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43 Drying of Coal

Article · November 2006

DOI: 10.1201/9781420017618.ch43

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 Drying of Coal
43 Jerzy Pikoń and Arun S. Mujumdar

CONTENTS

43.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 993

43.2 Typical Designs of Dryers Used for Coal Drying .............................................................................. 994
43.2.1 Rotary Dryers...................................................................................................................... 994
43.2.2 Rotary-Tube Dryer.............................................................................................................. 996
43.2.3 Chamber Dryer Equipped with Stirrers............................................................................... 997
43.2.4 Pneumatic Dryers ................................................................................................................ 997
43.2.5 Fluid-Bed Dryers ............................................................................................................... 1001
43.2.6 Fluid-Bed Dryer with Fountain Bed (Spouted Bed).......................................................... 1003
43.2.7 Vibratory Dryers ............................................................................................................... 1005
43.2.8 Mill-Type Dryers ............................................................................................................... 1006
43.2.9 Shaft Dryers....................................................................................................................... 1007
43.2.10 Dryer with Moving Bed..................................................................................................... 1008
43.2.11 Superheated Steam Drying of Coal ................................................................................... 1009
43.3 Recent Developments and Status of Coal Technologies .................................................................. 1010
43.4 Drying of Low-Rank Coals .............................................................................................................. 1012
43.5 Hot Oil Drying ................................................................................................................................. 1013
43.6 Hot Water Drying ............................................................................................................................ 1013
43.7 Combined Grinding and Drying ...................................................................................................... 1013
43.8 Fleissner Process ............................................................................................................................... 1014
43.9 A Nonthermal Biomass Dryer.......................................................................................................... 1014
43.10 Mechanical Thermal Expression Process.......................................................................................... 1014
43.11 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 1014
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................................... 1015
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................. 1016

43.1 INTRODUCTION quality of grinding (if coal is ground), and impedes

Coal drying is of much theoretical and economic
importance. Coal is a valuable fuel and raw material
for many chemical synthesis processes that are
becoming more and more important considering the
increasing price of crude oil. Drying of coal is carried
out to increase its calorific value and facilitate its
transport. Wet coal is difficult to load or unload
from railway cars owing to freezing, which is a
problem in colder climates. The presence of moisture
causes a reduction in friability of coal, makes it
difficult to control blending operations, worsens the
separation and classification as well as the pneumatic
transport of pulverized coal. Friable coal suitable for
combustion in modern steam boilers is obtained only
when the moist coal is dried. Coal must also be dried
for the following processes: (a) briquetting; (b) cok-
ing; (c) gasification; (d) low-temperature carboniza-
tion; (e) liquid fuel synthesis, and others. The final
moisture content requirement of coal is different
depending on the process in which it is used. The
following is a summary of approximate ranges of
moisture content of coal required for various
processes.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Hard coal:
. Coking processes (based on the ramming
method), 8 to 12%
. Coking processes (based on the charring
method), <8%
. Briquetting processes, <4%
. Low-temperature carbonization process, ~0%
. Hydrogenation process, ~0%
. Coal combustion process in the pulverized fuel-
fired furnace, <2%
. Brown coal:Briquetting process, 8 to 18%
. Gasification process, 5 to 15%
. Low-temperature carbonization process, <15%
. Hydrogenation process, ~0%
. Coal combustion process in the pulverized fuel-
fired furnace, 12 to 15%
Coal drying and preheating are of particular import-
ance in coke production because at a relatively small
investment cost (for the installation of dryers) it is
possible to increase the production capacity of the
coke ovens by about 30 to 50% in preheating and
about 10 to 15% in drying. The preheating of coal in
dryers makes it possible to utilize in the mixture a
greater proportion of gas coals, which give coke char-
acterized by better mechanical strength, very low
grainability, and homogeneous graining. The mois-
ture content is very important in determining the
usability of coal for further technological processing.
In coal, the moisture may be present in the form of
surface or hygroscopic moisture. Surface moisture is
not dependent on the coal type because it depends on
the classification and washing processes performed in
the coal mine and on the soaking process during
transport and storage. The evaporation of surface
moisture takes place in the first drying period at a
constant drying rate.
Hygroscopic moisture depends on the rank of
coal; it decreases with the age of coal. The evapor-
2
1
9 10
7 6
FIGURE 43.1 Schematic of a rotary dryer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
ation of hygroscopic moisture takes place in the sec-
ond drying period at a falling drying rate.
43.2 TYPICAL DESIGNS OF DRYERS USED
FOR COAL DRYING
Both direct and indirect dryers are in use for coal
drying. Combustion gases or steam may be used as
the heating medium. Steam-heated dryers (e.g., drum,
tray, and tube dryers) are used mainly for drying of
brown coals in the coal briquetting process. Fre-
quently, coal drying is carried out in convection
dryers, e.g.,
. Rotary dryers
. Pneumatic dryers
. Fluid-bed dryers with spouted bed
. Vibratory fluid-bed dryers
. Shaft dryers
. Mill-type dryers
43.2.1 ROTARY DRYERS
In many industrial plants, rotary dryers are used for
the drying of coal and coal muds. Generally these
dryers operate in the cocurrent mode to avoid the
possibility of ignition. The drying medium is hot air
or combustion gases derived from natural gas or coal
combustion. A typical rotary dryer is shown schemat-
ically in Figure 43.1. The main component of this
dryer is the steel shell (3) lined with a refractory lining
and set up on rollers (7) by means of bandages
(hoops, 10) located on the shell. The shell is rotated
typically using a toothed gear (5). The shell is set up
obliquely with a slope of 2 to 58 to the horizontal.
Inside the shell, there are lifters fastened to the inner
surface of the drum. During operation, these lifters
lift the coal granules and shower them gradually in-
side the shell in the stream of the flowing heating gas.
Various lifters are shown in Figure 43.2.
3 10 9
4
8
5
 L = 0.11D z = 24
z = 16 0 d1
d1 = 0.22D
d2 = 0.45D

(a) d2
z = Number of plates (b) (c)

c
D

b
L1

a = 0.4D
b = 0.10
(d) (e) (f)
L2 c = 0.06D
L1 = 0.15D
L2 = 0.1D

FIGURE 43.2 Scheme of the lifting–mixing devices for rotary dryers.

For drying of big lumps of coal that stick to the
shell wall, type a devices may be used. For lumpy
coals of low friability, type b devices may be used.
For finer coal granules of high friability, the lifting–
mixing devices are made in the form of separate cells
(type f ). For superfine coals (dust), a system of closed
cells (type c) is used. The ends of the dryer shell are
sealed labyrinthinely to the inlet and outlet heads.
The combustion gases leaving the dryer carry coal
dust, which may be up to 15% of the coal fed to the
dryer. Hence the dryer exhaust is directed to cyclones
or electrostatic precipitators to separate the entrained
dust. The final loss of coal does not exceed 0.5 to
1.5%, depending on the type of equipment used for
cleaning the combustion gases. Typical rotary drum
dryers for coal drying are in the following sizes:
(a) Shell diameter, 1.5 to 3.5 m
(b) Shell length, 12 to 30 m or more
The drive motor power required depends on the
dryer diameter, its length and rotating speed, and
holdup weight, and is as follows:
D (m) L (m) Motor Power (kW)
1.5 8 8
1.8 12
2.2 12–14
2.8 12–14
3.2 18
3.5 27
Typical operating parameters for rotary dryers
used for coal drying are given in Table 43.1.
The heat consumption in such dryers amounts to
about 3700 kJ/kg H2O. The drying time is about 15 to 40
min at a holdup fraction of 0.15 to 0.25. The gas velocity
at the dryer outlet should not be more than 2 to 3 m/s for
the drying of fine coals derived from washing and not
more than 0.5 to 1 m/s for the postflotation concentrates
to avoid excessive carryover of coal. The dimensions of
the rotary dryer are determined based on the drying rate
per unit volume, which is given in Table 43.1.
Generally, one cannot know the suitable drying
rate per unit volume because it varies with the dryer
diameter, the flow rate, the temperature of the drying
medium, and the rotation speed of the shell. One has
to calculate dryer volume based on the heat transfer
coefficient.
Knowing the drying rate per unit volume
(amount—kilograms—of moisture evaporated in
time unit from 1 m3 of shell volume), one can calculate
the volume of dryer shell Vb from the formula
W
Vb ¼ (43:1)
NV
From the volumetric flow rate of the drying medium
Vg, assumed fractional holdup b (0.05 to 0.3), and the
14 velocity of drying medium in the drum u, one can
17–20 calculate the diameter of the dryer as
28–35
sffiffiffiffiffiffi
75
120 1:13 V_ g
D ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (43:2)
1b u

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

TABLE 43.1
Operating Parameters for Rotary Dryers Used for Coal Drying

Coal Type Coal Moisture Heating Medium System of Drying Rate per Unit Volume,
(%) Temperature (˚C) Mixing Devices Nv (kg/m3 h)

