1.

Friction model for friction stir welding process

simulation: Calibrations from welding experiments

Abstract
The accurate 3D finite element simulation of the Friction Stir Welding (FSW) process
requires a proper knowledge of both material and interface behaviors, but friction, the
key phenomenon of this process, is quite difficult to model and identify. According to the
extreme encountered conditions and the highly coupled nature of the material flow,
simple tribological tests are not representative enough, so the welding process itself has
been utilized in most analyses of the literature, although its complexity has led to use
simplified numerical models and approaches. The recent development of more accurate
3D simulation software, which allows modeling the entire complexity of the FSW
process, makes it possible to follow a much more rigorous inverse analysis (or
calibration) approach. FSW trials are conducted on an Al 6061 aluminum plate with an
unthreaded concave tool. Forces and tool temperatures are accurately recorded at steady
welding state, for different welding speeds. The numerical simulations are based on an
Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation that has been implemented in the
Forge3® F.E. software. The main feature of the numerical approach is to accurately
compute the contact and frictional surface between the plate and the tool. A first study
using Norton's friction model show the great sensitivity of welding forces and tool
temperatures to friction coefficients, the need to take into account the changes brought to
the contact surface by slight friction variations (thanks to the ALE formulation), the
possibility to get very accurate calibrations on forces, and the impossibility to properly
render the tool temperature profile. On the other hand, the use of Coulomb's friction
model allows obtaining realistic temperature profiles and so calibrating a friction
coefficient that offers an excellent agreement with experiments, on forces as much as on
tool temperatures, for various welding speeds.

Keywords
 Friction stir welding;
 Friction calibration;
 Al 6061;
 ALE formulation;
 Coulomb's friction;
 Norton's friction
2. Shared control of robotic friction stir welding in the
presence of imperfect joint fit-up

Abstract
In this paper a shared control strategy is presented that allows a skilled operator to
identify irregularities that occur during robotic friction stir welding (FSW) and assist the
robotic system in producing an appropriate response. Human operators are adept at
identifying disturbances; however, the complexity of the friction stir welding process
makes it difficult for the operator to respond. While examining the capabilities of shared
control in friction stir welding, this paper focuses on responding to defects that are caused
by a lack of workpiece material during butt welding, such as gaps. A compensation
strategy is presented that combines the human operator's perceptual strengths with an
automated procedure for adjustment of the process parameters (i.e. travel angle and
plunge depth). Experiments comparing four control strategies are performed while
welding 5083-H116 aluminum. Through our experiments we demonstrate that if the FSW
control task is appropriately shared between the human operator and the computer control
system, the weld quality (strength) can be improved (from 9 ksi to 31 ksi for a gap size of
2.5 mm) as compared with the nominal case in which no corrections are made.

Keywords
 Friction stir welding (FSW);
 Aluminum;
 Robotic welding;
 Weld gap;
 Shared control

3. Numerical simulation of friction stir butt welding

process for AA5083-H18 sheets

Abstract
Thermo-mechanical simulation of the friction stir butt welding (FSBW) process was
performed for AA5083-H18 sheets, utilizing a commercial finite volume method (FVM)
code, STAR-CCM+, which is based on the Eulerian formulation. Distributions of
temperature and strain rate histories were calculated under the steady state condition and
simulated temperature distributions (profiles and peak values) were compared with
experiments. It was found that including proper thermal boundary condition for the
backing plate (anvil) is critical for accurate simulation results. Based on the simulation,
thermal and deformation histories of material elements were also calculated, useful to
predict material characteristics of the weld such as hardness or grain size, and possibly
for the susceptibility of weld to abnormal grain growth (AGG) after post-weld heat
treatment.

