Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
INDEX
Note that any accidental (sharp or flat) in front of a number alters that interval
above the bass. Thus, for instance, a “#6” means to sharp the 6th above the bass. An
accidental alone refers to a third above the bass. A dash in a figured bass symbol means
“move the bass only, keep the upper voices stationary.” Usually, a dash is used when the
bass line is a passing tone or when the bass line moves by arpeggio.
Doubling in realizing a figured bass: Often a tone will need to be doubled when
realizing a figured bass in four-part harmony. In most such cases, the leading tone should
not be the tone that is doubled, nor (in most cases) should a chromaticized tone be
doubled. Also, one should not double a dissonance (a seventh above a bass, for instance,
is almost always a dissonance). Usually, it is a good idea to double the bass; however,
the bass should not be doubled the bass if the number “2” is among the figures (since the
bass will be a dissonance), nor should the bass be doubled if it is the leading tone.
In keyboard style format, the top three voices are all written in the treble clef and there
should be no more than an octave between the alto and tenor (if there were more than an
octave, the stretch would be too great for the pianist’s right hand). When there are two
different rhythms in the same hand at the same time in keyboard style, they must be
stemmed in opposite directions. The example shown in (a) below looks amateurish; it
looks as though all of the notes on the downbeats are only an eighth note long. The
example in (b) is much better.
(a) (b)
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Basic Voice-Leading Rules for harmony and figured bass exercises (see Aldwell-
Schachter, pages 63-77).
Main rules:
(a) Don’t have parallel octaves, fifths, or unisons. Also, note that a perfect fifth
may move to a diminished fifth, but a diminished fifth may not move to a perfect
fifth.1
(c) Chordal dissonances should resolve down by step and not be doubled.
Examples of chordal dissonances include sevenths of seventh chords and the
fourth above the bass of a cadential six-four.
(d) Use the proper tones of a chord, with proper accidentals. Remember that
scale-degree ^7 must be raised to create a leading tone in minor keys. The root or
third of a chord may not be omitted.
Secondary rules
(a) Use the proper range, avoid notes needing more than one ledger line.
(b) Use proper spacing. In chorale style, you should not have more than an octave
between adjacent upper voices. In keyboard style, the upper voices should be
within an octave of one another.
(c) The upper voices should move smoothly. The bass voice can leap large
intervals (though the bass should not leap the interval of a seventh). However,
the upper voices usually do not move more than a third when one chord moves to
another chord. (The upper voices usually leap only if there is a chord repetition or
in other special circumstances.)
(d) Do not use augmented melodic intervals. In particular, avoid leaping an
augmented fourth (even in the bass voice) and avoid moving an augmented
second (an interval which may accidentally crop up in between scale degrees ^6
and ^7 in minor).
(e) Avoid hidden fifths or octaves in between the outer voices if the upper voice
leaps. Other instances of hidden fifths and octaves are not that faulty. (A hidden
interval occurs when the interval is approached in similar motion; a hidden
interval is also referred to as a similar or direct interval.)
(f) Usually the bass of a chord should be doubled. If the chord is in first inversion,
any voice may be doubled. However, leading tones or dissonances should never
be doubled, even if they are in the bass.
(g) Avoid overlap and voice crossing.
1
The only time a diminished fifth may move to a perfect fifth is when a viio 6 or V4/3 moves to a I6.
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(c) When a V or V7 resolves to a I, the leading tone (scale degree ^7, the third of the V
chord) must resolve up to the tonic if it is in the soprano voice. If the leading tone
is in an inner voice, it need not resolve up to tonic.
(d) A V7 functions in a manner similar to a V triad, except that it is a bit more
intense. A V7 is too unstable to appear at a half cadence. The seventh of the V7
(the subdominant scale degree) must resolve down by step to the third of the I
chord (the mediant scale degree). V7 may not resolve to a I6.
(e) The fifth of the I, V, or V7 may be omitted. The roots and thirds of these chords
may not be omitted, however.
(f) It is most normal to double the bass of the I and V chords. Do not double the
leading tone (^7, the third of the V chord).
V 8-7
Main uses:
(a) A V triad often is followed directly by the V7 chord. By contrast, a V7 chord
almost never moves to the less intense V triad.1
(b) The progression “ V– V7 ” is often written as “ V 8-7 .”
(c) When moving from the V triad to a V7, only one note moves: that is, the root of
the chord in an upper voice (not in the bass) moves to the seventh of the chord.
(It is also possible for the fifth of the chord to move to a seventh of the chord.) All
the other notes can stay the same.
1
This is also true for inversions. That is a V triad in inversion might move to a V7 chord or V7 chord in
inversion, but V7 chord or V7 chord in inversion does not progress to a V triad in root position or
inversion.