Before After Before After

Dryer Dryer Dryer Dryer

Hard coal 9 0.6 900 60 Figure 43.2, type a 35–40

Fine coal mixed with 17 5 740 110 Figure 43.2, types a, b 93
postflotation concentrate
Postflotation concentrate 22 5 770 105 Figure 43.2, types a, b 116
High-ash mud, grain 30 1 750 120 Figure 43.2, 120
size 0–2 mm types b, d, e, f

The length of the dryer is calculated from the formula
Vb
L¼
0:785D2
The length–diameter ratio L/D is usually in the range
of 5 to 10. The speed of rotation of the shell n depends
on the length L, diameter D, angle of inclination of
shell a, and the drying time t. It is determined by the
empirical formula
k1 k2 L
n¼
Dtga
where k1 ¼ coefficient characterizing the motion of
material in the drum. For cocurrent dryers used for
coal drying, k1 ¼ 0.2 to 0.7; k2 ¼ coefficient taking
into account the type of distributing or mixing device.
For lifting devices, k2 ¼ 0.5; for the cell and sectional
devices, k2 ¼ 1.0
In practice, the peripheral speed of rotation is
usually 15 to 25 m/min. The dwelling time of coal in
the dryer t is very important in the drying of coking
coals. Excessive drying time can worsen the agglom-
erating property of the coal. The drying time of coal
can be determined from the formula
2zu b X1  X2
¼
Nv 2  (X1  X2 )
43.2.2 ROTARY-TUBE DRYER
have seamless tubes fastened to them (2) at diameters
of about 102 to 108 mm. The dryer shell rolls
on special rings (6) and rollers (7) and is driven
(43:3) by power transmitted (8) by means of a gear wheel
(9). The heating steam enters the drum through the
pin (3). The moist coal is fed inside the heating tubes.
As a consequence of the slope and rotation, the coal
is displaced gradually toward the heating tubes
from the inlet to the outlet. In the heating tubes are
installed screw guides, which control the displacement
of coal. The variable-pitch guides installed in tubes
prevent the displacement of coal in tubes very fast.
(43:4) The dried coal is collected in the lower part of the
chamber (5). The steam condensate is drained
through a pin placed in the lower end of the drum.
In this type of dryer, the convective heat transfer
coefficient from steam to coal is about 25 W/m2K.
Some technical data for the drum-tube dryers are
as follows:
. Diameter D ¼ 2500, 2800, 3130, 3350, 3750, and
4000 mm
. Drum length L ¼ 7 to 8 m
. Angle of inclination of drum a ffi 88
. Speed of rotation n ¼ 5 to 9 rpm
. Drying rate per unit exposed surface NF ¼ 5.4 to
8 kg/m2h
. Temperature of vapor, 908C
(43:5) . Coal temperature at outlet, 808C
. Heat consumption, 2950 to 3100 kJ/kg H2O
. Dust content in vapor in drying of brown coal,
~25 g/m3

The rotary-tube dryers are used widely for coal drying
in brown coal briquetting plants. They are also used
for drying of hard coals. These dryers are indirect
dryers heated by saturated steam at pressures of
0.15 to 0.55 MPa. This dryer (Figure 43.3) consists
of a sloping drum (1), in which the perforated walls
In brown coal briquetting plants, these dryers are
heated by exhaust steam from the briquetting ma-
chines. The steam carries away oil droplets, which are
carbonized, forming deposits on the tube walls. To
remove impurities from the dryer tubes, these tubes
may be washed by circulation of trichloroethylene at

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Inlet of coal
6
Inlet of steam
8 9
7
4 5
FIGURE 43.3 Drum-tube dryer.
70 to 808C for about 3 h. The spent trichloroethylene is
distilled for reuse.
43.2.3 CHAMBER DRYER EQUIPPED WITH STIRRERS
Chamber dryers equipped with stirrers are commonly
used for drying of flotation concentrates (Figure
43.4). The dryer operates in a cocurrent mode. Hot
combustion gases supplied to the dryer by a duct (5)
meet at the outlet the cold and moist coal supplied by
another duct (7). The dryer consists of a chamber (1)
fitted with baffles (9) and two shafts (2) rotating in
opposite directions on which paddles are mounted
7
1 9
5 6
2
3 4
8 length 14 to 35 m through which the hot drying
FIGURE 43.4 Chamber dryer equipped with stirrers.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Outlet of vapors
1
Outlet of
condensate
Outlet of coal
(3,4). The moist coal supplied by a duct (7) is lifted
and thrown by stirrers (3,4) from the inlet to the
outlet (8). The stirrer paddles (3,4) are also useful
for breaking sintered coal. Some technical data are
as follows:
. Combustion gas temperature at inlet, 7008C
. Combustion gas temperature at outlet, 1108C
. Chamber width, 2000 to 2400 mm
. Chamber length, 2000 to 3400 mm
. Drying rate per unit volume, Nv ¼ 600 to 750 kg
H2O/m3h
. Coal moisture content at inlet, 18 to 22%
. Coal moisture content at outlet, 8.5%
. Heat consumption, ~3150 kJ/kg H2O
. Speed of rotation of shaft, 7 to 10 rpm
For pasty feeds, which tend to cake during drying,
chains are fastened to the paddles to break the cakes
formed during drying.
43.2.4 PNEUMATIC DRYERS
Pneumatic dryers are widely used for drying coal and
flotation concentrates. The basic element of the dryer
is a vertical tube of diameter 650 to 1100 mm and
medium (e.g., combustion gases or air) flows from
bottom to the top. The coal being dried is lifted by
the stream of drying gases and transported from
bottom to top. During pneumatic transport, the coal
grains are heated and dried. Thus, the drying gas
velocity depends on the grain size of coal being
dried; in practice this amounts to 10 to 40 m/s. In a
commercial dryer, the disintegrator connected to the
vertical drying tube at the bottom is installed, which
serves to crush and dry moist lump coal from the
feeding chute. Drying hot gas enters the disintegrator
and meets the moist coal. The moist coal is highly
disturbed and mixed with hot gas, and drying is
strongly accelerated. Generally, about 50% of the
water to be dried is removed from the coal in the
disintegrator. The most intensive drying occurs in
the first 2 to 3 m of the dryer. The drying process is
conditioned by the heating medium velocity in rela-
tion to the grain size of coal. This velocity increases
with grain size, as shown in Figure 43.5. This is very
important because coarser grains reside a longer time
in the heating medium. The large surface of contact of
the grains with the heating medium allows rapid dry-
ing, which for finely ground coals is of the order of a
few seconds. The short drying time relates only to the
first drying period, i.e., to the evaporation of surface
50
Combustion 0
gases from 3
coke oven 25
45 gas
Air 20
40 15
moisture. The heating medium parameters have a
decisive effect on this period. The pressure drop char-
acteristics of a pneumatic dryer are illustrated in Fig-
ure 43.6, given by Barth. In the vertical tube, the air
flows upward. Into the airstream is supplied a grained
material shaped as globules. At low air velocities the
globules fall downward; at a high velocity they are
entrained by the airstream. The pressure drop is in-
creased rapidly at the moment when the globules are
entrained because the material begins to collect in the
tube. Beyond the critical zone characterized by a
rapid drop of pressure is the operation zone of pneu-
matic dryers. To select the optimum flow velocity, one
must avoid operation at the clogging zone. The clog-
ging zone is idiosyncratic to each dryer. Here, a slight
increase in solid loading or slight fall in pressure drop
causes the clogging of the pipe. The clogging zone
separates the critical transition zone from the zone
of pneumatic transport. Although Figure 43.6 does
not refer to coal transport, behavior is similar when
transporting ground coals. In pneumatic transport,
heat and mass exchange take place mostly by convec-
tion. The heat exchange between the drying medium
and the coal particles suspended in this medium can
be defined by the Frössling formula
Nu ¼ 2 þ 0:55Pr1=3 Re1=2 (43:6)
In the first 2 to 3 m of drying tube, heat transfer to the
coal particles takes place promptly, so the heat trans-
fer coefficient in this zone is defined as

12
35 Numax ¼ 0:95  104 Re2:15 , 400 < Re < 1300

Numax ¼ 0:76Re0:65 30 < Re < 400

30
Drift velocity (m/s)

8
Figure 43.7 shows the relationship between the Nus-
25 6 selt number and the Reynolds number for heat trans-
fer between particles transported by the air at 0 to
5
1008C.
20
4 The heat supplied to the coal particle suspended in
the gas stream is
15 3

2 _ ¼ hc pd 2 Qm
Q (43:7)
p
10

1
The mean temperature difference Qm is calculated as
5
the logarithmic mean
d = 0.5 mm
Q1  Q2
Qm ¼
0 200 400 600 800 1000 ln Q1 =Q2
Temperature (⬚C)
where
FIGURE 43.5 Drift velocity of coal grains according to
Rammler and Augustin. Q1 ¼ T1  Tm1 and Q2 ¼ T2  Tm2

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 1250
Ø 100

Upper limit of velocity

Loss of energy (pressure) T/m3(Pa)

1000 Plugging limit 1000

Pressure drop Δp (Pa)

m = 0.42 kg/s Critical
transition
750 zone 750
Particles are Pneumatic
falling down transport
500 Fluidized layer 500

With material 250

250
Without material Economical
transport
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Velocity u (m/s)

FIGURE 43.6 Pressure drop of drying medium in empty tube as well as during transport of material (type of material:
spheres, 7.5 mm diameter).

