How Adults Learn

SAMUEL A. MALONE
HOW ADULTS LEARN

SMART LEARNING FOR
ADULTS PART 2
Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

2
How Adults Learn – Smart Learning for Adults Part 2
1st edition
© 2018 Samuel A. Malone & bookboon.com
ISBN 978-87-403-2102-9

3
HOW ADULTS LEARN Contents
CONTENTS
Introduction 6
1 How Do Adults Learn? 8

1.1 Trends in adult learning 8
1.2 How Adults Like to Learn 10
1.3 Adults are self-directed learners 10
1.4 Adults like to share experience 12
1.5 Adults are motivated by goals 13
1.6 Adults like practical problems 16
1.7 Adults like to know the reason for learning 17
1.8 Adults like to be challenged 18
1.9 Adults have other responsibilities 19
1.10 Adults are sometimes fearful of formal learning situations 19
1.11 Adults desire respect 20
1.12 Adults should aspire to lifelong learning 21
Free eBook on
Learning & Development
By the Chief Learning Officer of McKinsey
Download Now

Click on the ad to read more
4
HOW ADULTS LEARN Contents
1.13 Differences between adult learners and child learners 23

1.14 Barriers to adult learning 26
1.15 Removing the barriers to adult learning 30
2 Smart Learning for Adults 33

2.1 Linking and Association 33
2.2 Frequency or repetition 37
2.3 Reflection 40
2.4 Primacy and Recency Effect 45
2.5 The Power of Interruptions 47
2.6 Chunking for better recall 48
2.7 Visualisation 50
2.8 Mental Rehearsal 52
Summary 54

5
HOW ADULTS LEARN Introduction
INTRODUCTION
This is the second book in the series about ‘Smart Learning for Adults’ and is about how
adults learn and the techniques for improved learning. It is now accepted that adults have
their own unique approach to the challenges of learning. They like to have a strong input
into what, where and how they learn. They like to learn in collaborative non-threatening
settings. They are motivated by goals, expectation, interest and practise. They like the learning
to be practical, user friendly, and relevant to their needs. Because of past experience they
sometimes fear formal learning situations. They expect their learning facilitators to treat
them with respect, and give them opportunities to share their experience with others.
Because of their maturity and experience of the world adults are more independent and
self-reliant than children. They like to be given the opportunity to solve their own problems.
An adult’s brain is more developed whereas a child’s brain is a work in progress. Barriers
to adult learning include time constraints, failure to properly identify learning needs and
deterioration in physical senses such as eyesight, hearing and short-term memory.
As an adult there are vital techniques that you should know that will considerably improve
your ability to learn. The techniques discussed are all supported by extensive research
annotated in an extensive bibliography accompanying the third and final book of the series.
In a learning context, association is the purposeful linking of any concept or thought with
another. We remember things better if we associate them with previous experience or with
something we know already. The reflection process, where we think about the past, present
and future is a very important aspect of learning. Frequency is the same as repetition. The
more often you learn, practice and think about something the better you understand and
recall it.
The Primacy effect corresponds to the fact that you tend to remember the first words on
a list better than any others – except perhaps the very last on the same list. The entries in
the middle of the list are usually forgotten unless they are made unique or outstanding in
some way. The Recency effect suggests that you are more likely to remember the last words
on the list marginally less well than you remember the first words.
The Zeigarnik effect says that we are more motivated to complete interrupted and incomplete
tasks than we are to start new ones. Chunking is a method of improving short-term memory
by grouping long numbers or long lists of data into smaller chunks. It includes grouping,
finding patterns, categorising and organising.

6
HOW ADULTS LEARN Introduction
Visualisation is the technique of seeing things in your mind’s eye. Visual associations use
images or pictures. Visualisation is an accepted tool for enhancing performance in sport as
well as in learning. Like physical skill, the psychological skill of imagining must be practised
to be effective. Mental rehearsal has proved to be almost as effective a tool in learning as
doing something in practice.
Samuel A. Malone February 2018

7
HOW ADULTS LEARN How Do Adults Learn?
1 HOW DO ADULTS LEARN?

• What are the significant trends in adult learning?
• How do adults like to learn?
• How do adults motivate themselves to learn?
• What are the differences between adult and child learning?
• What are the barriers to adult learning?
• How can the barriers to learning be overcome?
1.1 TRENDS IN ADULT LEARNING

There are significant trends in adult learning which are currently happening and are likely
to continue to happen over the foreseeable future. These include the following:
• Adult learners are now faced with an unprecedented rate of change. Previous
generations could expect that the education they received in school and college would
last a lifetime. This is no longer the case. The time span between the acquisition
of knowledge and when it becomes obsolete is getting smaller and smaller. The
amount of knowledge in the world is doubling every few years, accelerated further
by the ubiquitous Internet. This means that organisations have been forced to
develop new ways of learning. Learning is now the most important weapon in a
company’s competitive arsenal.
• Many adults will routinely change jobs over the course of their working lifetime.
Some of these jobs will possibly be in unrelated fields demanding retraining or
upskilling. The days of a permanent pensionable job lasting a lifetime are gone. It
is now imperative that adults continue learning and upskilling over their lifetimes.
• Informal learning is a significant proportion of adult learning often accounting for
as much as 90 per cent of our total learning experiences. This means that formal
learning is no longer a significant proportion of our total learning. Learning now
occurs in a variety of ways with e-learning and social media such as Facebook, Twitter
and YouTube becoming an important aspect of our total learning experience. This
is supplemented by on-the-job and collaborative learning with personal networks
playing an increasing role.
• Learning is now a lifelong process. There is a crossover between personal learning
and work related learning and in many cases they are the same. Learning to learn
skills are now more important than ever before. Our ability to learn and to go on
learning is now more important than our store of existing knowledge which can
rapidly go out of date. There will be more emphasis on creativity, problem solving,

8
communication and interpersonal relationship skills in addition to basic literacy,

numeracy and computer skills for jobs now and in the future.
• Learning through technology such as e-learning, m-learning and social media
is altering the way our brains are configured. Information and communications
technology is rewiring the way our brains work and shaping our thinking. Learners
are increasingly proactive and seeking out knowledge for themselves. Social media and
smartphone have made this easier in an Internet connected world. UCLA scientists
have found that middle-aged and older adults, with little Internet experience, were
able to trigger key centres in the brain controlling decision-making and complex
reasoning after just one week of surfing the Web. Their research suggests that
Internet training can stimulate neurons and potentially improve brain function and
thinking skills in older adults.
• Know-how and know-what is being replaced with know-where. In other words it
is now more important to be able to find knowledge when you need it rather than
memorising information the traditional way. Smartphones give us the wherewithal to
access information on the Internet as an when we need it. Much of the information
we need to know can now be offloaded to computers and smartphones. These now
act as adjuncts to our brain.
• There is a continued increase in webinar based delivery of learning. This is facilitated
by an improvement in software and bandwidth and learners becoming more familiar
with the technology. In addition, Google and other search engines have become
pervasive forces on the Internet.
• There is an emphasis on relevancy – employees only getting the training they need,
with additional knowledge being delivered as required, thus creating a lean learning
model. This has become known as just-in-time learning facilitated by smartphones
and other electronic devices.
• Some businesses still support formal, external qualification but there is a trend
emerging that increasingly employers are seeking to have their own internal training
and learning endorsed and accredited. This adds credibility and prestige to the training
that they do and acts as a motivational factor for employees to do such training.
• The Economist survey in 2013 found that organisational structures are becoming
flatter and less hierarchical. This suggests that employees are becoming more
empowered as self-directed learners. With modern technology and Internet learning
they now have the facilities to do so.
‘Adults differ distinctly in terms of such factors as motivation, interest, values, attitudes,
physical and mental abilities, and learning histories.’
– Ralph C. Kennedy

9
1.2 HOW ADULTS LIKE TO LEARN
Adult Learners Adult Learners

are are
Like
Self-directed
challenge
Like to share Other

experience responsibilities
Afraid of
Motivated
formal
by goals
learning
Like practical Crave

problems recognition
Like to know
Lifelong
reason for
Learner
learning
Fig. 2.1 How Adult Like to Learn
1.3 ADULTS ARE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNERS

They like to take control and responsibility for their own learning. They like to solve problems
and figure things out for themselves including how they go about learning. Self-directed
learners cultivate an insatiable curiosity and passion for finding out what is unknown. They
formulate their own questions and then seek out answers. Ideally they should be involved in
diagnosing their own learning needs, formulating their learning goals and in the planning
and evaluation of their learning. If you have ever Googled something, consulted Wikipedia

10
or carried out research related to a hobby or something else you were interested in, then
you are a self-directed learner.
Self-directed learners like to identify the human and material resources they need for learning
and to choose and implement appropriate learning strategies. Adults resist information which
they feel is being imposed on them or doesn’t match up with their own life experiences or
learning needs. Trainers, coaches, mentors and facilitators can show you the way and help
the process but you must learn yourself. In formal learning situations adults prefer to be
facilitated, coached, mentored and encouraged rather than directed.
Adults who register for the same programme come with their unique perceptions, abilities,
values, beliefs, experiences and expectations. They see themselves as partners in the learning
process rather than passive recipients of knowledge. They like to be treated as equals and
appreciate opportunities to engage and share their learning, views and experience with
others. They like to resolve conflicts with team members themselves and find solutions
through collaboration. They don’t like listening passively to lectures but prefer to be actively
engaged in learning.
Learning is not a spectator sport. The more actively engaged the learner is, the more
memorable and effective the learning. Adults learn by doing, by trial and error, by observing
and reflecting on what goes on in the world around them, through interpersonal relationships
with others and by actively trying to make sense of all these experiences. Where exercises,
examples and experiences are used to bolster facts and theory, adults learn more and retain
more. Adults may be self-directed learners but in some contexts they may prefer or need
direction or help from others. For example, in technical subjects such as accounting,
information technology or science based subjects they need support where they do not have
the requisite background or knowledge to be self-directed learners.
How organisations support self-directed learning

Self-directed learning is more likely to occur in supportive environments. Organisations can
facilitate their employees to become self-directed learners by:
• Encouraging employees to identify areas where skills have been forgotten, skill
proficiencies are inadequate, or there are new things to learn. These should be
aligned with the organisation’s goals. A gap analysis will identify those competencies
critical to success in specific jobs.
• Encouraging a participative leadership style with the delegation of the planning
and attainment of operational results to employees.