Keywords
 Friction stir welding;
 Thermo-mechanical Simulation;
 FVM;
 AA5083-H18;
 CFD;
 STAR-CCM+

4. The joint properties of brass plates by friction stir

welding

Abstract
Brass materials widely used as engineering materials in industry because of their high
strength, high corrosion resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity. They are
easily shaped and they possess nice appearance. However, it is difficult to fusion welding
of brasses. The main problem of these alloys in fusion welding is the evaporation of the
zinc during the welding process. After the welding, the weld metal becomes porous.
Moreover, since the amount of the zinc in the alloy is reduced due to evaporation, the
brass material loses its physical and chemical properties which it normally possesses. Not
being solved these problems good enough in fusion welding of brass materials, it had
been directed investigators to apply new methods. It seems that friction stir welding
which is one of the new method developed nowadays, will solve these problems. So, it
needs experimental investigations in this subject. Even though there are so many
researches in the literature about friction stir welding in aluminum and it’s alloys,
researches about copper and it’s alloys especially brass are limited. In this research, it was
pointed out friction stir welding capability especially brass plates which are 3 mm in
thickness. For this reason, experiment conditions were determined and friction stir
welding procedures were applied to brass plates in different rotation and welding speeds.
Obtained welded joints subjected about physical virtual, mechanical tests and
microstructure investigations and the results had been evaluated.

Keywords
 Welded joint;
 Brass;
  Friction stir welding;
 Rotation speed;
 Welding speed

5. Friction stir welding and processing (Aug 2005)

Abstract
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a relatively new solid-state joining process. This joining
technique is energy efficient, environment friendly, and versatile. In particular, it can be
used to join high-strength aerospace aluminum alloys and other metallic alloys that are
hard to weld by conventional fusion welding. FSW is considered to be the most
significant development in metal joining in a decade. Recently, friction stir processing
(FSP) was developed for microstructural modification of metallic materials. In this
review article, the current state of understanding and development of the FSW and FSP
are addressed. Particular emphasis has been given to: (a) mechanisms responsible for the
formation of welds and microstructural refinement, and (b) effects of FSW/FSP
parameters on resultant microstructure and final mechanical properties. While the bulk of
the information is related to aluminum alloys, important results are now available for
other metals and alloys. At this stage, the technology diffusion has significantly outpaced
the fundamental understanding of microstructural evolution and microstructure–property
relationships.

Keywords
 Friction stir welding;
 Friction stir processing;
 Weld;
 Processing;
 Microstructure

6. Repair welding process of friction stir welding groove

defect (2009)

Abstract
The groove defect formed in the friction stir welding dramatically deteriorates weld
appearances and mechanical properties of the joints owing to its larger size and
penetration. Therefore, the friction stir repair welding was utilized to remove such a
groove defect, and the focus was placed on the mechanical properties and microstructural
characteristics of the repair joints so as to obtain an optimum repair welding process. The
experimental results indicate that the groove defect can be removed by friction stir repair
welding, and the offset repair welding process is superior to the symmetrical repair
welding process. In the symmetrical repair welding process, a large number of fine cavity
defects and an obvious aggregation of hard-brittle phase Al2Cu occur, accordingly the
mechanical properties of the repair joint are weakened, and the fracture feature of repair
joint is partially brittle and partially plastic. A good-quality repair joint can be obtained
by the offset repair welding process, and the repair joint is fractured near the interface
between the weld nugget zone and thermal-mechanically affected zone.

Key words
 friction stir welding;
 groove defect;
 repair welding process;
 mechanical properties

7. Developing friction stir welding window for AA2219

aluminium alloy(2011)

Abstract
A friction stir welding window was developed for effective joining of AA2219
aluminium alloy. Joints were fabricated using different combination of process
parameters such as rotational speed and welding speed. Based on macrostructural
analysis, the friction stir welding window was constructed. The strength values of joints
at different regions of friction stir welding window were analyzed using tensile
properties, microstructural studies, and the fracture location of joints was correlated with
the lowest hardness distribution profiles. These windows will act as reference maps for
selecting appropriate friction stir welding process parameters to get good quality welds of
AA2219 aluminium alloys.