The quantity of heat necessary to evaporate the sur- After substitution of this value in Equation 43.9, the
face moisture is drying time is given by

pdp3 dp2 zs (X1  X2 )

Q¼ zs (X1  X2 )DH (43:8)  ¼ DH (43:10)
6 12Qm l

The time of the drying process is estimated from the In practice, the moist coal particle diameter is larger
formula than the dried, and the particle diameter continues to
change with the moisture decrease, so the correction
Q dp z s X 1  X 2 for the drying time based on the coal particle diameter
¼ ¼ DH (43:9) must be taken into account. The length of the drying
_
Q 6hc Qm
duct, i.e., the effective length of the drying tube, is
At low Reynolds numbers (Re ffi 0) the Frössling then
formula gives L0 ¼ u (43:11)

hc dp The velocity u is the mean velocity with which the coal

Nu ¼ ffi2
l grain flows in time t through the lifting tube.

30
20

10
8
6
Nu

4
3 Frössling pi n
C ha
o r d,
2 , P igf
J o hnsto n e

1
1 10 100 1000
Re

FIGURE 43.7 Heat reception by globules in air at temperatures of 0 to 1008C.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 u ¼ ug  u 0 (43:12) In industrial practice, the length of the lifting tube
is determined most frequently based on the drying
The velocity of the drying medium is taken as rate per unit volume, which is as follows:

ug ¼ (1:1  1:25)u0 (43:13) Nv ¼ 400  600 kg H2 O=m3  h for ground coal

The sedimentation velocity can be defined on the Nv ¼ 700

basis of the Archimedes number.  900 kg H2 O=m3  h for postflotation
concentrate
gdp3 zs  zg
Ar ¼ (43:14)
u2g zg Nv varies generally with hot gas temperature, solid–
gas ratio, and gas velocity. Therefore, suitable drying
Knowing the Archimedes number, one can calculate tube volume must be calculated on the basis of the
the Reynolds number; for Ar < 84,000, equation of heat transfer and heat balance. Nv gives
 1=1:4 the approximate value of the drying tube volume. The
Ar drying rate per unit volume is defined by
Re ¼ (43:15)
13:9
W_
Nv ¼ (43:21)
For Ar > 84,000 Vp
pffiffiffiffiffiffi The diameter of the lifting tube is calculated from the
Re ¼ 1:71 Ar (43:16)
formula
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
From the Reynolds number we estimate the theoret-
V_ g
ical sedimentation velocity of the coal particle as D¼ (43:22)
0:785ug
Revg
u0 ¼ (43:17) The volumetric gas rate of the drying medium can be
dp
calculated based on the heat balance Equation 43.20:
The tube length calculated based on formula [11] is
G_
too small since with coarse grains (0.2 to 1.0 mm) this V_ g ¼ (43:23)
does not take into account the starting length over zg
which the grains reach their terminal velocity. For the
correction of this starting (transient) length we sug- From Equation 43.21, the volume of the lifting tube
gest the formula Vp can be calculated. Knowing the lifting tube vol-
ume Vp and its diameter, we can calculate the length
of the lifting tube as
L00 ¼ kL ug dp (43:18)
4Vp
where kL ¼ 103 s/m. The total length of the lifting tube Le ¼ (43:24)
pD2
will be
In general, the lengths of lifting tubes do not exceed
LT ¼ L0 þ L00 (43:19) 35 m. The coal feed to the lifting tube is situated 4 to
6 m above the gas feed. The dryer capacity depends
The quantity of drying medium required depends on on the diameter of lifting tube.
the heat needed for the drying according to the heat
balance equation
Diameter (mm) 700 830 900 1100
G_ Cp (T1  T2 ) ¼ L_ 0 (Cs þ Cw1 )(Tw  Tm1 ) Capacity (Mg/h) 20–35 30–55 40–65 50–75

þ L_ 0 (w1  w2 )DH þ L0 (Cs

þ Cw2 )(Tm2  Tw )
where L_ 0 ¼ dry solid flow rate (kg/s), Cs ¼ specific
heat of solid (kcal/kgK), W ¼ dry basis moisture con-
tent, Tw ¼ wet bulb temperature (8C), and Tm ¼ solid
temperature (8C).
(43:20) The heating medium temperature at the dryer inlet
is 550 to 7008C and 70 to 1708C at the dryer outlet.
The initial moisture of coal is usually 10 to 15%; the
final moisture is about 4 to 6%. A typical pneumatic
dryer setup for coal drying is shown in Figure 43.8.
Wet coal from the bin (11) is proportioned by feeder

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 17

18 8
6 7

11
15 16

1 10
12
3
13

4 5
14
2

4
17 9

FIGURE 43.8 Schematic of pneumatic dryer for coal drying.

(12) to the lifting tube (5), where it is carried away by The combustion process is controlled automatically;
the combustion gas stream derived from fuel combus- the temperature of the combustion gases outflowing
tion in the furnace (2). Drying occurs in the tube, after to the environment is the signal for control.
which the coal is separated from combustion gases in
the cyclone (6) and then in a bank of cyclones (7). 43.2.5 FLUID-BED DRYERS
Negative pressure in the system is generated by a fan
(8). The dried and separated coal is directed to the Fluid-bed dryers are widely applicable for coal owing
conveyor (10) through the shutter closures (15,16), to the high intensity of this drying process. Intense
which are the lower seals of the cyclones (6 and 7). drying is achieved as a result of good mixing, use of a
The heavier coal particles, which fall down in the high-temperature heating (and fluidizing) medium,
lifting tube (5), are directed to the dried coal conveyor
(10) through the screw (9). The system is equipped
with explosion flaps (17). Outlet
The Parry-type dryer for coal drying is shown in
Figure 43.9. Here, wet coal is proportioned into the
drying chamber (2) by means of a feeder. Around Fuel
the drying chamber are installed cyclones to separate
the coal from combustion gases. The combustion Circulating
gases necessary for drying are generated in the cham- gases
ber (1) by combustion of a solid or liquid fuel. The air
for combustion is supplied by the fan (6). Another fan Wet
(5) allows recycling of a part of the combustion gases coal
to the drying process. The capacity for this type of
dryer generally exceeds 50 Mg/h at initial and final
coal moisture levels of 35 and 4%, respectively. 2 3
The dimensions of a typical dryer of this type are Air
as follows:

. Diameter ¼ 2.7 m
. Height ¼ 6 m
. Diameter of furnace chamber ¼ 4.2 m 1 5 6
. Height of furnace chamber ¼ 10 m
. Thermal power of chamber ¼ 13.4 MW FIGURE 43.9 Schematic of Parry-type dryer for coal drying.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

and ease of control. A fluidized state is achieved when The porosity of the fluidized bed can be estimated
gas with a proper velocity passes through the coal using
layer. The gas flow velocity at which the packed bed
 0:21
is converted into a fluidized bed is known as the 18Re þ 0:36Re2
minimum fluidization velocity. One feature of the c¼ (43:30)
Ar
fluidized bed is its high porosity, defined by
The height of the fluidized bed is readily given by
0
Vp Vm
c¼ ¼1 (43:25) 1  c0
Vz Vz H ¼ H0 (43:31)
0
1c
where Vp ¼ volume of solid-free space, Vz ¼ total vol-
ume of bed, and Vm ¼ volume of solid material in the For coal dryers, a space of about 3.5 to 4.5 times the
bed ( ¼ L/zs). fluid-bed height should be allowed as the disengage-
A packed bed of coal has a porosity in the range ment height h1:
of 0.4 to 0.5. The porosity of a fluidized bed can vary
over a wide range, depending on the gas flow velocity h1 ¼ 3:5H  4:5H (43:32)
(c ¼ 0.4 to 1). The minimum velocity of fluidization
for the coal and other friable materials for which the The convective heat transfer coefficient between gas
porosity c0 ¼ 0.4 can be calculated from the formula and solid in the fluidized bed can be estimated from
the correlation
Ar
Recr ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi (43:26) Re 1=3
1400 þ 5:22 Ar Nu ¼ 102 Pr (43:33)
c
For c0 ¼ 0.48
Drying kinetics in the fluidized bed requires in add-
Ar ition the fulfillment of the relationship
Recr ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi (43:27)
710 þ 4 Ar
G_ 
H¼ (43:34)
From the critical Reynolds number Recr, one can zs (1  c)S
calculate minimum (critical) velocity of fluidization as
The mean residence time t of coal in the fluid-bed
Recr ug dryer is determined empirically and t can be calcu-
ucr ¼ (43:28)
dp lated by