11
• Creating a culture of learning characterised by empowerment, open communication,

active experimentation to encourage creativity and innovation, and tolerance
of mistakes.
• Encouraging employees to make internal and external contacts and build networks
with colleagues and employees considered experts in an area.
• Providing appropriate time for learning and reflection during the working day and
also encouraging employees to pursue learning projects in their own time.
• Providing a ‘learning to learn’ workshop to orientate employees in the skills of learning
such as analysing themselves as learners, setting learning objectives, planning and
organising learning sessions, using learning resources, determining learning styles,
time management and learning maps.
• Train employees in basic computer skills especially the Internet so that they can
research and avail of online resources. In addition, some employees may need basic
training in literacy skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic.
• Providing online training that can be done in bite-size pieces known as just-in-time
learning to meet identified needs on a need-to-know basis.
• Access to specific facilities in the workplace that can be used before, during and
after working hours such as a learning resource centre providing a range of learning
services. These should include various forms of independent study materials, research
assistance to enable learners to access specialised information, and advice on study
such as the development of learning plans. Employees should be enabled to access
corporate learning resources in their homes including online books, courses and
reference ware.
Self-directed learning is a new paradigm for approaching workplace learning where the
individual employee, not the organisation, is responsible for determining what will be learned,
when it will be learned and how it will be learned. This approach provides customised
learning at lower cost than conventional training.
“Learning is more effective when it is an active rather than a passive process.”
– Euripedes
1.4 ADULTS LIKE TO SHARE EXPERIENCE

Adults have accumulated considerable knowledge and experience over many years that
provide an increasingly rich resource for learning. Sharing expertise gives adults a sense of
self-worth, pride and motivation. It also makes information more memorable so that it is

12
retained for a longer period of time. Trainers should tap into this valuable reservoir for
learning. Adults learn best in an active collaborative group learning situation. Small group
activities foster the development of interpersonal relationships among learners.
Adults learn more from their peers, friends and work mates than they do from formal
instruction. Aristotle echoed this when he said, “What we have to learn to do, we learn by
doing.” Thus adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques such as hands-
on-learning, just-in-time learning, role-play, discussion, debate, open-ended questions, case
studies, examples and problem solving than they do sitting and listening.
‘Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorising pre-
packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are
learning, write reflectively about it, relate it to past experience, and apply it to their daily
lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves.’
– Arthur W. Chickering and Stephen C. Ehrmann
1.5 ADULTS ARE MOTIVATED BY GOALS

The goals must be specific, relevant, timely and meaningful to their needs. Thus they
appreciate learning that is organised with clear learning objectives. Prior to the learning
adults should reflect on what they expect to learn and how it will meet their goals. After
the learning they should reflect on what they learnt, how it helped them meet their goals
and how they will be able to apply the learning in the future.
Generally, adults tend to be more motivated by internal or intrinsic factors such as an

inherent interest or curiosity which creates stronger engagement and better recall rather
than external or extrinsic factors such as a rise in salary or the prospect of promotion. Some
adults even pursue learning for its own sake – they enjoy acquiring knowledge which satisfies
an innately curious enquiring mind. Even learning boring material could be enhanced if
facilitators harness the power of adult curiosity – something they are naturally curious about
and motivated to learn. Nevertheless, the desire to get a good degree relevant to their career
with the support of their line manager is a strong extrinsic motivator likely to encourage
commitment, dedication and engagement.
MRI studies show that when learners’ curiosity was aroused, the parts of the brain that
regulate pleasure and reward lit up. Curious minds also showed increased activity in the
hippocampus, which is involved in the creation of memories. Thus a combination of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivators will help you become a more effective learner and stay motivated.

13
Facilitators who set high expectations for their adult learners can have a powerful impact
on their self-concept, sense of responsibility and motivation levels. This is known as the
Pygmalion effect which shows that learners are influenced positively by the expectation of
significant others. If you treat learners like adults, they will behave like responsible adults.
On the other hand, if you treat them like children, they often behave as such.
Adults like children are motivated by genuine praise which raises their sense of competence,
self-worth and self-esteem. However, praise is not always effective. If the praise is felt to
be dishonest or undeserved, motivation may decline because learners feel that the praise is
false or unearned. In any event, many managers are reluctant to praise and thus miss out
on an inexpensive but very effective way to motivate their staff. It is even more effective
than awarding tangible rewards such as money or prizes. An important secondary motivator
is the sense of fun, enjoyment and pleasure adults experience when they learn something
new they are genuinely interested in. We all know that children learn best when immersed
in play. Adults should do likewise.

14
The six motivations for adult learning

When adults are highly motivated they will be more likely to learn and seek opportunities
to apply it. The six motivations for adult learning are:
• Social relationships. Adults like to make new friends that meet their group,
companionship and friendship needs. When adults see social benefits to a potential
training or learning experience, they will be far more likely to participate in a
meaningful way. Although people might be interested in singing, the prime reason
for joining the local choir might be the desire to meet people in the community
and make friends.
• External expectations. Adults like to comply with instructions from figures of
authority. Authority can be a powerful motivator, and if employees feel like they
have to participate because of their manager’s wishes, they will be more likely to
enrol in training.
• Service to society. Adults sometimes have an altruistic need to serve the needs of the
community and participate in training beneficial to society. When adults know how
the training will help society, they will be more likely to participate.
• Personal advancement. Adults are motivated to achieve higher status, secure professional
advancement, job security and stay abreast of competitors. Not all motivations are
altruistic, and if employees can see the link between training and job promotion
or an improved pay situation, they will be more likely to participate in training.
• Escape/Stimulation. Adults may want to escape boredom, provide a break in the
routine of work or home, and stimulate their minds. Some adults will jump at the
opportunity to get away from the grind of everyday life, and be glad to participate
in training which offers them some challenge.
• Intellectual interest. Some adults like to learn for the sake of learning and to satisfy a
curious mind. Some employees are life-long learners and like to learn. These adults
will take advantage of all learning opportunities presented to them.
‘Do not imagine that the knowledge which I so much recommend to you is confined to
books…for the knowledge of the world is only to be acquired in the world and not in a closet.’
– Earl of Chesterfield

15
1.6 ADULTS LIKE PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

Adults tend to have a problem-centred orientation to learning rather than a subject-matter
orientation. Important knowledge is often tacit rather than explicit and absorbed subconsciously
while doing work tasks. You learn the work through necessity and repetition – by doing it
over and over again until the process becomes habitual. Adults are often more interested
in practical information rather than theories and concepts. Adults are competency-based
learners. This means that they want to learn a skill or acquire knowledge that they can
apply to their immediate life and work circumstances. Hence the principles of adult learning
have been applied in multiple disciplines such as training, medicine, criminal justice, law,
accountancy and management.
In training the application of the principles of adult learning helps trainers design programmes
more pertinent to the needs of adults. In management education it has been used to prepare
students for their working environment. As business structures become flatter; employees
within groups must become more self-reliant and better able to solve their own problems.
Groups learn as they work and learn from the challenges and obstacles they encounter.
They learn how to work more effectively as a unit and how to do jobs better. Thus modern
management requires practical implementation of skills rather than theories and concepts.
Students, when they enter the workplace need to be able to work in groups, cope with rapid
change, cope with different personalities and solve real-world business problems.
Similarly, in medicine you can’t just be a theoretical doctor. You need to be able to diagnose
and treat the medical needs of your patients with a hands-on approach. In addition, to
ensure effective consultations doctors need to actively listen to patients’ ideas, concerns
and expectations. Doing this leads to a better understanding, collaboration and enhanced
relationship with patients.
Adult learning principles are widely used in police training. Police officers need problem
solving skills in dealing with community issues such as drugs, assaults, domestic abuse, driving
offences, terrorism and other crimes. A police officer with good sensitivity and problem
solving skills can nip a problem in the bud before it develops into a major criminal issue.
Law students usually have already undertaken undergraduate degrees and may have real
world experience already. Once in law school they want to acquire additional experience
and knowledge to further their careers. Students will learn more of practical experience from
on the job experience and discussing problems with more experienced lawyers than they do
from formal law school. The Chinese proverb holds true that “a single conversation with a
wise man is better than ten years of study.”

16
Adult learning needs are generated by real-life events such as solving everyday problems,
finding a job, changing jobs, pursuing a promotion, marriage, parenthood, moving house,
redundancy, divorce, retirement and bereavement. Most young adults will change their jobs
six to seven times or more over their working lives which mean that they will undertake
additional adult learning out of necessity. Adults may have an ongoing and significant
need to update or acquire new skills for job related reasons and because of rapid changes
in technology.
In other cases learning is often necessary by impending or critical events which create relevancy
and a readiness to learn. For example, adults become very interested in babies when they
know they are about to become parents. Feeding the baby and changing nappies become
critical issues to acquire expertise on. Similarly, adults’ curiosity about Japan is aroused when
they are contemplating going there on holidays. You may have little interest in learning
about performance appraisal when you are in a non-management position. However, you
will be eager to learn such information when promoted into a management role.
I learnt to use computers by sitting down and doing it and asking more experienced people
to help me when I got stuck. I learnt to drive a car when I felt a compelling need to do so.
Work is an important transition whether you are entering work for the first time, moving
to another job or made redundant. These changes trigger off critical training and learning
needs which must be dealt with and provide learning opportunities that must be exploited.
Adults want skills to help them cope with the natural transitions of life. Learning is a means
to an end, rather than an end in itself. So it’s important to enjoy the process of learning
as well as the result.
“The world is the true classroom. The most rewarding and important type of learning is
through experience, seeing something with our own eyes.”
– Jack Hanna
1.7 ADULTS LIKE TO KNOW THE REASON FOR LEARNING

Adults are pragmatic – before they invest time, money and energy, they like to know why
they should learn something. This is known as the WIIFM principle or “What’s in it for
me.” Adults like to do projects that interest them and which they find useful to their work
situation, self-development and career prospects. They also need frequent effective constructive
feedback on how they are doing. Constructive feedback focuses the employee’s attention
on the task, highlighting specific behaviours that need to be improved or done differently.

17
Feedback should be objective rather than personal. Personal feedback which attacks the
individuals’ behaviour can undermine self-esteem, confidence and motivation.
It is also important that feedback is constructive and provided in settings that are private
and non-threatening rather than within the hearing range of work colleagues. There is
nothing more undermining of morale than to be shamed in front of work mates. Learning
occurs on completion of a task when it is followed by feedback, which is then reflected
on, leading to a new understanding and sometimes a revised course of action. This is an
example of the well-known learning cycle. Fellow workers, mentors, coaches, trainers and
learning facilitators can be a reliable source of guidance and feedback.
1.8 ADULTS LIKE TO BE CHALLENGED

If challenged too little adults will get bored; if challenged too much they will get frustrated,
anxious and stressed. Optimum challenge is the key to optimum performance. Challenge
can be compared to playing tennis with a slightly better player. In such circumstances your
game is likely to improve. On the other hand, if the other player is far better and you find
it impossible to return a ball, you are likely to give up, overwhelmed and disheartened by
the experience. If the other player is less skilled than you and can return none of your
balls, you will learn little.
You need to be taken out of your comfort zone in order to be challenged, grow and learn.
States of flow occur when people become so absorbed by their work that they are not
conscious of anything else and enter a dreamlike state where time seems to stand still or
alternatively speed up. According to Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi who has written extensively
about ‘flow’ optimal learning occurs when you achieve your ‘flow’ state of concentration.
This is a distinctive state of mind and feeling in which learning is effortless and enjoyable.
The flow is also known as the stretch zone because it takes you out of your comfort zone.
Learning from failures and mistakes will usually take you beyond your comfort zone. When
you are stretched beyond your current capabilities you gain access to your unique talents,
creativity and passion. You need to stretch beyond your limits and discover new abilities and
possibilities. You need to look for the opportunity to learn new skills and new subjects and
put yourself under some pressure. Such a mental mindset will increase your self-esteem and
confidence and give you the wherewithal to take on even more challenging opportunities.
Neuroscience News reports that when it comes to getting out of seemingly insurmountable
situations, humans have a unique evolutionary innovative edge over other primates. Time and
time again they show their unique ability to solve seemingly insurmountable problems in the

