-
cently, this non-contact ultrasonic system was success-
M2 fully demonstrated at a US government rail test track
facility.
Capacitive Air-Coupled
Transducer
30mm (1.2 in.) diameter
10 mm (0.4 in.) aperture 11. Monitoring radiation embrittlement of metals
50 kHz – 2.0 MHz fequency
As nuclear reactors age the mechanical properties of
Fig. 8. Laser generation/air-coupled detection system for railroad rail
inspection. their steel containment vessels change due to neutron

L R L

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

L R L

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

Fig. 9. Examples of laser generation/air-coupled detection of saw cut defects in railroad rail.

L R L
R
Amplitude

S S

S L
Laser Air
Generation Detection

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
No Defect Surface Defect

R
Amplitude

L
Laser Air
Generation Detection
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
No Defect Surface Defect

Fig. 10. Comparison of defect signals obtained from upper and lower rail surfaces.
14 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16

0.6 With Crack 0.6 Without Crack

0.0 0.0

-0.6 -0.6
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
Time (µsec) Time (µsec)

Laser Generation Points

Air-coupled
Crack
Detection

Top View of Rail

Fig. 11. Example of laser generation/air-coupled detection of saw cut in railroad rail base.

S L
Detector
4 Reflected
Crack Wave
Direct
Wave Transmitted
Relative Amplitude

2 Wave

Laser Line -2
Source
-4

0 250 500 750 1000

Fig. 12. Laser generation/air-coupled detection system for railroad
wheel inspection. S is the detector position and inclination for coun-
terclockwise or short path signal. L is the detector position and incli-
nation for clockwise or long path signal.
Time (s)
Fig. 13. Ultrasonic signal generated at 0° and detected at 90°, with
detector in the long path inclination with a machined slot located 150°
along the wheel flange.

irradiation embrittlement. Charpy impact specimens

identical to the steel in the vessel are placed in surveil-
lance capsules and exposed to similar conditions of
radiation and temperature as the inner surface of the
vessel. At periodic intervals the capsules are removed
and the specimens are subjected to Charpy impact tests
to measure the radiation-induced upward shift in the
ductile to brittle transition temperature.
Since 1950, ultrasonic attenuation measurements
have been made to study steel samples of different
hardness and it has been shown that various forms of
radiation, including neutrons, have a marked effect on
ultrasonic attenuation [38–40]. A new possibility for
non-contact laser techniques is to make ultrasonic
attenuation measurements while materials are being
irradiated.
12. Conclusions
Over the past 40 years non-contact acoustic and
ultrasonic systems have been developed and proven to
be optimal for a number of applications including scans
of wooden panel paintings, composite panels, graphite/
epoxy tape placement, railroad rails and wheels and
potentially for applications including remote, non-con-
tact detection of radiation embrittlement of metals and
for non-destructive measurements in other hazardous
environments. Because of the vast amount of activity in
this field, the references provided in this paper provide
only a brief outline of all the work accomplished.
Numerous other applications relying on non-contact
ultrasound will be found in the coming years.
 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16
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