Equation 43.26 and Equation 43.27 are shown graph- 3600H0 Azs
¼
ically in Figure 43.10. For beds of coal, the pressure F
drop can be estimated from the formula
where F ¼ coal feed rate (kg/h), A ¼ fluid-bed area
Dp ¼ H (1  c)(zs  zg )g (43:29) (m2), and H0 ¼ static coal bed height (m).
In coal drying, the temperature of drying gases at
the dryer inlet is 300 to 7008C and the temperature of
the fluidized bed is 70 to 808C.
104 Recr Figure 43.11 shows the relationship between gas
y0 = 0.48
velocity and particle diameter for various porosities
102 of bed for coal of density z ¼ 1200 kg/m3 and for gas
y0 = 0.4 temperature T ¼ 1008C. Between curves 1 and 5 there
is a zone of dryers operating as a loose bed. Industrial
10–4 10–2 1 102 104 106 108
Ar
fluid-bed dryers operate in the range of c ¼ 0.55 to
10–2 0.75. Zone 2 includes coal particles from 30 to 40 mm
up to 6 to 7 mm. For fountain-type dryers, this zone
can widen (3) up to 25 to 30 mm. The aerofountain-type
10–6 dryers (4) operate at bed porosity c ¼ 0.75 to 0.9. In
dryers of this type, one can dry coal-containing particles
FIGURE 43.10 Relationship between critical Reynolds from several micrometers to tens of millimeters. Owing
number and Archimedes number. to their simple design and high capacity, fluid-bed

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 through a screen and the coal layer, causing fluidization
of coal. The exhaust gases leaving the dryer are cleaned
102
in a cyclone (5) and cloth filter (6). Some technological
data for typical coal fluid-bed dryers for coal operating
101 in the United States are given in Table 43.2.
Drift
(y = 1)
100
1
5 43.2.6 FLUID-BED DRYER WITH FOUNTAIN BED
10−1 (SPOUTED BED)
(m/s)

Constant bed
m

(y = 0.4)
1

In recent years, fluid-bed dryers with a fountain

=

10−2
y
8

(spouted) bed have become popular for drying of

0.
6

coal. The fountain bed is achieved in a conical–

0.

10−3
cylindrical apparatus (Figure 43.13). The hot gas
4
0.

stream supplied to the dryer by tube (3) carries away

=

10−4
y

the coal grains supplied by screw (2) and moves them

10−5
10−4 10−3 10−2
dp (m)
FIGURE 43.11 Relationship between gas velocity and par-
ticle diameter.
dryers are widely applicable in the industry for coal
drying. One type of fluid-bed dryer commonly used
for coal drying is the Fluo-Solids dryer marketed by
Dorr-Oliver (United States). This dryer operates with a
small coal bed (300 to 400 mm) and has a very high
drying rate per unit exposed surface of 2000 kg H2O/
m2h. Figure 43.12 schematically shows the Fluo-Solids
dryer with the roller chamber designed by Dorr-Oliver
for coal drying. Moist coal from the bin (1) is propor-
tioned by feeder (2) to the drying chamber (3). Com-
bustion gases from the combustion chamber (4) are
mixed with air to obtain the desired temperature (300
to 7008C). The heat consumption is typically in the
range of 3100 to 4000 kJ/kg H2O. The hot gases pass
upward. The lifted coal grains fall aside and move
downward along the annulus.
10−1
Figure 43.14 shows a schematic of a spouted bed
dryer for coal as designed by Fiodorov and Michai-
lov. Wet coal is supplied to the conical drying cham-
ber. The gas velocity decreases gradually in the
conical chamber owing to which coarser coal grains
fall downward. The finest grains are entrained by the
gas stream and then separated in the cyclone (3). The
intermediate fractions are circulated in the drying
chamber (1), after which they pass through a vertical
slit in the chamber wall for discharge. Control of the
slit opening allows control over the dryer holdup. The
coarse coal particles fall into the bin (5) from which
they are recycled to the dryer by a bucket elevator (6).
For spouted bed dryers, it is very important to deter-
mine the gas velocity at which the spouting process
begins and ends. The critical velocity for spouting
depends on the bed height and the physical properties
of the coal and gas, as well as on the geometric shape
and dimensions of the dryer. The incipient spouting
velocity can be estimated from the correlation

Outlet air
Wet coal
1 6

2
Dry coal

Inlet
air
Dry coal
4

FIGURE 43.12 Schematic of Fluo-Solids-type fluidized bed dryer.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 TABLE 43.2
Operating Parameters for Some Typical Fluid-Bed Dryers for Coal Used in Various Parts
of the United States

Parameters Indiana West Virginia Kentucky Utah

Diameter, m 2.1 4.2 4.2 4.2

Screen area, m2 3.46 13.9 13.9 13.9
Capacity, Mg/h 100 700 230 800
Drying rate per unit exposed 2900 2500 1800 1800
surface, kg/m2  h
Coal grain sizes, mm 0–6 0–10 0–15 0–38
Moisture at inlet, % 18–22 14.5 — —
Moisture at outlet, % 2 4.8 — —
Gas temperature at inlet, 8C 650 410 — —
Gas temperature at outlet, 8C 80 70 — —

 0:82  0:1
D f In polydisperse systems, the maximum particle diam-
Recr ¼ 0:364 Ref 1 tg (43:35) eter is taken as the particle diameter in Equation
d0 2
43.36. For optimum geometry one may use
where Recr ¼ critical Reynolds number at which D
spouting starts, D ¼ diameter of upper bed section, f ¼ 30  50 and ¼24
d0
d0 ¼ diameter of lower bed section, and f ¼ apex
angle of cone; generally, f ¼ 16 to 708. For fine grains (Ar < 104), the bed becomes unstable
Then and may pulsate with a frequency at a low amplitude.
It is found that the dryer height H and separator
Recr ug
ucr ¼ (43:36) diameter Ds also affect the minimum spouting vel-
dp ocity. These effects are included in the correlation
 0:087  0:6
D H
Recr ¼ 0:176Ref 1
d0 d0
Drying of coal  0:94  0:323
Ds f
Gas
Coarse-grained
tg (43:37)
d0 2
coal

3 2
2
Wet coal

1 4
1
Fine-grained coal
or coal mud
2
Combustion gases
4
Air
5
5 Hot gas
3 6

Dried
Dry coal
coal

FIGURE 43.13 Schematic of dryer with spouted bed. FIGURE 43.14 Schematic of fluidized system with spouted bed.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 umin dp
104 Remin ¼
ug

where u ¼ flow velocity and umin ¼ minimum velocity

I II
for spouting.
IV
From Equation 43.39, it appears that the convect-
Recr

103 ive heat transfer coefficients in the spouted bed are in

III the range of 3.4 to 17 W/m2K; according to other
V
investigators these coefficients are much higher, say,
up to 51 to 142 W/m2K. The drying rates per unit
VI volume in such dryers are high: Nv ¼ 110 to 290 kg/
m3h. For coal drying, the temperature of the drying
102 medium (e.g., combustion gases or air) is usually not
103 4 –103 more than 2008C, unlike the case of conventional
Re f fluid-bed dryers, which operate with much higher
inlet temperatures.
FIGURE 43.15 Relationship between critical Reynolds
number at incipient spouting and Reynolds number calcu-
lated for sedimentation velocity Ref. 43.2.7 VIBRATORY DRYERS
A vibratory dryer designed by Escher-Wyss is
Figure 43.15 presents the relationship between Recr sketched in Figure 43.16. Vibratory dryers are used
and the Reynolds number for the settling velocity for drying hard and brown coals, especially if it is
of grain Ref as well as various operating zones of necessary to combine coal transport or proportioning
spouted beds. To estimate the pressure drop across operations with the drying operation. Drying is ac-
a spouted bed, one can use the approximate formula complished by hot air or combustion gases passing
through the vibrating coal layer. The coal to be dried
Dp ¼ (0:64  0:75)gzu H0 (43:38) is led into the perforated trough oscillated by an
electromagnetic oscillator. The trough is inclined to
It is very difficult to calculate the values of convective heat the horizontal at an angle of about 1 to 58. Owing to
transfer coefficients for a spouted bed. Uemaki and the slope of the trough the coal is conveyed with a
Kugo give the following correlation for convective heat velocity dependent on the slope of the trough and on
transfer from the gas to the solid particles. the vibration amplitude and frequency. For an elec-
tromagnetic vibrator at frequency f ¼ 50 and 100 Hz
 1:30 and amplitude x ¼ 0.05 to 3 mm, the conveying vel-
4 u ocity of coal is 0.01 to 0.3 m/s. This type of unit can
Nu ¼ 5  10 Re1:46
min (43:39)
umin also be used to cool coal. In vibratory dryers, the heat
requirement is much lower as a consequence of better
where the Reynolds number is defined by formula utilization of the drying medium.