18
most trying circumstances. This is shown in their ability to adapt to the most challenging
environments. For example, on the Apollo 13 voyage engineers, against all odds dramatically
improvised a chemical filter on a lunar module to prevent carbon dioxide build-up from
killing the crew.
1.9 ADULTS HAVE OTHER RESPONSIBILITIES

Because of other responsibilities such as parent, worker, friend and citizen, they may have
other things on their minds besides the learning at hand. In formal education, adult learners
are predominantly part-time students. Adults who decide to pursue part-time studies at
night while holding down a full time job have to balance family life, domestic chores,
work life and study commitments. To be successful in such a situation requires considerable
diplomatic, planning and time management skills as well as dedication and determination.
In the case of adults pursuing part-time studies while working full-time they may feel tired
and stressed at work, which may adversely affect their work performance. Similarly, while
attending night classes they may feel tired after a hard day’s work. So adults are unlikely to
leave their domestic and personal concerns outside the door when they come to work. In
particular, parents with young children may have spent a sleepless night trying to soothe a
teething baby or a difficult young child.
‘No man is an island, entire of himself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the
main. Any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind.’
– John Donne
1.10 ADULTS ARE SOMETIMES FEARFUL OF

FORMAL LEARNING SITUATIONS
This is so because of unpleasant learning experiences they had in the past. For example, they
may have suffered unfortunate traumatic learning experiences at school at the hands of an
insensitive teacher. This teacher may have ridiculed them in front of their fellow students.
Therefore, adults like to learn in a climate conducive to learning which is safe, warm, non-
threatening and non-judgmental. They like their uniqueness, abilities and life achievements
to be acknowledged, respected and celebrated. They appreciate a collaborative learning
environment that fosters intellectual freedom and encourages initiative, experimentation and

19
creativity. They loath an authoritarian climate that treats them like children. They expect
their opinions to be listened to, honoured and appreciated.
Humour can be used to relax adults in formal learning situations. Humour in the training
room or classroom creates openness and respect, and lowers levels of stress. In addition, it
improves the speed of learning, decreases anxiety and increases learners’ attention. What
better way to illustrate business concepts and interpersonal relationship issues than through
comedy like the popular television sitcom called The Office? The Office is typically a worst
case business scenario; an illustration of worst practices – after all inappropriate behaviour
provides valuable learning insights. The Office has provided a huge range of topics for
discussion. These include employee diversity, organisational stress, workplace aggression,
product recalls, personal selling, advertising and promotion, customer feedback, competition
and ethics. Any of these can be used as core learning points.
Similarly trainers who laugh at their own mistakes get across the point that errors are a
normal part of the learning process, and that learning from your mistakes is an important
aspect of learning. On the other hand, sarcasm, bad language and ridicule are no substitute
for good humour and should never be resorted to.
As a trainer you can show respect by taking interest, acknowledging the wealth of experience
that the adults bring to the topic and respond like an equal to their concerns. You should
emphasise the point that making mistakes is natural and should be treated as valuable
learning opportunities rather than a source of shame. You should encourage adult learners
to freely express their ideas and provide them with feedback at appropriate times.
‘If we value only what tests measure we miss the point, for not everything that matters can
be quantified – such as a student’s ability to seek alternative explanations, to raise questions,
to pursue knowledge on his or her own and, critically, to think differently.’
– Diane Ravitch
1.11 ADULTS DESIRE RESPECT

Adults like to be treated with respect and don’t appreciate being made to look foolish
in front of their peers. They do not like to make mistakes in front of others that make
them appear as foolish or incompetent. They have a wealth of experience and should be
encouraged to share it with others. People learn a great deal from their peers. Adults are
social learners and social interaction and collaboration is a key enabler and motivator of

20
learning. People like to build social networks and make new friendships. Adults have a rich
reservoir of knowledge, expertise and experience that can be shared with others and serve
as a resource for learning.
They purposefully connect what they need to learn to what they know already. This provides
a meaningful context for their learning. They like to have their own learning styles recognised,
respected and accommodated for. At a basic level these can be visual, auditory or a-hands
on approach or a combination of all three. Recognising and catering for their learning styles
will improve an adult’s information processing abilities.
1.12 ADULTS SHOULD ASPIRE TO LIFELONG LEARNING

In the globalised, competitive world adults need lifelong learning skills to remain current
and relevant in a world that is constantly changing. The amount of knowledge in the world
is now doubling every few years. To survive in such a world you need strong creative,
problem solving and decision making skills. You also need to be able to identify and exploit
opportunities. The rote learning skills we acquire in school and college do not help adults
think for themselves. They are taught to be passive recipients of knowledge rather than
innovators, problem solvers and critical thinkers.
On the other hand, the modern workplace needs people who can produce creative and
innovative ideas that will help the company to come up with new products, improvement
in existing products and improved systems and procedures. The ability of employees to learn
and go on learning is the new competitive advantage. One company that is committed
to the idea of lifelong learning is Toyota. During the downturn in 2009 they took some
employees off their production plants as business slowed. However, they kept them on the
payroll and enrolled them on learning programmes to learn new skills. This meant that
Toyota could draw on these skills when the business took up again.
The benefits of lifelong learning are well known and include better wages, less likelihood
of unemployment, a loyal workforce, staying healthier and living longer. To facilitate the
process of lifelong learning adult learners need to acquire learning to learn skills. Essentially
learning to learn is an attitude of mind, a passion for new and unexpected ideas, an
attitude of openness and accepting that uncertainty is part of life and of seeking continual
personal growth and improvement. It is about self-management, being responsible, being
collaborative, and having a positive attitude towards learning and using initiative. It is
about self-organisation, communication, teamwork, reflectiveness and self-awareness, time
management, setting goals, research, ICT and study skills.

21
Such learners have a self-understanding of how they learn best, what their strengths and
weaknesses are and what is important to learn and what is not. In the words of the European
Union, it is one of the 8 ‘key competences that citizens require for their personal fulfilment,
social inclusion, active citizenship and employability in our knowledge based society.’ It
makes adult learners active participants in learning rather than passive consumers.
Claxton’s 4Rs Learning Power Model

A useful model about the dispositions one needs to learn how to learn is Claxton’s 4Rs
Learning Power Model. The 4Rs of the model are:
• Resilience – being ready, able and willing to lock onto learning and keep learning.
• Resourcefulness – being ready, willing and able to learn in different ways and in
different contexts.
• Reflectiveness – being ready, willing and able to become more strategic about learning.
• Reciprocity – being ready, willing and able to learn alone and with others.
Research shows that people become more reflective and self-aware and can manage their
thinking functions more effectively as they grow older.
The following skills are essential for learning how to learn:
• Memory techniques such as mnemonics and acronyms so learners can readily recall
materials they study.
• Mind mapping or concept maps to link ideas and develop diagrams to assist memory.
• Reading strategies including different approaches to reading for different purposes.
• Research skills so learners can access information resources on the internet, libraries
and elsewhere themselves.
‘The eight phases of learning how to learn – understood as the unlocking of learning
potential – are planning, mirroring, knowing yourself, observing yourself when learning,
changing frameworks, listening, transforming your believes, being playful and creative.’
– Mattoni

22
1.13 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULT LEARNERS

AND CHILD LEARNERS
• Children are dependent on their teachers for guidance and knowledge while most
adults see themselves as self-directing, independent, responsible and more in control
of their learning. Adults are generally more capable of monitoring their own
progress. The education of children is compulsory, formal and standardised. They
have little say in where and what they learn. Children are seen as passive receptacles
of knowledge. The emphasis is on the accumulation of knowledge through rote
memorisation. In contrast, the learning of adults is voluntary and they need to be
actively engaged in their learning. The aim of adult education is to produce self-
actualised and self-directed learners. Their needs require know-how in completing
tasks, and solving problems. They often get impatient listening to long lectures on
theory rather than examples of how the theory can be put into practice. Adults
realise that ‘without theory practice is unintelligible, without practice, theory is
not understood.’
• The focus of adult learning is not on accumulating knowledge, but on developing
immediate skills necessary for resolving everyday problems and doing useful tasks.
Education for children is subject centred. On the other hand, training for adults
should be task centred. For example, a child in a school composition class learns
grammar, and then sentence and paragraph construction. An adult in a writing
training programme learns about business letter, email composition, report writing
and maybe about how to draw up a marketing plan. Because of their knowledge
and experience of the world, adults are likely to have more initiative than children.
However, it is wrong to be dogmatic about this as there as some adults who lack
initiative and require considerable guidance from their trainers.
• Adults focus on direct application and relevancy of their learning. Adults returning
to education often seek to get some recognition in the form of credits for their
life experience. Many of them are doing part-time studies so they want accelerated
learning programmes so that they can complete their degrees as quickly as possible.
In addition to studying, they are often rearing young families and working full-time.
They often feel that their experience is not appreciated by the academic community.
In addition, they like to be taught by faculty who are either practitioners or not too
long removed from practice so that they are in touch with what is going on in the
real world and can share useful experiences. Children have not the same quality of
life experiences as adults. Thus the learning of children has more long-term aims
such as providing a general education acting as the foundation for further knowledge.
• Adults expect to be able to answer part or all of their questions from their own
experience, education and resources while children are more dependent and expect
their questions to be answered by authority figures such as teachers and parents.

23
• Children expect to be told what to do and willingly accept the input of teachers and
others without question. Adults may have their own ideas based on their previous
experience of the world, judgement and critical thinking skills. Depending on their
level of knowledge and expertise adults may sometimes appreciate an input into
their learning from appropriate experts.
• Adults may arrive at training with a lot more baggage than children. Acquired
experience can be a liability as well as an asset. As well as enabling learning it
can also act as a hindrance. Adults may have psychological issues such as negative
beliefs, attitudes and experiences of learning from their childhood. They may have
experienced much criticism, failure and discouragement at school so that their self-
confidence and self-worth has been undermined by their teachers. These feelings
may have to be overcome before they learn new knowledge and skills. Adults may
also be impeded by incorrect information and knowledge and inappropriate beliefs
concerning learning.
360°
• Children have limited life experiences, are more trusting and lack the maturity,
.
reflection and judgement to put new learning into context and so be in a position to
thinking
check its usefulness and validity. On the other hand, adults may have a vast resource
of knowledge and experience to associate the learning with. Unlike children adults
have a greater sense of perspective leading to sounder judgements about themselves
360°
thinking . 360°
thinking .
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers Dis
© Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers © Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Discoverfree
Download theeBooks
truth atatbookboon.com
www.deloitte.ca/careers
24
and others. Adults can reflect on their learning, link it to their experience, put it
into context and share and compare their reflections and insights with their peers.
Children are unlikely to have the discernment, judgement, experience and critical
thinking skills to do likewise. Adults are in a better position to decide if the learning
is relevant to their needs and put it into the context of their previous knowledge
and experience. Furthermore, they can decide whether or not they are going to use
the learning in their present and future activities.
• Because of other commitments, responsibilities and time pressures adults may find
it difficult to give learning the priority and attention it deserves. They do not suffer
fools gladly and may be impatient with trainers who lack the expertise about adult
learners and presentation skills to enable them to impart knowledge and skills
effectively. Most children have no such issues.
• A child’s brain and an adult’s brain are different. An adult’s brain is fully developed
by 25 years of age whereas a child’s brain is a work in progress. A child’s readiness
to learn is linked to both academic development and biological development. An
adult’s readiness to learn is linked to a need to know.
• Children actually perceive time and understand things differently than adults do.
Time seems to pass more slowly and they lack the maturity to interpret things
realistically. Adults’ perception of time changes as they age – time seems to speed
up and pass more quickly as they mature. In addition, most adults seem to
become more pragmatic and acquire more wisdom as they get older. This helps
them negotiate life changes through improved problem solving, decision making,
maturity and knowledge gained through experience. Wisdom also includes insight
into human actions and decisions, the limitation of one’s own knowledge, and the
understanding of events in real world contexts.
• The life stages of people may affect motivation, creativity and learning. It has been
found that young people often bring new and unique understanding to problems.
They usually have a willingness to explore more alternatives, which can lead to more
radical innovations. On the other hand, middle aged people are more inclined to
come up with incremental improvements. Having said that, older people have more
knowledge, wisdom and experience which in some instances may allow for better
chances for breakthrough innovative developments.
“The excitement of learning separates youth from old age. As long as you’re learning,
you’re not old.”
– Rosalyn S Yalow