Keywords
 friction stir welding window;
 aluminium alloy;
 lowest hardness distribution profile;
 tensile strength
8. Dissimilar friction stir welding between 5052
aluminum alloy and AZ31 magnesium alloy (2010)

Abstract
Dissimilar friction stir welding between 5052 Al alloy and AZ31 Mg alloy with the plate
thickness of 6 mm was investigated. Sound weld was obtained at rotation speed of 600
r/min and welding speed of 40 mm/min. Compared with the base materials, the
microstructure of the stir zone is greatly refined. Complex flow pattern characterized by
intercalation lamellae is formed in the stir zone. Microhardness measurement of the
dissimilar welds presents an uneven distribution due to the complicated microstructure of
the weld, and the maximum value of microhardness in the stir zone is twice higher than
that of the base materials. The tensile fracture position locates at the advancing side
(aluminum side), where the hardness distribution of weld shows a sharp decrease from
the stir zone to 5052 base material.

Key words
 dissimilar friction stir welding;
 5052 aluminum alloy;
 AZ31 magnesium alloy;
 microstructure evolution;
 mechanical property

9. Correlation between welding and hardening

parameters of friction stir welded joints of 2017
aluminum alloy(2012)

Abstract
An experimental study was undertaken to express the hardening Swift law according to
friction stir welding (FSW) aluminum alloy 2017. Tensile tests of welded joints were run
in accordance with face centered composite design. Two types of identified models based
on least square method and response surface method were used to assess the contribution
of FSW independent factors on the hardening parameters. These models were introduced
into finite-element code “Abaqus” to simulate tensile tests of welded joints. The relative
average deviation criterion, between the experimental data and the numerical simulations
of tension-elongation of tensile tests, shows good agreement between the experimental
results and the predicted hardening models. These results can be used to perform multi-
criteria optimization for carrying out specific welds or conducting numerical simulation
of plastic deformation of forming process of FSW parts such as hydroforming, bending
and forging.
Key words
 friction stir welding;
 response surface methodology;
 face centered central composite design;
 hardening;
 simulation;
 relative average deviation criterion

10. Influence of tool plunge depth and welding distance

on friction stir lap welding of AA5454-O aluminum
alloy plates with different thicknesses(2012)

Abstract
AA5454-O aluminum alloy plates with thicknesses of 1.4 and 1.0 mm were friction-stir-
lap-welded (FSLWed). The influences of the tool plunge depth and welding distance on
surface appearance, macrostructure and mechanical properties of the FSLWed plates were
experimentally investigated. The tensile shear load of the FSLWed plates was compared
with that of the adhesive-bonded plates. Defect-free FSLWed zones were successfully
obtained in all the tool plunge depths and the welding distances. The FSLWed zones
exhibited the relatively smooth surface morphologies. Under all the FSLWed conditions,
the FSLWed zone exhibited higher average hardness than the base metal. In addition, the
upper plate exhibited a higher average hardness than the lower plate, although there was
no special tendency in spite of the change in the tool plunge depth and the welding
distance. The maximum tensile shear load of the FSLWed plates was much higher than
that of the adhesive-bonded aluminum alloy plate. Especially, under the FSLW condition
of the plunge depth of 1.8 mm and the welding distance of 40 mm, the tensile shear load
of the FSLWed plate reached a level about 41% greater than that of the adhesive-bonded
aluminum alloy plate. In addition, the maximum tensile shear load of the FSLWed plate
was increased with the increase of the welding distance.

Key words
 friction stir lap welding;
 AA5450-O aluminum alloy;
 tool plunge depth;
 welding distance;
 mechanical properties
11. Microstructure and mechanical properties of S45C
steel prepared by laser-assisted friction stir
welding(2013)

Abstract
In this study, a laser heating system was used as a preheating source during the friction
stir welding of 3.2 mm thick S45C steel plates. The position of the laser focal point
exerted a different preheating effect on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
the welds. When the laser beam was focused just at the joint line and 10 mm ahead of the
rotating tool, the maximum welding speed can reach 800 mm/min, which is much higher
than that of 400 mm/min during the normal FSW process. In addition, the formation of a
brittle martensite phase can also be prevented by preheating when the welding speed is
less than 600 mm/min. It was also found that preheating on the advancing side can
significantly reduce the frictional heat between the tool and the workpiece. However,
preheating on the retreating side can result in highest total heat input into the workpiece.