Outlet air

Moist air

Hot air Dry coal

FIGURE 43.16 Schematic of Escher-Wyss-type vibratory dryer.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 The capacity of vibratory dryers depends on the
trough width B, coal layer height h0, and coal drift TABLE 43.3
velocity u. It can be calculated using the formula Technoeconomic Data for Vibratory Dryers for Coal

Sizes of Grains
L_ ¼ Bh0 uzu (43:40) Parameter
3–10 mm 10–32 mm
The coal layer in the trough is typically
Capacity, Mg/h 40 80
Moisture at inlet, % 12 7
h0 ¼ 2030 mm, for ground coal Moisture at outlet, % 1.0 1.5
Gas temperature at inlet, 8C 370 275
h0 ¼ 4060 mm, for coal in lump form
Gas temperature at outlet, 8C 60 54
Dried coal temperature, 8C 66 40
For vibratory dryers, the length of troughs does not
Pressure drop, Pa 380 320
usually exceed 10 m. In case the drive is located in the
center of the trough, the trough length can be as high
as 30 m. For long troughs, difficulties are encountered on the quality and capacity of coal grinding. The balls
with proper distribution of the heating medium. are made of manganese or carbon steel toughened to
Sometimes the electromagnetic oscillator is replaced obtain high hardness and durability. The ball con-
by a power drive in the form of rotating disks that sumption is 80 to 100 g/Mg for soft coals, and it can
push the trough that is mounted elastically. Some reach up to 800 g/Mg for hard coals. The drums are of
technoeconomic data for coal drying in vibratory 2 to 3 m diameter and 3 to 5 m long. The speed of
dryers are given in Table 43.3. rotation of the drum is 16 to 30 rpm. For grinding, the
electricity consumption varies over a wide range, from
43.2.8 MILL-TYPE DRYERS 7 kWh/Mg for short brown coals up to 30 kWh/Mg for
anthracite. Coal grinding in mill-type dryers requires
Mill-type dryers are used for coal only when it is additional electrical energy (5 to 10 kWh/Mg), which is
advisable to combine grinding and drying operations. consumed by the fan. Coal is fed into the mill through
For satisfactory grinding performance, a low mois- one of the pins; the heating medium in the form of hot
ture level must be achieved. The mill-type dryers are air or combustion gases is also supplied through the
used generally in power plants using steam boilers same pin. The rotary motion of the drum causes the
fired by pulverized coal. Figure 43.17 shows a mill- movement of balls near the drum wall up to about
type dryer, which is really a ball mill in which the coal three quarters of drum diameter as the falling down
is broken and partly ground by the balls. The dryer of balls under gravity. The falling balls break and
consists of a horizontal drum with cones fitted on partly grind the coal. The hot air or combustion
both ends. From inside the drum is lined with the gases supplied to the drum simultaneously heat the
protective lining of basalt, cast iron, carbon, or man- balls and coal as well as dry the coal.
ganese cast steel (14% Mn). The quantity of heating medium used in ty-
The drum is filled with balls (diameter, 30 to 80 pical commercial units is 1.3 kg/kg for brown coals
mm). The filling ratio of the drum is typically 14 to and 2.0 kg/kg for anthracite. The heating medium
30%. The filling ratio of the mill has a decisive effect temperatures depend on the moisture of the coal. Fig-

Combustion
gases
Moist coal

Combustion
gases

Dry coal

FIGURE 43.17 Schematic of mill-type dryer.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ure 43.18 shows the relationship between the combus- Coal
D
tion gas temperature, moisture content in combustion
gases at the dryer inlet, and the coal moisture content.
The flow velocity of the hot medium in the mill is in the
Air
range of 1 to 3 m/s.
The temperature of the coal–air mixture is 70 to
808C for hard coal and 80 to 908C for brown coal. The
capacity of the mill-type drum dryers is 50 Mg/h or
more. For drying hard and brown coal, beater mills
may be used. A beater mill, including the separator, is
shown in Figure 43.19. Here, drying and grinding
proceed without the use of a fan. The mill consists of
a separator housing and articulated rotating beaters.
The beaters number 2 to 12 per row and weigh 4 to
10 kg each. The beaters are made up of manganese
steel, manganese cast steel, cast iron, or carbon steel.
FIGURE 43.19 Mill-shaft dryer (beater mill including
The beater size can be different. The beaters are sub-
separators).
jected to abrasive wear and must be replaced periodic-
ally. In grinding quick coke, the lifetime of the beaters
is 200 to 400 h. The rotational speed of the beaters
is 40 to 60 m/s; the number of revolutions of the shaft is 10008C should be used. Coal at a high moisture con-
720 to 1420 rpm. Wet coal from a bin is charged by tent (25 to 35%) should be predried partially at the
gravity into the mill through the feeder; the hot air or chute to the mill by means of hot combustion gases.
combustion gases are supplied by lateral stub pipes. Figure 43.20 shows pulverized coal production
The rotational motion of beaters causes bouncing of with simultaneous drying of coal. Wet coal is sup-
coal particles up to a certain height of the shaft (up to plied to the ball mill through the scales, feeder, and
about 5 m), which causes intensive drying of coal as drying tube. Hot air together with the coarse particle
well as grinding of coal grains owing to the direct recycling stream from the separator is directed to the
impact. Coarser grains are recycled for grinding; finer mill and the combustion gases are supplied to the
grains are entrained, forming a dust–air mixture sup- drying tube.
plied directly to the boiler furnace.
The power consumption for grinding is typically 43.2.9 SHAFT DRYERS
15 to 20 kWh/Mg for hard coal and 4 to 14 kWh/Mg
for brown coal. The metal consumption is 60 to 160 g/ A shaft dryer designed by Konrer-Ledant for drying
Mg for hard coal, 20 to 80 g/Mg for brown coal, and of coal fed to coke ovens is shown schematically in
2000 g/Mg for quick coke. For coals at moisture levels Figure 43.21. This dryer consists of two vertical
of 10 to 14%, air at 300 to 4008C may be used as the shafts of rectangular section. These rotating shafts,
heating medium. When the moisture content is above fitted with paddles, are intended to fluff the coal
15 to 25%, combustion gases at temperature of 700 to and to transport it downward. The dryer has two
zones, a drying zone and a cooling zone. Combus-
tion gases generated in the combustion chamber
flow to the two vertical shafts, where they contact
130
5% with the wet coal moving down the shaft. Cooling is
Moisture content in combustion

x=5
gases before dryer (g/kg)

110 achieved by means of ambient air supplied to the

90
lower part of the shaft. The combustion gas is at
6508C, and after mixing with the air leaving the
70 40%
cooling zone its temperature drops to 250 to
30%
50
20%
3008C. At the dryer outlet the exhaust gas temperature
is 60 to 708C. In this type of dryer, the pressure drop
30
is about 700 Pa.
10
400 440 480 520 560 600 640 680 720 760 800
The combustion gases leaving the dryer shaft
Combustion gases temperature before dryer (⬚C) are cleaned in a battery of cyclones and in a wet
scrubber. The dried coal withdrawn from the lower
FIGURE 43.18 Combustion gas temperature; relationship part of the shaft by screw conveyor or a Redler-type
between combustion gas humidity and coal moisture content. conveyor, the trough of which is hermetically sealed,

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Cyclone

Separator
Furnace

Feeder Air heater

Ball mill

FIGURE 43.20 Pulverized coal production with simultaneous drying.

is transported to the coal bins. The entire coal-drying
and transport operation can be automated.
43.2.10 DRYER WITH MOVING BED
A modification of the shaft dryer is the convection
dryer with a moving bed (Figure 43.22), developed
and designed by the author of this chapter and used
for the drying of coal and quick coke. The particular
advantages of this dryer are observed when drying
quick coke, which has a high porosity and strong
abrasive properties. These properties considerably
hinder the use of fluid-bed dryers, spouted bed dryers,
and rotary dryers. The wet coal or quick coke is led to
the dryer by the stub pipe K1, and after passage
between the louver walls (1) and after drying, it is
introduced by stub pipe K2 by means of a feeder (2).
Version 1 represents a dryer with gravity-assisted
movement of the bed, which is used for the drying
of quick coke.
Version 2, used for the drying of ground coal, has
a forced movement of the bed by means of the shelf
conveyor (3). Hot combustion gases or air are sup-
plied to the inlet chamber by stub pipe K3 and after
passage through the bed leave the dryer by stub pipe
K4. The capacity of the dryer is controlled by varying
the speed of the feeders (2), as well as by alteration of