25
1.14 BARRIERS TO ADULT LEARNING

Knowing how adults learn is only half the battle. It is also worthwhile to consider and
think about why adults do not learn which is sometimes termed ‘barriers to learning.’ The
more we know about these the greater our ability to structure learning experiences that will
suit, engage and stimulate learners to grow and develop. The following are some barriers
to learning.
Resource Attitude
Anxiety
deficiency problems
Environmental Group Technical

difficulties Think issues
Learning Training Lack of

styles needs opportunities
Time Inadequate Physical

restrictions experience barriers
Fig. 2.2 Barriers to Learning
• Resource deficiency. Resources that may be deficient include psychological resources

such as low motivation, self-esteem, self-confidence, self-belief, self-efficacy and
intelligence. On a personal level the learner may lack study skills, such as poor
listening, time management, concentration and memory skills and lifelong learning
skills which would help them on their path of learning. There may also be a
deficiency in corporate organisational resources such as a culture for learning and
innovation, and facilities such as training and development and educational support
schemes. If the right type of company norms are held and widely shared, then

26
culture can activate learning and continuous improvement. On the other hand,
if the wrong culture exists, no matter the effort and good intention of employees
trying to promote learning and innovation, few ideas are likely to emerge. One of
the most important valuable resources that managers may allocate to foster learning
is their support in the form of time, interest, recognition and encouragement.
Lack of family encouragement and support may also be an issue. Lack of money,
of childcare facilities and distance from providers of learning may be a problem.
A lack of good and affordable childcare is one of the most commonly reported
reasons for women’s non-participation in adult learning. Information about learning
opportunities may be inadequate or difficult to access.
• Environmental difficulties. The work environment may not support learning. The
environment can be categorised into three types: physical, psychological and social.
The physical environment includes room size, temperature, lighting, acoustics,
technology and seating arrangements. The psychological environment includes
the learning climate and a supportive environment that addresses the hopes and
fears of adult learners. Adults react negatively to threatening situations by using
defensive routines such as procrastination which inhibit learning. Some adults may
be tired and wary of formal classroom situations which they find threatening and
intimidating. The third category is the social environment. Ideally the environment
for learning should encourage social interaction – adults learn from each other in a
social context. The typical bureaucratic culture found in many large organisations
inhibits rather than supports learning. Workplace practices and processes such as
specialisation, standardisation and bureaucracy may inhibit learning. Team working
which encourages cooperation, collaboration and the sharing of knowledge and
expertise is sometimes lacking in organisations. Furthermore, modern ways of life
are not good for learning: for example, poor lifestyle, lack of exercise and diet,
long commuting distances to work, ongoing emotional stress, and environmental
pollutants all damage fragile brain cells. Trainers should listen, observe, design
and use open questions to encourage learning and participation in a positive
learning environment. Employers may need to reorganise work in order to facilitate
developmental learning.
• Style of learning. All adults are different. They have different intellectual ability,
different educational levels, experience and gender, different personalities, different
life stages, different spans of attention, different levels of confidence and different
learning styles. Adopting an inappropriate style not suited to individual learning
preferences may hinder learning. If you are a visual learner and prefer a hands on
approach to learning, sitting passively in a class room listening to lectures will not
help you learn effectively. There may be a mismatch between the trainer’s style and
the learner’s style. Ideally the trainer should try and accommodate the various styles
and backgrounds of the learners by using a variety of training approaches. In the

27
work situation a participative style of management is more conducive to learning

than an autocratic one. A participative style encourages initiative, innovation and
problem solving. Supportive and active encouragement is positively related to the
success of employee learning. Some managers may not encourage staff to attend
training courses due to tight staffing levels. Some managers may have a negative
view of formal training. In other cases employees may be reluctant to attend courses
because the work piles up during their absence. Trying to get through the arrears
of work puts them under pressure when they return.
• Time restrictions. Learning can be hard work and any worthwhile learning takes
dedication and time. You may have insufficient time because of responsibilities such
as family, looking after elderly parents, career and social commitments. Insufficient
time will create tension and frustrate learning. You must allocate an appropriate
amount of time to learning including class attendance, commuting time, research
time and study time. Also, you must be in a relaxed, receptive and positive state to
learn effectively. In addition, institutions that offer learning may have inconvenient
time schedules or locations for programmes. These may be overcome by taking
courses on line. Furthermore, the programmes may be irrelevant or inappropriate
for your needs.
• Attitude problems. Negative attitudes such as fear of failure may evoke negative
outcomes. Some people may have had an unpleasant learning experience at school
and thus have acquired a fear or distrust of formal learning. They may have been
traumatised by being told by their teachers that they were stupid, bad writers or
poor at maths thus creating emotional barriers to learning which continues to haunt
them as adults. Other people may feel that they are too old to learn and that the
task of taking up study again after so many years seems to be an insurmountable
task. Most people have a fear of the unknown, and prefer to stick to tried and
tested routines. They feel uneasy moving away from their comfort zones to learn
new things. Confidence, self-esteem and self-belief are needed for successful learning.
Some people may not recognise that they need to learn and feel they have sufficient
competence in their existing jobs. They may lack ambition and be content to
stay as they are. They believe that they have better things to do than undertake
learning projects. Some adults are part of a social or occupational culture that views
learning in a negative light and so it may be difficult for individuals to go against
this attitude. This is an attitude prevalent amongst certain sections of the working
class who have no tradition of learning. In summary, adults may find it difficult to
learn if it clashes with their long held values, beliefs, culture or previous experience.
• Group think. This is the tendency for like-minded people, within a cohesive group,
to agree on issues without considering alternatives, or challenging each other’s ideas
critically and rationally. There is an erroneous perception of group unanimity while
simultaneously filtering out divergent views. People have an innate tendency to

28
agree with and support the majority viewpoint and set aside their own personal
views. The phenomenon of group think may arise in groups such as a political
party, or a board of directors influenced by a strong charismatic leader. The term
‘group think’ was coined by Irving Janis from his analysis of policy fiascos, the most
famous being the Bay of Pigs. Here President John F Kennedy allowed himself to
be swept along by the delusional consensus of his advisors. He supported Cuban
refugees in a disastrous invasion of their former homeland
• Training needs. The training may be presented without the needs of the adult
learner in mind, or the training may be irrelevant. Learning should be designed
in relation to specific needs. The trainer should show the relationship between the
training, and the experience of the learner and possible outcomes such as greater
productivity, acquisition of vital job related information and improved developmental
and career prospects. Rewards, reinforcement, praise and feedback should be in place
for learning. Many people are sent on courses because it is ‘their turn’ or because
budgetary resources ought to be used up before the year’s end.
• Inadequate experience. The learner may have insufficient prior experience or
knowledge to make the links and associations necessary for effective learning. A low
level of schooling or educational attainment is a serious barrier to learning. Some
adults may have literacy and numeracy problems which hold them back particularly
in subjects such as accounting, science and information and communications
technology. Problems with technical terminology are often a barrier to learning
when adults undertake learning a new subject. They often feel ashamed about this
and thus do not look for help. Good trainers present a series of novel interesting
challenges to keep learners engaged and motivated. These challenges should be
neither too easy nor too hard for each person’s stage of development.
• Anxiety. If your mind is occupied with negative thoughts, there is no room for
anything else. A positive state of mind is best for learning. For example, test anxiety
can cause a student to freeze and forget factual information and perform below
par irrespective of how well they have prepared. Management of test anxiety has
helped many students pass exams.
• Technical issues. Some adults suffer from techno-phobia or a fear of computers. This
particularly comes in to play if you are doing online courses accessed through the
internet. Other issues which may arise are poor Internet connections and broadband
speed especially in rural areas. This is particularly a problem in underdeveloped rather
than developed economies. Middle class adults are more likely to have computers
and other educational resources in their homes than poorer adults. Even in the
workplace some adults may have limited internet access.
• Lack of opportunities. Certain grades of employees such as porters, security,
catering and cleaning staff are unlikely to get the same opportunities for training
as higher administrative, technical and managerial staff. It seems that those who

29
require training the most get the least. Most of these employees are in front line
positions with considerable contact with customers, suppliers and the public. In
fact, they are often the first people outsiders come in contact with when they enter
or telephone the company. They can act as great ambassadors for the business. First
impressions are important and the way they are perceived by customers sets the
scene for the future for good or bad.
Thus a high proportion of employees are neglected resulting in poor motivation,
customer relations skills, and low job satisfaction with consequent high turnover
rates. In addition, opportunities for higher productivity and profitability with reduced
operating costs are lost.
• Physical barriers. Older adults may have poor eyesight, hearing, mobility and
short-term memory problems. Older adults have slower reaction times than younger
learners – they need more time to learn new things as they age. However, where
adults can control the pace of learning they can compensate for their lack of speed
and learn new things successfully. Most providers of training and education do
not take into consideration the physical difference of adult learners. Poor health
and certain life events may also affect the energy or motivation of adults to learn.
For example, pain and fatigue is often a side effect of chronic illnesses making it
difficult for adults to focus on learning. In addition, some adults may be forced to
attend workshops and conferences because their jobs are under threat. The stress
of such situations is not conducive to learning.
“Problems do not go away. They must be worked through or else they remain, forever a
barrier to the growth and development of the spirit.”
– M. Scott Peck
1.15 REMOVING THE BARRIERS TO ADULT LEARNING

As an adult learning facilitator you should do the following to help adults overcome the
barriers to learning:
• Planning and evaluation. Where possible involve your adult learners in the planning
and evaluation of learning including the setting of learning objectives. Self-assessment
should be a feature of the learning where possible. This can be compared with the
trainer’s assessment. Understand that adults prefer a partnership relationship with
trainers rather than a hierarchical one. This means that you become a facilitator of
learning – the guide on the side rather than the sage on the stage. They also prefer