Highlights

► Laser can be used as extra heat source to the friction stir welding process. ► The
welding speed of S45C steel can be greatly increased by laser preheating. ► The
formation of martensite phase can be prevented by laser preheating. ► The position of
laser beam produces different preheating effect on the welds.

Keywords
 Friction stir welding;
 Preheating;
 Laser;
 Carbon steel;
 Mechanical properties

12. Influences of tool pin profile and welding speed on

the formation of friction stir processing zone in
AA2219 aluminium alloy (2008)

Abstract
AA2219 aluminium alloy has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of light weight
structures requiring a high strength to weight ratio. Compared to the fusion welding
processes that are routinely used for joining structural aluminium alloys, friction stir
welding (FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material
that is being welded does not melt and recast. This process uses a non-consumable tool to
generate frictional heat in the abutting surfaces. The welding parameters and tool pin
profile play major roles in deciding the weld quality. In this investigation, an attempt has
been made to understand the effect of welding speed and tool pin profile on FSP zone
formation in AA2219 aluminium alloy. Five different tool pin profiles (straight
cylindrical, tapered cylindrical, threaded cylindrical, triangular and square) have been
used to fabricate the joints at three different welding speeds. The formation of FSP zone
has been analysed macroscopically. Tensile properties of the joints have been evaluated
and correlated with the FSP zone formation. From this investigation it is found that the
square pin profiled tool produces mechanically sound and metallurgically defect free
welds compared to other tool pin profiles.

Keywords
 AA2219 aluminium alloy;
 Friction stir welding;
 Welding speed;
 Tool pin profile;
 Tensile properties

13. An apropos kinematic framework for the numerical

modeling of friction stir welding (Feb 2013)

Abstract
This paper describes features of a fully coupled thermo-mechanical model for Friction
Stir Welding (FSW) simulation. An apropos kinematic setting for different zones of the
computational domain is introduced and an efficient coupling strategy is proposed. Heat
generation via viscous dissipation as well as frictional heating is considered.

The results of the simulation using the proposed model are compared with the
experimental evidence. The effect of slip and stick condition on non-circular pin shapes is
analyzed. Simulation of material stirring is also carried out via particle tracing, providing
insight of the material flow pattern in the vicinity of the pin.

Highlights

► Approach permitting to avoid remeshing and variables remapping. ► Apropos

combination of three kinematic frameworks for different domain parts. ► The stabilized
approach allows use of elements that do not satisfy LBB condition. ► Temperature-
dependent thermo-physical properties can be used. ► Numerical particle tracing for
visualization of trajectories due to stirring.
Keywords
 Friction stir welding;
 Apropos kinematic framework;
 Particle tracing;
 Visco-plasticity;
 Friction;
 Stabilized finite element method

14. Effects of shoulder on interfacial bonding during

friction stir lap welding of aluminum thin sheets
using tool without pin(2010)

Abstract
To separately investigate the potential effects of shoulder on increasing interfacial bonded
area and its mechanism, friction stir lap welding (FSLW) of 1.8 mm thick Al sheets
without and with insert (copper foil or Al-12Si powders) was conducted using a special
tool without pin, respectively. All the FSLW joints (without insert) fractured within top
sheet but not along faying surface, suggesting that the shoulder plays an important role
comparable or superior to pin in FSLW of thin sheets. Using several specially designed
experimental techniques, the presence of forging and torsion actions of shoulder was
demonstrated. The fracture surface of the joints with inserts indicates that interfacial wear
occurs, which results in the oxide film disruption and vertically interfacial mixing over
the area forged by shoulder with a larger diameter than a general pin, especially at the
boundary region of weld. The boundary effect can be induced and enhanced by forging
effect and torsion effect.

Key words
 friction stir lap welding;
 forging action;
 torsion action;
 boundary effect;
 interfacial wear;
 oxide disruption