Wet coal Cyclones

Version 1 Version 2
K1 K1

Scrubber 1 4

1
Combustion gases
K4 K3 K4

Mud 3

Fuel Air Air 5

6
Dry coal K5
7

K2 2 K2

FIGURE 43.21 Schematic of Konrer-Ledant-type shaft

dryer. FIGURE 43.22 Convection dryer with moving bed.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

the slit size of the stub pipes K2. The basic advantage
of this dryer is its compact construction and simple
design, as well as the possibility of full automation. It
is possible to select the flow velocity to minimize the
carryover of particles from the bed; in many cases this
allows one to do away with any dedusting equipment.
Low-temperature (150 to 2008C) waste combustion
gases from steam boilers can be used as the drying
medium. Low-temperature operation greatly reduces
the danger of ignition. Also, the drying rate per unit
volume is very high, up to about 0.2 kg/m3s at an
inlet air temperature of 2008C. For comparison, for
rotary and pneumatic dryers this amounts to about
0.014 and 0.14 kg/m2s, respectively. Rotary, pneu-
matic, and fluid-bed dryers are operated at much
higher temperatures (400 to 8008C). The low velocity
(about 1 mm/s) of movement of the coal bed consid-
erably decreases the wear of the dryer walls from
abrasion. The heat consumption is 2800 to 3500 kJ/
kg H2O. The drying time is the key design parameter
for the calculation of the moving bed dryer. The dry-
ing time is equal to the residence time in the dryer.
Hence the drying time has an effect on the velocity of
the bed in the dryer. The drying time at constant
parameters of the heating medium can be calculated
from
1 Xcr  X 
¼ [(X1  Xcr ) þ (Xcr  X  )] ln (43:41)
£ X2  X 
The drying coefficient £ characterizes the rate of dry-
ing under constant drying conditions and can be esti-
mated from the correlation
  1   1
0:896 0:633 H §u
P ¼ 0:469Re K (43:42)
de §g
The equivalent particle diameter is calculated from
the formula
1 clean condensate. The condensation temperature
d e ¼ P xi (43:43)
di
where xi ¼ mass fraction of diameter di kg/kg,
u ¼ superficial gas velocity at inlet temperature, and
Q ¼ Ts–TD ¼ temperature difference between gas at
inlet Ts and wet bulb temperature TD.
The bed pressure drop Dp through the layer of
coal can be calculated from the well-known Ergun’s
equation:
(1  c0 )2 mg u (1  c0 ) §g u2
Dp=H ¼ 150 3
þ 1:75 (43:44)
c0 de2
c30 de
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
43.2.11 SUPERHEATED STEAM DRYING OF COAL
The advantages of using superheated steam as the
drying medium are well known and noted in the
chapter on this subject in this handbook. Among
those of major interest in coal drying are no fire or
explosion hazard, ability to dry at elevated temperat-
ures, faster drying rates leading to small equipment
size, and others (Beeby and Potter, 1984; Weiss et al.,
1991; Wolf et al., 1988).
Steam-fluidized beds with steam have been in suc-
cessful operation in South Africa for nearly a decade
(Faber et al., 1986). Faber et al. (1986) have shown
that fluid-bed steam drying of activated carbon pellets
saves energy (15%) as well as capital costs (14).
Figure 43.23 shows conceptually the steam-
fluidized bed drying (Dampf-Wirbelschicht-Trocknung
[DWT]) described by Weiss et al. (1991). Typical oper-
ating conditions for drying of brown coal are given
below.
Fluid-bed pressure drop 1–10 kPa, 110–1208C
and temperature
Fluidizing steam 15–25 kPa, superheated
Heating steam 400–500 kPa absolute, saturated
Coal grain size (feed) up to 6 mm
Coal grain size (output) up to 4 mm
Dry coal moisture 10–20%, dry basis
Note that RBC stands for raw brown coal. Dry
brown coal (DBC) is withdrawn through the inflow
plate. Exhaust steam is cleared in an electrostatic
precipitator and is partially recycled by a compressor
as fluidizing steam. Excess steam is condensed and
the latent heat is recovered at 1008C. If this heat is
utilized elsewhere, the net energy consumption for
coal drying is very low. The internal heat exchanger
uses 4 to 5 bar saturated steam and is taken out as
must be 30 to 508C above the bed temperature for
efficient heat exchange between the bed and the
exchanger tubes. The bed is operated at a slight over-
pressure to eliminate air in leakage.
Figure 43.24 shows a schematic of a steam-
fluidized bed dryer with combined generation of
power and heat. In a conventional coal-fired power
plant, up to two thirds of fuel energy is lost since the
latent heat of turbine exhaust steam is dissipated un-
used to the cooling water because of its low tempera-
ture level. In DWT process, the latent heat can be used
to dry the input coal. Figure 43.24 shows a coal-fired
power plant schematic with a circulating fluid-bed
 RBC

DWT vapors

DWT

LP steam

LP condensate
500 kPa 100 kPa

HP steam
Boiler HP G
12.5 LP ~
MPa
8 kPa
Turbine condensate

Vapor
condensate

FIGURE 43.23 Steam-fluidized bed dryer (DWT, Dampf-Wirbelschicht-Trocknung) with internal heat exchangers.

boiler, turbogenerator set, and condenser for turbine
exhaust steam. The top half is the DWT scheme. Use
of DWT is claimed to improve the energy efficiency
from 34 to 37%. If the DWT latent heat is also utilized
the efficiency is expected to rise to 39%. The reader is
referred to Faber et al. (1986) for details. Large-scale
pilot plants have successfully demonstrated this tech-
nology. The pilot-plant capacities range from 1 to 24 t/h
evaporation capacity. The latter can generate 20 t/h
of dry coal (12% moisture) from 44 t/h of raw coal
(60% moisture).
43.3 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND STATUS
OF COAL TECHNOLOGIES
Coal is a raw material for many chemical syntheses as
well as fuel. Coal is dried to increase its calorific value
and simplify loading, unloading, transport, and to
improve boiler combustion efficiency. It is also dried
for processes like briquetting, coking, gasification,
carbonization, and liquid fuel synthesis Coke oven
efficiency can increase 30 to 50% in preheating and
10 to 15% in drying.
Only high-moisture coals need to be dried prior
to usage. The type of dryer and extent of drying
required depends on many factors. Some of the prin-
cipal ones are the utilization of the mined coal,
whether it needs to be ground for firing into combus-
tion chambers and whether the application is near
‘‘mine-mouth’’ or far away from the mine. If the coal
contains substantial amounts of water (could be 50 to
70% wet basis depending on the coal), it may be
necessary to dehydrate it to reduce the transportation
cost. The calorific value also increases this way while
the combustion efficiency is also enhanced. Recent
work at Monash University in Australia has demon-
strated in laboratory and pilot tests that reduction of
moisture from Australian brown coal or lignite can
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from a power plant
by 30%
Direct dryers (e.g., rotary, pneumatic, fluid-bed,
vibrating fluid-bed, and shaft dryers) can be used with
hot air or combustion gases as drying media at 700 to
9008C before dryer and 60 to 1208C after dryer. It is
important not to have high oxygen content in the
drying gas to avoid explosion and fire hazard. This
is a key issue in coal drying. Low-rank coals can be
highly reactive and hence they are more susceptible to
fire and explosion hazard due to spontaneous com-
bustion. Hence indirect dryers have some advantages

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 RBC

RBC (raw
brown coal)-
bunker

RBC discharge

Vapor dust
precipitation

Vapor compression
FB (fluidized bed)
with heat exchanger

Vapor
condensor

(Dry brown
coal) cooler

Steam Condensate DBC Energy Vapor

(~110⬚C) condensate

FIGURE 43.24 Steam-fluidized bed dryer with combined generation of power and heat.