30
a lot of interaction with the providers of adult learning – they need time to share
their stories, insights and experiences. Interactive approaches include games, case
studies, role play, simulations, demonstrations, dialogue, discussions, open-ended
questions and small group work. Even video games in moderation have been found
to enrich the brain’s strategic planning, spatial navigation and motor skills. Some
studies suggest that they develop working memory – the system responsible for
holding and processing new and already-stored information. The reason they have
got such bad press is that they can become addictive particularly with teenagers.
• Get to know your learners. As a trainer take the opportunity to get to know
more about the background and experience of learners. This will enable you to
link new ideas to learner’s prior knowledge and experience and make your training
more pertinent to their needs. Encourage discussion on how the ideas presented
meet the needs of learners. In particular, demonstrate how content will help adults
successfully solve current workplace problems.
• Provide relevant and meaningful learning. Generally adult learners are more
motivated to pursue learning that interests them and that they can apply immediately
to their lives and work situations. This allows you to concentrate on facilitating the
learning as they are already motivated to learn.
• Identify learning needs. Relate the content of your training programmes to the
practical application needs of your learners. Beforehand, you should always assess
the training needs of your learners and build your programme around these.
Thus the content of your programme should be more utilitarian (of practical use)
than theoretical.
• Accept the multiple roles of adult learners. Be aware that the multiple roles of
adult learners’ means they have less time and energy to read, study, or learn in
comparison with traditional full-time students. Thus your programmes should be
more flexible and accommodating than traditional education. Allow your adult
learners sufficient time to do their assignments by giving them out far ahead of
time and be willing to extend deadlines for exceptional circumstances. Accept that
adult learners may be preoccupied with other roles and responsibilities and that at
times their studies may not be a top priority.
• Impart learning skills. Trainers may need to advise their adult learners about time
management, stress management and study skills because of the limited amount
of time that learners have at their disposal. Study skills may include effective
reading, comprehension, memory and writing skills. Use collaborative rather than
competitive learning approaches when training to alleviate anxiety and encourage
learning from peers.
• Emphasise why the learning is crucial. Trainers should emphasise why the learning
is important and how it meets the learner’s needs. Adults are ready to learn when

31
they have a compelling need to know something. Link new concepts to existing
knowledge and experience.
• Engage in interactive learning. Trainers should allow more time for interaction
between adults to allow them to network and share their perspectives and extensive
experience. Make considerable effort to present material in a variety of ways to
accommodate the different learning styles and needs of learners. Allow plenty of
time for practice, participation and reflection.
• Design an appropriate learning environment. Design the physical learning
environment to compensate for age related issues such as vision and hearing problems.
In addition, create a non-threatening pleasant learning environment where adults
feel safe and comfortable to learn at their own speed. Wet your adult’s curiosity by
encouraging them to explore issues using their own initiative through reading and
research in a self-directed learning approach. For example, allowing adults learners
in a management class to pick their own readings based on the competences they
wish to develop is a case in point.
• Provide positive reinforcement. Use every appropriate opportunity to provide positive
feedback, reinforcement, and follow-up. Use genuine praise to encourage learning.
In this case praise is a type of reward and reinforcement. Thorndike’s law of effect
states that responses followed by a reward will strengthen the response and make
it more likely to happen again. In fact, positive reinforcement has been described
as the single most important factor in maintaining the behaviour of trainees once
they return to their jobs. Positive reinforcement from immediate supervisors has
the most powerful effect.
“Tell me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember.
Involve me, and I will understand.”
– Confucius

32
HOW ADULTS LEARN Smart Learning for Adults
2 SMART LEARNING FOR ADULTS

• What are the laws of association?
• What is the recency and primacy effect?
• Why is active review so important?
• What is the Ziegernik effect?
• How can I exploit the power of visualisation?
2.1 LINKING AND ASSOCIATION

In a learning context, association is the purposeful linking of any concept or thought with
another. We remember things if we associate them with previous experience or with something
we know already. It is vital to generate links while learning rather than just passively reading
or listening to ideas. Make the information personally meaningful by relating it to your
life, experience, interests, prior knowledge or goals. The more links we have in different
parts of the brain for an idea the better. The brain has different areas devoted to listening,
speaking, seeing, thinking and writing. So we should listen, speak, see, think and write
down our ideas.
Use the questioning approach to build up the necessary links and to engrave the subject
matter on memory. Why is this so? How is this so? Where is this so? Who said it? What
else could be deduced? The more the brain is challenged and used, the more memory
associations are formed, the easier it is to remember old and newly acquired information.
Wide and extensive reading will provide a sound foundation on which to build additional
knowledge. It will increase your fund of knowledge; give you greater insight and understanding,
and ability to make meaningful associations.
To remember two or more different things, find some meaningful mental connection between
them. It is more memorable if the connection is active and humorous. For example, if you
want to remember ‘dog’ and ‘bicycle’ you can imagine a dog riding a bicycle. So things can
be associated by vividly imagining them:
• Interacting with each other

• Being placed on top of each other
• Crashing into each other
• Dancing with each other

33
• Fighting with each other

• Orbiting around each other
• Connecting in any other bizarre or amusing way.
In addition, you can use metaphors, analogies, rhymes, stories and parables to help make
things more lasting and memorable. Metaphors clarify thinking by making us think about
one thing in terms of another. They bring life to the complex and make abstract concepts
more tangible and easier to understand. Understanding becomes richer and more complete
through metaphor.
William James (1875–1961), a philosopher and psychologist and known as the Father of
American Psychology, said that the faculty for perceiving analogies is the best indication
of genius. Analogies use a familiar situation as a model for making inferences about an
unfamiliar situation – for example water waves and sound waves. Showing people an analogous
situation from a very different subject area may provide the solution to novel problems.
A well-told story containing the learning points you want to make is a great way of getting
a message across. Doug Stevenson, the founder and president of the training and consulting
company Story Theatre International, maintains that storytelling activates whole-brain
Corporate eLibrary
See our Business Solutions for employee learning
Click here
Management Time Management
Problem solving
Project Management Goal setting Motivation Coaching

34
learning. It stimulates sensory awareness and can take communication from intellectual to
visceral (you feel it in your gut) and experiential. It’s an incredibly powerful vehicle for
getting across your point.
The more you use your brain the more learning associations you will make. The more triggers
and links that are formed, the easier it is to remember previously acquired information,
and also to form new associations. For example, an easy way to tell the spelling difference
between ‘stationary’ and ‘stationery’ is that when your car is parked it is stationary and you
use stationery to write a letter and envelope starts with an ‘e’.
The four laws of association
• Similarity • Contrast
Four Laws
Of Association
• Cause &
• Contiguity
Effect
Fig. 2.3. Four Laws of Association
1. The law of similarity – Two ideas may be associated if they resemble each other – for
example, people with the same name, similar appearance or of the same profession.
If you think of a married friend, it is likely that you will also think of the spouse.
If you think of a foreign holiday you may also think about similar foreign holidays
that you enjoyed. Also you are more likely to associate a bus with a car than
with an aeroplane. You may remember a number, if it is similar to your address,
telephone number, date of your birthday, or the date of a well-known historical
event. In examinations, students are often asked to show the similarities between
various theories.
2. The law of contrast – Two ideas may be associated if they contrast with each other –
for example, tall and short, day and night, black and white, hot and cold. If you
think about the tallest person you know, the shortest one may also come to mind.
It is easier to learn the differences between ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ than between ‘hot’ and

35
‘warm’. In examinations, students are often asked to show the differences between
various theories. The laws of similarity and contrast suggest that comparing and
contrasting ideas is a very effective way of learning information. It is also a good
way to test understanding rather than just rote memorisation.
3. The law of contiguity – Two ideas may be associated if they have occurred together or
near each other in time or space – for example, if two important events happened
on similar dates, one may be recalled by reference to the other. Woodrow Wilson
was the United States President in 1918. The First World War ended in 1918,
and Wilson helped to draw up the peace treaty that determined the shape of the
post-war-world. Most people can link the year of their birth to some important
historical event or the date of their birth to some historical person. For example I
was born on the 3rd of May the same date as Golda Meir (1898–1969) a former
Prime Minister of Israel. Similarly Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527) an Italian
Renaissance historian was born in Florence on my birth date. I am easily able to
remember these famous people as they were born on the same date as me. Some
people frame the front page of their national newspaper on the date of their birth
to celebrate the event. If you were born on or near the 6th June 1944 that was the
date that the World War 2 D-Day invasion of Normandy in France commenced.
If you happened to be born in 1967 that was the year of the first heart transplant
performed by Christian Barnard, a South African surgeon. If you hear a song,
you may recall events that occurred when that song was popular. If you visit your
former homestead memories of childhood experiences may come flooding back.
4. The law of cause and effect – If you can identify a cause it will help you recall the
effect and vice versa. An effect is what happens as a result of the cause. To find
the cause, ask the question ‘why did it happen?’ In science, Isaac Newton’s third
Law of Motion, states for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. For
example, if you were to hold your hand over a candle flame (the cause), the effect
would be that your hand would get burnt and cause pain (the effect). In sentences,
connecting words like ‘because’ and ‘therefore’ are used to show the link between
cause and effect. In everyday life the law of cause and effect is succinctly stated in
the sayings: ‘you reap what you sow’, and ‘what goes around comes around’.
‘Education is an admirable thing, but it is well to remember from time to time that nothing
that is worth knowing can be taught.’
– Oscar Wilde

36
2.2 FREQUENCY OR REPETITION

Frequency means exactly the same as repetition. The more often you learn something the
better you understand and recall it. One of the most startling discoveries is that we forget
50 per cent approximately of what we learn immediately; 80 per cent within 24 hours, 90
per cent within 48 hours and almost everything within a week unless we review and revise.
The natural process of memory decay happens to all of us.
A 2008 Corporate Executive Board study titled ‘Sales Executive Council: Introduction to Talent
Development’ showed that within a week of formal training, people forgot 70 per cent of
what they learned. A month after the event, people forgot 87 per cent of what they learned.
It is likely that these figures have gone up since then given the increase in the availability
of information, the frequency of interruptions and the rapid pace of business change.
Forgetting has a survival value. We forget information that is no longer useful and replace
it with currently valuable information that helps us to survive. Memory research indicates
that the rate of forgetting is the same for normal individuals who put in the same amount
of learning application or effort.
Spacing
To prevent this forgetting, review critical information within 24 hours, and then thereafter
working to a systematic review plan of your choice, if retaining information is important
to personal development, your studies or your career. Intuitively we feel that cramming
or learning in a block (massed learning) is better for recall. Although cramming may be
useful as a last resort on the night before an examination or immediately before a test,
the best long-term results are obtained from spaced repetition. Crammed material will
be almost completely forgotten within a few days. Long-term recall is far better when we
learn information over several sittings, and any schedule of spacing appears to help a lot.
However, short, irregular spaced intervals may be best for learning. Spacing gives you the
opportunity to reactivate and review ideas and bring them to mind over time.
Most people do not remember information after only being told once. Even more alarming
is the fact that an adult’s ability to retain information declines with age. Therefore, repetition
is vital to retaining information. The rule of three states that a person only hears something
after it has been said three times. In training and learning situations, important concepts
and facts should be repeated many times to ensure that learners will hear and retain
the information.

37
Repetition is also important in practicing skills. If you wish to master a skill you must
practice it seven times according to the rule of seven. If you recall shortly after learning it
reduces the amount of forgetting, and spaced repetition further helps retention. The more
a skill is practiced, the easier it becomes and more likely it is that you will remember how
to do it. Therefore trainers should provide multiple opportunities for learners to practice.
Opportunities to practice what was taught in previous training sessions should be offered
to provide more repetition.
Dr. Alice Kim, Ph.D., of the Rotman Research Institute, says that research shows that short
learning modules over a long period such as six months or a year with practise retrieving
the information are best. For example, rather than have new product training take place
just six weeks prior to a product launch, it’s much better to have it take place three months
before or longer. These should be accompanied with tests each week in which learners are
forced to retrieve the information committed to memory. Spacing out content and practising
retrieval are proven strategies for learners.
The existence of an interval between a learning event and a repetition of the learning event
strengthens the memory of learning. The spacing effect has been studied as far back as the
19th century by Ebbinghaus. The spacing effect is related to the lag effect, in which the
recall of items using spaced repetition improves as the interval between repetition increases.
The spacing effect results from the way memory fixes relevant information in the brain.
Information may be temporarily transferred to long-term memory and forgotten about in

a matter of days. However, if you encounter the information again, your memory assumes
an increased probability of the event happening again in the future, and this increases the
duration of memory retention. This is why if you want to retain information you must
operate to a systematic review plan. Neuroscience has found that the hippocampus, which
is located in the lower part of the brain, plays an important role in this process.
One of the biggest challenges in corporate training is finding effective ways to help employees
retain knowledge long enough to apply in to their jobs. Because so much learning is quickly
forgotten, techniques such as spacing and cue cards that extend knowledge retention are
critical to improving training results.
Review plans
Spacing through review is an important way of getting information from short-term memory to
long-term memory. Without review, information is quickly forgotten – hence the importance

38
of drawing up review plans when studying. A good way of reviewing information is from
learning maps. Follow a review plan:
• Review 10 minutes after learning.

• Review again 24 hours later.
• Review again one week later.
• Review again one month later.
• Review frequently coming up towards exam time at irregular intervals.
• Review the night before the exam.
The closer in time learning is delivered to when it is needed, the less forgetting will occur.
On the other hand, the longer we need to remember information, the more the learning
should be spaced out. However, this approach though well-known is rarely practised in
schools, colleges and the workplace.
Experiment with a revision schedule until you find one that suits you. If you don’t invest
time in a review plan, you will spend more time relearning material all over again. Relearning
something that has previously been learned but forgotten gets easier on each successive
occasion, and this is why regular revision is a vital aspect of studying. Retrieval is facilitated
when the original learning has been systematic, thorough, personalised, visualised and
understood by the learner.
The best way to commit a verse to memory is by the progressive part method. The learner
adds a new line while continuing to rehearse the other lines. This is the standard way of
learning poetry at school. For example, learn line one, and then learn lines one and two.
When you have memorised lines one and two, you tackle lines one, two and three, and so on.
Such a procedure ensures:
• Short-term memory is not overloaded.

• The practise and retention of earlier lines, otherwise forgotten through interference.
Professional actors learn their parts in a play by rereading their lines many times over a
short period. For example, they may read their part five to ten times a day over four days.
For non-actors, the best way to commit a passage to memory may be by the ‘progressive
part method. The progressive part method should be preceded by the whole method for best
results. The ‘whole method’ is the mind’s preference for getting the big picture. So get an
overview of the material first before using the progressive part method.

39
Although the role of rote memorisation is controversial, at school it is used effectively to

learn new vocabularies, grammar and ones times-tables. This essential knowledge stays
with us for the rest of our lives. Knowing one’s time-tables off-by-heart is extremely useful
for dealing with everyday arithmetical problems, even if it does not make us any better at
understanding mathematics. Rote memorisation should be combined with reflection and
understanding for deep learning.
Rote memorisation is shallow encoding, and focuses on the superficial aspects of words,
such as the number of vowels and the sound or structure of words. It is a type of surface
learning and is dangerous because it may contribute to the fluency illusion and so set you up
for failure in the future. On the other hand, deep encoding focuses on drawing connections
between words, and other information already in memory. Deep encoding takes more
effort but memory lasts longer and recall is better. Learning maps facilitate the process of
deep learning.
‘Humans more easily remember or learn items when they are studied a few times over a
long period of time (spaced presentation), rather than studied repeatedly in a short period
of time (massed presentation).
– Harmann Ebbinghaus
2.3 REFLECTION
Reflection is about examining, framing and reframing, questioning and exploring knowledge,
concepts, biases or one’s experiences, in order to arrive at new or better understandings. The
poet W.M. Davis was so right when he posed: ‘what is life if full of care, we have no time
to stand and stare?’ It may include an assessment of our beliefs by critically examining the
assumptions on which they are based.
It was while he was scribbling in the sand that Pythagoras set out his famous theory familiar
to every school pupil that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
on the other two sides. Barnes Wallis, of Dam Buster fame, formulated the mathematical
equation that gave birth to the bouncing bomb. He did this while he lay on a beach on a
warm summer’s afternoon in 1939 watching his children skim stones over the water. His
invention made a significant contribution to winning World War 2 with Germany.
Knowledge about reflection as a type of learning goes back thousands of years to the time
of the ancient Greek philosophers. Socrates was probably the first to use the process of

40
reflection in his academy in ancient Greece. He in turn trained his student Plato in the
same process. Other proponents of reflection included Sophocles and more recently John
Locke. Sophocles maintained that we learn by thinking about our observations and what
we do. Similarly, John Locke believed that knowing is thinking about our experiences and
that all knowledge is a function of experience and reflection.
If you are studying for professional or post graduate examinations, relate them to your work,
and try to integrate them with your everyday experience. The process of integration requires
active reflection and concentration which further helps the learning process. Reflection
enables learners to relate the learning outcomes of a learning programme to their work
role. It will also show how their personal development has benefited from the programme.
Some professional bodies encourage students to keep a learning reflection log where they
record the key lessons learnt and how they have applied the knowledge studied to their
jobs and to their lives.
Students do a great deal of learning at college. Similarly, adults do a great deal of learning
formally and informally at work. The process of learning is diminished when it is based
on unexamined experience alone. Thinking time is learning time. Furthermore, learning is
most effective when it is connected to student’s lives and workplaces. What is often missing
is the opportunity to think critically about what they are doing and learning. In particular,
they need to understand how it connects to other things in their lives and how it helps
them become better decision makers and problem solvers.
Different types of reflection

A business report is a type of reflection. It summarises our analyses of past events and makes
recommendations based on our analysis of the past while suggesting what we should do in
the future. This is a type of retrospective (looking back) and prospective (looking forward)
reflection where we learn from past mistakes and failures so as to implement better ways
of doing things in the future. Planning is, in fact, a type of prospective reflection and an
important aspect of a well-run business.
Reflection-in-action is a type of just-in-time learning. It is the opportunity to apply the

reflection process in the heat of the moment to handle potentially challenging situations.
This thoughtful approach is far superior than just having a reactive approach to important
day to day issues. A reactive approach is in fact a type of non-reflection where people do
not critically question their beliefs, attitudes, assumptions and existing ways of doing things.
Dire business consequences are avoided if our problem solving and decision making is better
informed and carefully thought through.

41
Many of the tools and techniques taught in operational research and in total quality
management and indeed management consultancy are types of reflection. These give managers
an opportunity to reflect on important dysfunctional areas of the business such as poor
logistics, duplication, inefficient systems, lack of productivity and poor customer service.
The improvements and innovations arising from these processes may have a powerful effect
on company operations, profits and productivity. Managers live a hectic existence and have
little time for reflection – that is why it is so important for them to reflect on a regular basis.
Similarly, students in educational settings seldom use reflection but when they do so they
agree that it does enhance and consolidate their learning and self-awareness. Where work
placements are part of their degree programme, students benefit by linking their theoretical
studies and work-based experience and reflecting on the process in a structured way. This
helps move them towards deep learning and away from surface learning.
In the corporate world the performance appraisal process is a type of reflection on the past
performance of staff. This is usually done annually, but for behaviour change to happen
it should be done more frequently – as soon as possible after the event or behaviour that
needs to be rectified. It is a way of looking at the strengths and weaknesses of staff with a
view to improvement. Similarly, 360 degree feedback from managers, peers, customers and
suppliers may be sought to get feedback on managerial and staff performance. The insights
developed from an evaluation of past performance may be used for future improvements.
Solutions such as coaching, mentoring and further training may be recommended to improve
the performance of staff.
Review and reflection periods should be built into course programmes including formal and
informal training, mentoring and coaching sessions. Structured reflection sessions should be
done by all employees following challenging experiences such as project work, job rotation,
on-the-job training or external training and development activities. Research shows that
employees who had been given time to reflect performed more than 20 per cent better, on
average, than those in a control group. In fact feedback from managers, employees, coaches
and mentors is a type of review which helps enhance, reinforce and consolidate knowledge.
It makes you more aware of what you need to do to improve and so are in a position to
do so.
Feedback and review helps create a favourable learning climate. It establishes reflective
learning as an essential and important element in any learning programme. It also places
the responsibility for reflective learning squarely on the shoulders of employees rather than
making it the responsibility of others. Active review and reflection helps participants to
internalise, process and connect the learning with their own experience and prior knowledge.
It helps determine where the learning could be applied presently and in the future to make

42
them more effective in their jobs. Workers and students who engage in reflection after
formal and informal training sessions learn more effectively, retain more and become more
self-aware of their thinking processes.
After-action reviews
Some organisations are finding ways to incorporate reflection into their regular activities.
One approach sees reflection as a powerful post hoc tool for understanding the drivers of
success and failure. The U.S. Army is well known for its after-action reviews (AARs). An
effective AAR involves comparing what actually happened with what should have happened
and then diagnosing the gap – be it positive or negative. This should result in follow-up
action to implement the lessons learnt.
A similar approach called debriefing may be taken by students and business managers.
Debriefing may take the form of group discussion, critical analysis, questioning and debate.
It may also take the form of a learning reflection journal, which forms a written record
of questions, ideas, analysis, sources, findings and conclusions, for review and reflection.
Debriefing will help students and business managers alike to identify knowledge and
comprehension gaps.
During debriefing, they should be encouraged to review what they have learnt from the
perspective of ‘What happened?’ ‘What is the significance of what happened?’ and ‘How
do we apply what we’ve learnt from this learning experience?’ A simple question ‘what
else?’ can open the mind to a myriad of previously untapped possibilities. Use the question
‘why,’ which has guided scientists and philosophers to discover insights and discoveries over
centuries that have changed the world.
In a study situation without active review such as self-testing there is the danger of the
fluency illusion previously briefly referred to. This is where you passively review material a few
times and because of this you feel confident you know the material. This gives you a false
sense of security; to be shattered when you sit an exam and try to retrieve the information
you confidently thought you knew but cannot do so. Studies show that highlighting and
rereading text is among the least effective ways for remembering the content of what you
have read.