in this regard. Rotary dryers with indirect heating are mersed within it. Typical processing conditions are
used for hard coals. These have higher energy effi- reported as:
ciency, about 3100 kJ/kg water evaporated. For air
fluidized bed dryers the corresponding figure is 3100
to 4000 kJ/kg water evaporated. A commercial vibra- High tube temperature 140–1708C
tory dryer for hard and brown coals (manufactured Bed temperature 110–1278C
by Escher-Wyss of Switzerland) uses a vibration fre- Minimum fluidizing velocity 5.7 cm/s (approx)
quency of 50 to 100 Hz and amplitude of 0.5 to 3 mm Steam temperature 130–1558C
Steam velocity (m/s) 0.20–0.30
giving a conveying velocity in the range of 0.01 to
Coal feed rate (kg/h) w.b. 40–70
0.3 m/s with an angle of inclination of 58 to the
Product (kg/h) w.b. 16–28
horizontal. Low gas velocities are needed since vibra- Drying rate (kg/h) 24–32
tion suspends most of the pseudo-fluidized beds. The
efficiency is better than a conventional fluid-bed
employing high gas velocities. Attrition is reduced and Using steam exhausted from one dryer stage as
gas cleaning requirements minimized in a vibrated carrier steam for another stage, multiple-effect oper-
bed dryer (Mujumdar, 1989; Erdez and Mujumdar, ation (similar to that common to evaporators) can be
1991). achieved yielding a steam economy of 1.9 for a triple-
In pilot trials Potter (Potter, 1979; Potter and effect dryer.
Keogh, 1979, 1981; Potter and Beeby, 1982, 1986; Potter et al. (1988) used a continuous fluid-bed dryer
Potter et al., 1988) have shown that extremely favor- for drying Victoria brown coal. The fluidized bed (FB)
able heat transfer rates as well as drying efficiencies dryer was 0.3  0.3  3 m (high) with four bubble caps to
are obtained when drying brown coal in a steam- distribute steam. The disengaging region was 2.5 m.
fluidized bed with internal heat exchanger tubes im- Both horizontal and vertical tube bundles were tried.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Faber et al. (1986) have compared drying rates in
air and steam-fluidized beds of pulverized coal. They
confirmed existence of the inversion temperature
above which steam drying is faster than air drying.
Above about 1808C the steam drying rate in the
constant-rate period in fluid-bed drying exceeds that
in (dry) air drying. For a 2000 kg/h dryer for alumina
they found the capital cost to be 20% lower for steam
dryer while the total energy cost was 15% lower. No
credit was given to the steam produced in the steam
dryer.
Faber et al. (1986) also report on a successful
industrial installation using steam dryer for activated
carbon pellets (2000 kg/h, dry basis) from an initial
moisture content of 50 to 2% (dry basis). The pellets
are dried to 8% on dry basis before they are fed to an
evacuated chamber in which the final moisture con-
tent of 2% is achieved. The steam enters the dryer at
3008C and leaves at 1508C. The steam discharged is
used to preheat the feed. The authors report smooth
operation of the dryer since 1985. The installed cost
of the steam drying system was 40% lower than that
for a conventional air dryer. The air dryer can operate
at a maximum temperature of 1258C to avoid com-
bustion in the dryer. The energy costs (1986 data)
were estimated to be about $3.60 per ton of dry
product in South Africa.
A Russian book on drying and thermo-aero clas-
sification of coal presents interesting results on steam
drying of 1- to 13-mm coal particles and volatiles
evolution during drying. Mujumdar (1990) notes
that in steam drying the drying time (actually resi-
dence time in dryer) does not affect the volatiles
liberation unlike air drying. Further, he found that,
under conditions of his experiment, the constant-rate
drying period is 6 to 7 times longer in steam drying
and the heat transfer rate is 1.7 to 2 times than that in
air drying. He also reports on favorable industrial
experience in steam-fluidized bed drying in a 35 
9  12 m, 46 t/h of brown coal with an evaporative
capacity of 25 t/h. No details are given about the
steam reuse.
From energetic and safety viewpoints, super-
heated steam drying appears to be the most attractive
technology for drying of coal. This could be done
using a flash dryer, a fluid-bed dryer, a vibrating bed
dryer or a rotary dryer, if traditional dryer equipment
is to be used. A part of the energy can be supplied
indirectly using immersed heat exchangers. As
Mujumdar (1990) has noted there may be potential
to use variants of multistage impinging stream dryer
using superheated steam for coal drying applications,
but no work appears to be done yet on this design.
Furthermore, use of a two-dimensional design is
expected to allow modular design and reduced scale-
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
up problems. If used as a fuel after briquetting, there
may be opportunities to blend pulverized wet coal
with wood residues and various organic sludges either
before or after drying since these biomasses are also
excellent candidates for superheated steam drying.
43.4 DRYING OF LOW-RANK COALS
Low-rank coals (LRCs)—e.g., brown, lignite, and
subbituminous coals—represent nearly one half of
the estimated coal resources in the world and are the
only source of low-cost energy in many developing
nations. LRCs are typically present in thicker seams
with less overburden than bituminous coals, thus
making them recoverable by low-cost strip mining.
From a user angle, LRCs have a lower fuel ratio
(i.e., fixed carbon to volatile matter) and are typically
more reactive than bituminous coals; many also have
extremely low sulfur contents (a few tenths of 1%).
Low mining costs, high reactivity, and extremely low
sulfur content would make these coals premium fuels
if not for their high moisture levels, which range from
around 25% to more than 60%. Among coal import-
ers, high moisture creates a mistaken perception of
inferior quality and hence many positive features of
LRCs are neglected. LRCs can be combusted either
as a blending component with high-rank coal in exist-
ing boilers, or in new boilers designed for LRCs. For
example, more than one third of U.S. electrical power
currently comes from power stations that are fired by
LRCs. Until recently the high moisture levels of
LRCs have also excluded them from the rapidly
growing coal–water fuel (CWF) market. Of all the
coal-based alternative fuels, CWFs appear the most
promising (Willson et al., 1992).
It is now accepted that no single process can be
suitable as a universal drying technology for all
LRCs. The needs of the end user dictate the type of
process. If the end user requires dried lump coal for
stoker applications, a process that uses or generates
fines would not be a reasonable option. An end user
with advanced combustion applications will require
finely ground coal. From a producer’s angle, a pre-
ferred process could make use of both technologies:
one to produce sized dry coal and the other to make
coal–water fuel from the fines for a different market.
However, three stability issues must be solved before
bulk-dried LRCs can be used: (a) moisture reabsorp-
tion; (b) dust generation; and (c) spontaneous com-
bustion. Since the strength of LRCs is significantly
reduced when their gel-like structure is destroyed by
drying, the dried product breaks down rapidly, gen-
erating large amounts of dust, and becoming more
liable to spontaneous combustion.
 Direct drying of brown coal by recirculating boiler
flue gas or its equivalent, has become standard prac-
tice in Victoria, Australia. It should be noted that
significant drying occurs during normal coal grinding
and other operations associated with preparation of
the feed to a boiler.
Recently, a steam–fluidized bed drying process
being implemented at a plant operated by the State
Electricity Commission of Victoria, Australia (SECV)
uses a heat exchanger supplied by an external high-
pressure steam source to dry finely ground brown
coal. A tube network immersed in the bed supplied
heat. The high heat transfer rates of the bed, together
with condensing steam, yield a compact heat exchan-
ger. Water evaporated from the coal is used to fluidize
the system. Test results show that the water content of
Victoria’s brown coal can be reduced from 60 to 15%
and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions can be decreased
to 17%.
In Australia, indirect drying has been used for
many decades to prepare brown coal for briquetting.
In this process, low-pressure steam is condensed on
the outside of tubes conveying brown coal to provide
process heat; the more water removed in liquid form,
the higher the efficiency. After reducing the moisture
to nominally 15%, dried brown coal is compacted into
strong briquettes using stamp presses.
43.5 HOT OIL DRYING
Hot oil is an alternative drying medium used by a
number of process developers as early as 1926. In the
two-stage Carbontech process, raw coal is first dried
in hot oil. Most of the oil is recovered in the second-
stage flue gas stripper. Some of the oil is absorbed,
which allegedly helps to stabilize the product and
increase its heating value. The process costs for this
system will depend on the amount of oil that can be
economically recovered.
The Exxon donor solvent, direct liquefaction
process also used hot oil drying. In this process,
LRC is dried by a high-pressure hydrogenation
reactor contact with hot recycle hydrogen donor
solvent prior to entering. Unfortunately, no data
were developed for solvent recovery after drying,
because the dried coal and vehicle solvent were
reacted immediately with hydrogen in the liquefaction
reactor.
Other methods have been tested to improve
the stability of the dried LRC, including spraying
with residual tars or oils and briquetting or palle-
tizing dried pulverized coal. All of these additional
processing steps increase the cost of the final pro-
duct and must be evaluated on a site and coal-
specific basis.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
43.6 HOT WATER DRYING
Hot water drying (HWD) developed at EERC, is
a drying process that produces a safe, quasiliquid
fuel. This technology features high temperature,
high pressure nonevaporative drying that removes
much of the inherent moisture and allows the produc-
tion of CWFs with solid loading in the range of those
of commercial bituminous CWFs.
In HWD process, ground LRC is treated at coal-
specific temperatures, beginning at as low as 2408C,
and the corresponding saturated steam pressure for
less than 10 min. Moisture is removed from the coal
by expansion and expulsion from the micropores by
CO2, which is liberated during decarboxylation. Devo-
latilized tars/oils, being hydrophobic, remain on the
coal surface in the pressurized aqueous environment.
It is hypothesized that this produces a uniform coating
that seals the micropores and limits moisture re-