43
The importance of self-testing

This is why unless you actively self-test you will never really know how well you have learned
the material. It is only by self-testing that you highlight knowledge gaps and thus become
aware of what you need to do to make the knowledge permanent and retrievable. You also
make the learning your own by constructing meaning based on your unique interpretation
of the information. Remembering is not merely a passive act of retrieval from memory. It is
an act of active reconstruction. We actively figure things out for ourselves when we remember
rather than retrieve a fixed record of a past event. This is influenced by our surroundings
and what we are thinking and feeling at the time we retrieve the information.
Research shows that the retrieval required in self-testing can dramatically improve long-
term retention, comprehension and learning. Active review and self-testing would include
drawing up learning maps from memory and comparing them with the learning maps you
did on your initial study of the material. The gaps between the two will show you how
much you’ve forgotten. Those unfamiliar with learning maps may prefer to actively recall
the information through self-testing by attempting to write it down.
E-learning technology has helped the application of the spacing effect in corporate learning
including self-testing. It has been used successfully in sales training such as new product

44
knowledge and health and safety training. Retrieval practice doesn’t mean that employees
have to take tests over and over again. Instead companies are successfully using e-learning
in short five minute sessions to reinforce knowledge – a type of just-in-time learning. These
incorporate bite-sized question and answer programs broadcast as podcast or videos which
test employees with a short series of questions each day. This creates a continuous learning
environment. Boosting employees’ long-term retention also boosts long-term business results.
‘Learning without thought is labour lost; and thought without learning is perilous.’
– Confucius
2.4 PRIMACY AND RECENCY EFFECT

The primacy effect means that you tend to remember the first words on a list better than
any others – except perhaps the very last on the same list. The entries in the middle of the
list are usually forgotten unless they are made unique or outstanding in some way. It also
claims that we remember best what we did first rather than what came subsequently. We
remember our first day at school, our first foreign holiday, our first day at work and our
first love affair. The tendency to recall the last words or the last things we do is called the
recency effect.
The recency effect means that in remembering the entries on a list, you are likely to
remember the last words on the list only marginally less well than you remember the first
words. It is the words in between that will be forgotten. This is so provided the recall begins
immediately after the presentation of the list of words. This is in line with the short-term
effects of memory. If you wait for up to 15 seconds before recalling the words and cannot
rehearse them, the recency effect seems to evaporate completely – although you will probably
still remember the words at the beginning of the list. Similarly, we remember best what we
did last, that is most recently.
The recency/primacy laws suggest that the more starts and finishes in a study session the
better. To maintain your level of concentration keep study sessions to about half an hour’s
duration with short breaks in between for review, rehearsal, active reflection and consolidation
of information into long-term memory. Memories are strengthened during periods of rest
and you must rehearse information frequently to get it into long-term memory. Authors of
non-fiction or academic books often organise the material in chapters to take advantage of
the primacy/recency effect – hence the reason for an introduction and a summary at the
beginning and end of chapters or lessons to help you remember key points.

45
Recency bias research shows that managers’ performance appraisal reviews typically put more
weight on performance and behaviour that occurred recently. This is on the assumption
that you rely solely on memory to evaluate performance which makes the appraisal more
difficult, less accurate, subject to more bias and thus less effective. To avoid this from
happening implement a recording system for your employees’ performance and behaviour –
both good and bad. A simple file for each employee will do recording concrete examples
of positive and negative performance. Focus on recent actions only if they represent a
significant decline or improvement. But consider everything employees have done during
the entire appraisal period.
In recruitment interviews the primacy/recency effect may be an issue. The primacy effect
is where the first candidate is remembered better than subsequent candidates. The recency
effect is where the last candidate is better remembered than previous candidates. It even
operates at the single interview level where the first and last impressions made by the
candidate are the strongest. For example, a candidate who has a good interview may spoil
the effect by saying something inappropriate at the end of the interview. Such bias can be
counteracted by keeping notes, using objective rating scales to assess each skill and judging
candidates simultaneously at the end of the interview process by reference to notes taken
during the interviews.
The technical term for the unique and outstanding effect in psychology is called the Von
Restorff effect. If you want to recall something make it unique and outstanding. We tend not
to remember the mundane, middle-of-the-road, neutral events in our lives. If you dramatize,
personalise and emotionalise something you are more likely to remember it. Pop stars such
as David Bowie, Liberace, and Elton John often dressed in an outrageous unconventional
fashion or did notorious things to attract attention and publicity. Some people may dye
their hair blue, purple or green or a combination of unusual colours to attract attention.
Likewise you can make things novel and unusual to make them more memorable. The brain
is uniquely programmed to pay special attention to anything that is novel or unusual. When
memorising a definition the central part requires more attention than the two extremes.
Think of the acronym MUSE, so that you put movement, unusualness, slapstick and
exaggeration into your mental images. In other words if you want to remember something,
visualise it moving in an unusual context, using vivid imagination, colour, exaggeration and
humour. This makes the information more memorable. In Greek mythology a Muse was
one of the nine goddesses inspiring learning and the arts. When giving a talk use the first
and last parts of your presentation to introduce and reinforce the main points of your topic.
Use the Von Restorff effect in the middle to highlight other important issues.

46
2.5 THE POWER OF INTERRUPTIONS

This phenomenon was discovered by a Russian psychologist named Bluma Zeigarnik, a student
of the famous social psychologist Kurt Lewin in the late 1920s. It is known as the Zeigarnik
Effect and states that we are more motivated to complete interrupted and incomplete tasks
than we are to start new ones. If we are doing a task which we find interesting, motivational
and goal oriented and we have to stop doing it, we’ll find it hard to settle down until we
get back to the task and finish it. Once we finish a task our motivation is gone, our goal
has been met and so we are no longer interested in it. It seems to be a case of out of sight
out of mind. She is said to have noticed this effect while watching waiters in a restaurant.
The waiters remembered complex orders which enabled them to bring the right combination
of food to the tables of their guests. However, the information was quickly forgotten as
soon as the food was delivered. The incomplete orders stuck in the waiters’ minds until the
orders were actually completed.
Bluma decided to research the phenomenon further. In her experiments she decided to test
her theory on her students. The students were required to complete various puzzles. Some
of them were interrupted during the tasks. She found that the students were twice as likely
to remember the interrupted tasks in comparison to the completed ones. The optimum
time for interruption was when they were totally engrossed in their tasks. This resulted in
the best memory recall.
Bluma Zeigarnik concluded that we remember interrupted tasks better than completed
ones because our brains need to get closure on the task we started. Completing the task
eliminates the tension and preoccupation caused by the incomplete task. This is why we get
so addicted to soap operas and dramas that go from week to week and finish each episode
with a cliffhanging scenario compelling us to tune in to the next episode. This is why DVD
box sets are so popular with TV viewers.
Public speakers are aware that if you put forward questions at the start of a presentation
to be answered later on it will keep the audience interested until their curiosity has been
satisfied. In the 19th century Charles Dickens wrote his masterpieces such as Oliver Twist
initially in series leaving his readers wanting more at the end of each week. This resulted
in crowds at the New York docks every week waiting expectantly for the next instalment
to arrive from England because they were so curious to find out what happened.
The Zeigernik Effect suggests that we should end our day on an incomplete task. This will
keep us motivated for the next day to complete the task. In the meantime our subconscious
brain will be quietly figuring out how to complete the unfinished task. For example, at work
if you finish the week on a Friday evening on an incomplete task you are likely to spend

47
the weekend thinking subconsciously about the problem so that you are keen to finish off
the task when you return to work.
The Zeigernick Effect is good news for procrastinators. The important thing for procrastinators
is to get started – preferably on a simple task. Once they start the brain will crave for
closure and this will provide the motivation to get the job done. Writers are well aware of
this process and know that getting started is half the battle.
The Zeigernik Effect highlights the importance of taking breaks when studying. Students who
take breaks will remember material better than students who complete study sessions without
a break. During the break your subconscious will be working on the uncompleted task.
When preparing for examinations do things that are incomplete. This means that your brain
will keep important issues in mind until closure is achieved and the unfinished business is
resolved. Students should start on large assignments as soon as possible. They should stop
when they get stuck confident in the knowledge that their subconscious mind will keep on
working on the ideas in the meantime.
During this process of incubation their minds will get tuned in to their problems and they
will begin to see relevant issues and information all around them that they can use in their
assignment. Being tuned in enables the mind to research more effectively.
‘The beginning is the most important part of the work.’
– Plato
2.6 CHUNKING FOR BETTER RECALL

Chunking is a method of improving short-term memory by grouping long numbers or long
lists of data into smaller chunks. Chunking includes grouping, finding patterns, categorising
and organising. To remember telephone numbers chunk them into groups of three for each
phone number to improve recall.
Chunking becomes especially memorable if it has meaning for the person. An example of
this is a runner who wants to remember numbers. He wants to remember the number 3492
so he converts it to running times – 3 minutes 49.2 seconds. He is using his expertise to
remember the numbers. This system would have little meaning for a non-runner. Similarly,
if you want to remember 421988 and your date of birth happens to be 4-2-1988 – it is
easy to remember such a number.

48
Studies show that there is room in short-term memory for only seven items, plus or minus
two. It was George Miller who set out this finding in 1956 ‘The magic number 7 plus or
minus 2,’ in his famous paper. In experiments to recall a series of unrelated numbers or
words, some people will recall nine, others five, but most will recall seven. Chunking may
well increase the capacity of your short-term memory.
Although most people still can remember only seven numbers or words, they can group
the items in a meaningful way to form a chunk of memory. Each chunk may then act as
one item within short-term memory. For example, if you want to remember your cheque
account number, say 5634820642, it may be more memorable for you to break it down
into chunks as 56 3482 0642. Similarly, a memory span of seven letters can be increased
to 35 if the letters form seven five-letter words and are linked into a sentence. If you want
to remember a list of things such as bananas, oranges, apples and tomatoes you can create a
word out of the first letters – boat. Thus you have created a meaningful word from seemingly
random bits of information. This is an example of using mnemonics as a chunking device
to remember lists of words or ideas.
A study comparing master chess players with novices found that the masters were able to
memorise chess pieces on the board after seeing it for less than five seconds. They did this
by chunking the pieces into familiar configurations or patterns.
The expert can remember about seven chunks but each chunk in turn consists of several
pieces. On the other hand, if the pieces are placed randomly on the board the expert does
no better than the novice when trying to remember the position of the pieces on the board.
In addition, experts use less brain energy than novices. PET scans indicate that a novice
chess player burns more glucose and uses the left side of the brain. An expert player uses
less glucose and engages larger patterns from the right side of the brain.
Similarly, expert soccer players do much better than the average fan if they are briefly shown
a still photo of a soccer game and then asked to remember the positions of the players
on the field. But they perform no better than an average fan, if shown a soccer field with
the players organised randomly. It seems that all experts in arts, science and sport develop
this expertise through years of experience, making mistakes and building up patterns and
intuitions. Some research suggests that it takes up to 10,000 hours of practice to reach a
high level of expertise.