absorption, which is a major advantage of the process.
Because the coating retains most of the LRC’s volatile
matter, high energy recovery and excellent combustion
performance can be obtained. The developers claim
that alkali cations, a major source of boiler fouling,
associated with the carboxyl groups, are released in the
aqueous phase in their process and are removed during
the final mechanical dewatering step.
The technical feasibility of HWD and low-rank
coal–water fuel (LRCWF) production has been dem-
onstrated in a 7.5-tpd pilot plant at EERC with LRCs
from around the world. As a general rule, the energy
densities of LRCWFs produced after HWD are
around 30% for subbituminous coals, 50% for lignite,
and >100% for brown coals, vs. those prepared from
raw coal. Costs of dewatering will vary with coal
grade and location.
Currently the successful commercial LRC drying
processes appear to be those in which the dried LRC
is utilized immediately and not stored. When stored,
the products from most drying systems can have sta-
bility problems, which result in excessive fines and
spontaneous heating.
43.7 COMBINED GRINDING AND DRYING
Often coal is ground prior to utilization. Heat pro-
duced during grinding can reduce the moisture con-
tent significantly while reducing the particle size. In
some other applications, e.g., drying of sludge from a
deinking plant, initial moisture content of 54% can be
reduced to as low as 12% (wet basis) during grinding.
This also destroys any pathogens that may be present.
One of the commercial grinder dryers of interest
to coal drying is the KDS Micronex grinder/dryer.
A typical KDS grinder chamber has a diameter of
1.3 m and encloses a set of 8 spinning chains and a
stationary torus above it. The chains are spun hori-
zontally at high rotational speeds; the chain tip speed
can reach about 200 m/s causing high frictional heat-
ing due to aerodynamic drag. The bottom surface of
the torus that is flat provides a surface for the par-
ticles to collide on and shatter. This results in grinding
action accompanied by drying. The mechanism of
drying is partly thermal and partly mechanical dewa-
tering. This saves energy for drying. Air temperatures
in the chamber can reach between 70 and 908C. For a
typical application for drying coal at the feed rate of
about 2200 kg/h with initial moisture content of 15%
on wet basis the manufacturer reports final moisture
content of 4% on wet basis, and average particle
diameter of 75 mm and energy consumption of 2020
kJ/kg, which is less than the latent heat of vaporiza-
tion for water. Note that the Micronex unit claims to
consume about 70% less energy than a traditional
rotary dryer since a part of water removal takes
place in liquid phase. In fact for drying of deinking
sludge, manure, the manufacturer claims energy con-
sumption of 975 to 1700 kJ/kg. The electrical power
consumption for the coal dryer/grinder is rated at
140 kW. There appears to be no commercial installa-
tion for coal drying using this technology at this time.
43.8 FLEISSNER PROCESS
This is a very old process for drying low-rank coals,
first developed in Austria in mid-1920s. This process
consists of treating the low-rank coal in a saturated
steam environment that avoids vaporization of the
moisture in the coal. The coal particle ‘‘sweats’’ ef-
fectively and no evaporation occurs. As noted earlier
decarboxylation occurs during this process causing
some shrinkage of the dried product and a reduction
of its equilibrium moisture content. The U.S. Bureau
of Mines evaluated this process for dewatering of
lignites and subbituminous coals in the 1940s and
1950s. The more recent nonevaporative drying pro-
cesses for coal essentially appear to be based on the
principle of the Fleissner process.
43.9 A NONTHERMAL BIOMASS DRYER
Recently Gulf Tex Environmental Services of Texas,
United States have developed a new nonthermal dryer
called Pulverizing Air Dryer (PAD). This dryer does
not use heat but can reduce moisture content from 80
to as low as 10% depending on the biomass. The PAD
technology uses high-velocity air streams to accelerate
and then collide against the particle streams subjected
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
to drying. Interestingly they claim that the particles
can range from large rocks to sludge material. The
PAD process affects surface, loose matrix-bound as
well as intracellular moisture. The drying chamber is
designed as a cyclone in which the centrifugal drying
chamber separates the material by density, with water
coming out from the top and the dry material out
from the bottom. Capacities of up to 20 t/h are pos-
sible with this novel dryer. According to the manu-
facturer the capital and energy costs of this PAD
dryer for coal are low and can result in a saving of
up to $150 per ton of the dry product compared with
a thermal dryer. Note that this figure is probably
valid for a specific coal at 2004 prices. Unfortunately,
no technical details are available on this apparently
interesting new technology.
43.10 MECHANICAL THERMAL
EXPRESSION PROCESS
A process that uses mild heating and mechanical
squeezing, and appropriately termed the Mechanical
Thermal Expression (MTE) process has generated
renewed interest in an essentially nonthermal dehy-
dration process for high-moisture brown coals and
lignites. Developed at Monash University, this pro-
cess uses mechanical expression (1 to 10 MPa) at
elevated temperatures. The high pressure does not
permit phase change of water and thus makes it
more energy-efficient. When depressurized the wet
coal also undergoes some flash evaporation and re-
moves about 7% of the moisture. Changes in physical
structure and chemical changes are hypothesized to
be responsible for dewatering of the coal despite im-
mersion in water. The precise mechanics are still un-
known although there are effects of shrinkage,
removal of trapped air, and changes in physical and
chemical structure making the coal particles possibly
more hydrophobic that make the dehydration effect-
ive. Capital costs involved in this process are still not
clear but the process has definite potential. Tests on a
10 t/h pilot plant are under way in Australia at the
present time (Clayton et al., 2006). Interestingly, this
process has been successfully tested on laboratory
scale for dewatering of biomass, e.g., bagasse,
sludges, and biosolids
43.11 CONCLUSION
With rising energy costs and dwindling supplies of oil,
there is little doubt that within the next decade coal
technologies will play very significant role in meeting
the world’s energy needs. Coal gasification and lique-
faction will become increasingly important all around
the world to reduce dependence on oil and gas. Many NOMENCLATURE
of these processes need conditioning of the coal used
that includes reduction of its moisture content to a exposed surface per unit volume dryer, m1
desirable levels for the processes involved. The Cp heat capacity at constant pressure, J  kg1
world reserves of low sulfur but high moisture content K1
are rather extensive and must be utilized cost- de equivalent diameter of particle, m
effectively by reliable energy-efficient and safe drying dp particle diameter, m
technologies. Different technologies will be needed D diameter, m
depending on whether the coal is used near the g acceleration of gravity, m  s2
mines or after shipping over great distances. Cost of G gas flow rate, kg  s1
transportation can be reduced by lowering the mois- h1 space height upon bed, m
ture content but there is danger of autoignition in hc convective heat transfer coefficient, W  m2
storage due to most such coals being highly reactive. K1
Thus, drying, storage, and handling of dried coal pose H height of bed, m
many technological challenges. H0(h0) initial height of bed, m
Over the last three decades over 300 patents were J humid gas enthalpy, J  kg1
issued by the U.S. Patent Office with the word dryer k coefficient
or drying of coal in their titles. Of course, only a few L_ solids flow rate, kg  s1
of these patented technologies are truly viable. Many L mass of solids, kg
of the ideas suggested are not practical, e.g., use of L length, m
acoustic radiation, ultrasonics, and super critical ex- n speed of rotation, s1; min1
traction to reduce sulfur content. Some suggest rather NF drying rate per unit exposed surface,
complex designs of rotary dryers that are unlikely to kg  m2 s1; kg  m2
be cost-effective. For example, U.S. Patent 4,014,106 Nv drying rate per unit volume, kg  m3 s1;
(1997) describes a rotary dryer for coal comprising of kg  m3 h1
an insulated stationary cylinder within which an Q heat quantity, J
open-ended metallic cylindrical tube is rotated co- S cross-sectional area, m2
axially in an almost horizontal position. Wet particles S surface, m2
are fed at the open end and hot air is circulated T temperature, K
between the stationary cylinder and the tube. Metal Tm temperature of solids, K
balls are mixed with the wet material in the rotating u velocity, m  s1
tube. Perforated fins and baffles extend from the ex- ug gas velocity, m  s1
ternal wall of the tube to enhance conductive heat ucr critical velocity, m  s1
transfer to the tube and the metal balls. The dried u0 sedimentation velocity, m  s1
coal is discharged at the opposite end through a V volume, m3
screen section of the tube. This patent also suggests V_ g cubic gas rate, m3  s1
additives to the wet mix to coat the dried particles for W moisture content, kg
reducing dusting or to prepare the mix for palletizing. X moisture content
There is no reported commercial application for this X* equilibrium moisture content
process. Although technically sound, it appears to be Xcr critical moisture content
rather complex for industrial application.
On the other hand, superheated steam seems to Greek Symbols
provide all the required advantages but few vendors
have developed these technologies for coal and for the a angle of inclination, rad, degree
large-scale operations necessary. The drying condi- b loading factor, 1
tions will need to be optimized for specific grades of DH latent heat of vaporization, J  kg1
coal and also the utilization of the product. As coal Dp pressure drop, Pa
needs to be ground for many applications a combined u temperature difference, K
grinder–dryer is definitely an attractive option and um mean temperature difference, K
much effort is being directed in this area as well. l thermal conductivity, W  m1 K1
Drying in this case a desirable by-product of the mg dynamic viscosity of gas, Pa  s
grinding operation but supplementary drying may yg kinematic viscosity of gas, m2  s1
be required for high moisture coals since here electri- zg gas density, kg  m3
city is used for the grinding operation. zs density of solids, kg  m3

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

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