49
2.7 VISUALISATION
Most of us are better able to remember what we see than what we hear. One way of
remembering personal names is to visualise the name written in large capital letters across the
person’s forehead. Visual associations use images or pictures. An example of visual association
in action is the use of the shape of a riding boot to remind one of Italy. Use visualisation to
make information more memorable. Use form and function to create outstanding images.
Visual associations are most effective if they interact and if they are vivid.
Fig. 2.4. Visualisation
Experimental psychology has long established that visualisation is an accepted tool for
enhancing performance in sport, business, counselling and education. British world champion
and Olympic javelin thrower, Steve Backley practised positive thinking when he sprained his
ankle for weeks before a major competition. Instead of giving up, he mentally practised a
thousand throws from his armchair. When the competition arrived, Backley made the throws
he had mentally practised and won. Using all the appropriate senses – visual, auditory and
kinaesthetic – athletes create more vivid and active images of sporting excellence. Specifically
psychologists have found:
1. Mental practice of various motor tasks can lead to a significant improvement

in subsequent actual performance. Mental training affects various outcomes of
actual performance such as muscular strength, movement speed and consistency
in time outcomes.
2. Prolonged performance of tasks in the imagination can lead to significant physiological
changes. Subjects who performed or mentally simulated leg exercises had increased
heart and respiration rates in both situations.
3. Changes in brain activity associated with visualisation can readily be detected using
imaging techniques.

50
These studies showed that the brain region activated through visualisation is a subset of
those activated during actual performance. Like physical skill, the psychological skill of
imagining must be practised to be effective. Visualisation techniques and positive thinking
exercises used in sport have been successfully adapted to business to help executives achieve
their goals.
The more vivid the goals the more attainable they become. Visualisation is also used in
psychological therapies to help people change their behaviour. For example, alcoholics are
taught to visualise how they would effectively handle situations in which they are tempted
to drink.
Students get better results if they concentrate on the process of study rather than the
outcome. Students who visualised themselves getting good study skills and practising good
study and exam techniques got better grades in the exam than those who just visualised a
better outcome.
Visualisation can help improve your memory. Try to create an image of yourself as a person
with a good memory. See yourself remembering the dates, numbers, names and facts necessary
for your personal and business success. As a learner, visualise yourself achieving learning
goals. As a trainer, help learners visualise themselves as successful learners. Get them into
a state of relaxed alertness by asking them to visualise a peaceful scene.
Before making a presentation, visualise yourself speaking successfully and receiving positive
feedback from the audience. Before an interview visualise yourself confidently walking into
the interview room and firmly shaking hands with the prospective interviewer as your eyes
meet those of perhaps your future boss.
Relive your greatest successes and try to recapture your feelings during those times. Relive
your happiest moments. Smiling produces a positive mindset while frowning produces the
opposite effect. Visualisation works because it programmes the mind to work as programmed.
Once programmed the mind operates like a sophisticated radar tracking device, consciously
and unconsciously honing in on whatever we target. The mind cannot perceive the difference
between an actual event and one that is imagined. This is why we tend to move towards
those goals that are clearly visualised.
It has been found that people who can spell well visualise the image of the word and get the
‘feel’ that it is right. They evidently combine visual and kinaesthetic learning to maximise
results. The assumption behind such techniques as creative visualisation is that it is possible
to realise desires through mental imagery and focus. Visualisation has been used in sales
training with some remarkable improvements in selling performance claimed.

51
A common technique of creative people when confronted with a problem or a new subject
is to block out all verbal thoughts and concentrate instead on visual images. For example,
Friedrich Kekule von Stradonitz’s discovery that the molecular structure of benzene and
other organic molecules corresponds to closed chains or rings came as a result of a dream
in which he saw snakes swallowing their tails.
Similarly, Elias Howe, who invented the lock stitch sewing machine, claimed he hit on the
idea after a nightmare. He dreamed that while cannibals were boiling him alive for their
supper he visualised that their spears had holes in the tips. This proved to be the novel
solution to his problem of where he would put the eye of the sewing machine needle.
‘To accomplish great things we must first dream, then visualise, then plan…believe…act!
– Alfred A. Montapert
2.8 MENTAL REHEARSAL

Mental rehearsal is a type of visualisation used by athletes, business people, musicians, actors,
doctors, soldiers and even astronauts. Mental rehearsal is where you run an activity through
your mind which you know you should be able to do or do better. It involves creating
images, sounds, and feelings in your mind. It is one of the techniques of neurolinguistic
programming (NLP).
Psychologists have found that mental rehearsal is nearly as effective for the mind as doing
the actual event. Imagining one’s own body movements ‘lights up’ many of the same brain
areas as actual performance of these movements. A combination of mental practise and
actual practise often results in better performance than that achieved by relying solely on
actual practise. For example, role playing effective negotiation skills and getting feedback
on your performance helps you to develop those skills which reliance solely on mental
rehearsal cannot.
Mental rehearsal is a type of prospective learning. It is used extensively in sport psychology.

Former world champion Jack Nicklaus and other golfers use visualisation to enhance their
game. They mentally rehearse every shot in their minds before going on the golf course. For
example, Jack Nicklaus is quoted as saying ‘I never hit a shot, not even in practice without
having a very sharp in-focus picture of it in my head.’ He visualised the putt roll into the
hole before he strikes the ball.

52
Two time US Olympic pentathlon champion Marilyn King came back from a serious accident
which left her bedridden for some time. She used mental rehearsal while convalescing. Mary
Lou Retton, US 1884 Olympic gold medal gymnast, used mental rehearsal to practise her
routine the night before she struck gold. Napoleon Bonaparte is said to have mentally
rehearsed his battles beforehand. Thomas S. Whetstone, of the University of Louisville,
found (1996) that police officers who mentally rehearsed target shooting for 40 minutes at
home had better shooting scores than those who did little or no rehearsal at home.
You might mentally rehearse a presentation that you will be giving to the senior management
team in the near future. Visualise yourself in the room in which you are to make the
presentation and in your mind rehearse the process that you will go through. See yourself
handling questions in a confident competent self-assured manner. Use positive affirmations
to programme your mind for success. Say to yourself, ‘I am a confident and relaxed speaker.’
Mental rehearsal is a proactive activity. You are thinking ahead and anticipating any setbacks
or problems that may arise. You can then put contingency plans in place to cater for these
problems if they happen. Dealing with obstacles and threats boosts confidence and reduces
anxiety and stress as mental rehearsal involves a certain amount of relaxation.
‘Before every shot I go to the movies inside my head.’
– Jack Nicklaus

53
HOW ADULTS LEARN Summary
SUMMARY
Most adults have their own unique approach to the challenges of learning. They like to
have a strong input into what, where and how they learn. They like to learn in collaborative
non-threatening settings. And they are motivated by goals, expectation, interest and practise.
They like the learning to be practical and pertinent to their needs. Because of past experience
they sometimes fear formal learning situations. They expect their trainers to treat them
with respect for their prior learning and give them opportunities to share their experience
with others.
Because of their maturity and experience of the world they are more independent and
self-resourced than children. And they like to be given the opportunity to solve their own
problems. An adult’s brain is more fully developed, whereas a child’s brain is a work in progress.
Barriers to adult learning include time constraints, failure to properly identify learning needs
and deterioration in physical senses such as eyesight and hearing and short-term memory.
A comprehensive list of suggestions to remove the barriers to learning was discussed.
As an adult there are vital techniques that you should know that will considerably improve
your ability to learn. In a learning context, association is the purposeful linking of any
Brain power By 2020, wind could provide one-tenth of our planet’s

electricity needs. Already today, SKF’s innovative know-
how is crucial to running a large proportion of the
world’s wind turbines.
Up to 25 % of the generating costs relate to mainte-
nance. These can be reduced dramatically thanks to our
systems for on-line condition monitoring and automatic
lubrication. We help make it more economical to create
cleaner, cheaper energy out of thin air.
By sharing our experience, expertise, and creativity,
industries can boost performance beyond expectations.
Therefore we need the best employees who can
meet this challenge!
The Power of Knowledge Engineering
Plug into The Power of Knowledge Engineering.

Visit us at www.skf.com/knowledge

54
HOW ADULTS LEARN Summary
concept or thought with another. We remember things better if we associate them with
previous experience or with something we know already. The reflection process where we
think about the past, present and future is a very important aspect of learning. Frequency is
the same as repetition. And the more often you learn something the better you understand
and recall it.
The Primacy effect maintains that you tend to remember the first words on a list better than
any others – except perhaps the very last on the same list. The entries in the middle of the
list are usually forgotten unless they are made memorable or outstanding in some unique
way. The Recency effect puts forward the idea that you are more likely to remember the
last words on the list marginally less well than you remember the first words.
The Zeigarnik effect says that we are more motivated to complete interrupted and incomplete
tasks than we are to start new ones. Chunking is a method of improving short-term memory
by bringing together long numbers or long lists of data into smaller chunks. It includes
grouping, finding patterns, categorising and organising.
Visualisation is the technique of seeing things in your mind’s eye. Visual associations use
images or pictures. Visualisation is an accepted tool for enhancing performance in competitive
sport. Like physical skill, the psychological skill of imagining must be practised to be effective.
Mental rehearsal is almost as effective in learning as doing the real thing in practice.

55

How Adults Learn

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

How Adults Learn

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

﻿

HOW ADULTS LEARN

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1 How Do Adults Learn? 8

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.13 Differences between adult learners and child learners 23

2 Smart Learning for Adults 33

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

Samuel A. Malone February 2018

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1 HOW DO ADULTS LEARN?

1.1 TRENDS IN ADULT LEARNING

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

communication and interpersonal relationship skills in addition to basic literacy,

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.2 HOW ADULTS LIKE TO LEARN

Adult Learners Adult Learners

Like to share Other

Like practical Crave

Fig. 2.1 How Adult Like to Learn

1.3 ADULTS ARE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNERS

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

How organisations support self-directed learning

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

• Creating a culture of learning characterised by empowerment, open communication,

“Learning is more effective when it is an active rather than a passive process.”

1.4 ADULTS LIKE TO SHARE EXPERIENCE

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

– Arthur W. Chickering and Stephen C. Ehrmann

1.5 ADULTS ARE MOTIVATED BY GOALS

Generally, adults tend to be more motivated by internal or intrinsic factors such as an

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

The six motivations for adult learning

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.6 ADULTS LIKE PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.7 ADULTS LIKE TO KNOW THE REASON FOR LEARNING

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.8 ADULTS LIKE TO BE CHALLENGED

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.9 ADULTS HAVE OTHER RESPONSIBILITIES

1.10 ADULTS ARE SOMETIMES FEARFUL OF

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.11 ADULTS DESIRE RESPECT

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.12 ADULTS SHOULD ASPIRE TO LIFELONG LEARNING

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

Claxton’s 4Rs Learning Power Model

The following skills are essential for learning how to learn:

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.13 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULT LEARNERS

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

© Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.

Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.

Download free eBooks at bookboon.com

1.14 BARRIERS TO ADULT LEARNING

Environmental Group Technical

Learning Training Lack of

Time Inadequate Physical

Fig. 2.2 Barriers to Learning

• Resource deficiency. Resources that may be deficient include psychological resources

1.13 Differences between adult learners and child learners 23

Samuel A. Malone February 2018

1.10 ADULTS ARE SOMETIMES FEARFUL OF

1.13 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULT LEARNERS