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V6 and V y g
Basic Outline: The V6 and V6/5 are the first inversions of the V and V7 chords,
respectively. (See Aldwell-Schachter, pp. 100 ff. and 111.)
Main Uses:
(a) The V6 and V6/5 are used in place of the root position V and V7 in order to create
variety in the bass line. These chords function like a V, though they should not be
used at important cadences.
(b) V6 and V6/5 resolve to a I chord in root position. (They should not resolve to a I6
chord!)
(c) The V6 and V6/5 can readily interchange with a root position V chord. Thus, for
instance, one can have the progression I-V6-V-I or I-V-V6-I.1
(d) Any predominant chord (such as a IV, II, or II6) can move to a V6. Do not leap an
augmented fourth in the bass when you approach the V6 or V6/5 (augmented fourths
can arise, for instance, when a IV or II6 moves to a V6).
V4/2
Basic Outline: The V4/2 is a third inversion V7 chord, respectively. (See pp. 114-15)
Main Uses:
(a) The V4/2 is sometimes used in place of the root-position V7 in order to create
variety in the bass line. This chord functions like a V, but should not be used at
important cadences.
(b) The V4/2 resolves to a I6 chord (that is, a I in first inversion), since the chordal
seventh (which is in the bass) must resolve down by step. The Vrs thus should not resolve
to a I chord in root position!
(c) The V4/2 can (and often does) follow a root position V chord. Thus, for instance,
one can have the progression I-V- V4/2 -I6. A V chord cannot follow a V4/2,
however; thus, for instance, the progression I- V4/2 -V-I is faulty.
(d) Any predominant chord (such as a IV, II, or II6) can move to a V4/2.
1
Remember, however, that one can move from a triad to a seventh chord but not from a seventh chord to a
triad.
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(e) The melodic succession ^3- ^4- ^5 is often harmonized with the progression I- V4/3 -I6
or the progression I- iio 6 -I6.
(f) Any predominant chord (such as a IV, II, or II6) can move to a V4/3 or viio 6.
(g) In an exception to an otherwise rarely broken rule, a diminished fifth may move to a
perfect fifth when a V4/3 or viio 6 moves to a I6.
(h) When the V4/3 and viio6 move to a I or I6, the upper voices almost invariably
resolve in a stepwise fashion. In an exception to an otherwise rarely broken rule,
when a V4/3 moves to a I6, the 7th of the V4/3 need not resolve down.
Cadential 6/4
Basic outline: The cadential six-four is a chord that contains the notes of a I chord in
second inversion and functions as a suspension chord that decorates the V chord.
Main uses:
(a) The notes of a tonic chord in second inversion form a cadential six-four chord.
(b) Almost invariably, in four-part harmony the bass of this chord is doubled Do not
double the fourth above the bass (that is, do not double the root of the chord).
(d) The cadential six-four is often called a V6/4. This term does not imply that the
chord is a V chord in second inversion, but rather a implies that the chord involves
intervals of a fourth and a sixth above scale-degree ^5 in the bass.
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(e) The cadential six-four never follows a V, V7, or inversion of V or V7 (or similar
chord).
(f) The cadential six-four always appears on a metrically stronger beat than the V or V7
that follows it.
(g) Normally in moving from a cadential 6/4 to a V chord, the notes either are repeated
or move down by step (in particular, the fourth above the bass should move down by
step, and not up). In moving from a cadential 6/4 to a V chord, the bass either is
repeated or else leaps an octave.
V 4-3
Basic Outline: The V4-3 is a V chord decorated by a suspension in which a dissonant 4th
above the bass resolves down to a 3d above the bass.
Main uses:
(a) The V4 chord (sometimes called a V sus chord) consists of scale degree ^5 in the bass,
with scale degrees ^1, ^2 and ^5 in the upper voices (note that in four-part harmony, the
note in the bass of the chord is doubled). The V4 chord is also known as the V 54
chord.
(b) The V4 chord must resolve directly to a V5/3 chord. Since these chords always come
as a pair, the chord progression V4 - V5/3 is labeled V4-3. It can also be labeled
_
as V 54 3
(c)The V4 chord must be on a metrically stronger position than the following V5/3 chord.
(d) In moving from the V4 chord to the V5/3 chord, the 4th above the bass resolves down
to the 3rd above the bass.
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“Dominant 13th ” chord (Aldwell-Schachter, pp. 449-50): This exotic chord may be
found in a number of 19th -century compositions. A “dominant 13th chord” is a dominant
seventh chord with a sixth above the bass instead of a fifth above the bass.1 The sixth
above the bass must resolve down to the tonic; the seventh of the chord must resolve
down by step. Usually the sixth above the bass is in the soprano.2
1
For instance, a dominant 13th in C major would be G-B-E (not D) F.
2
Do not confuse this term with a 13th chord of jazz terminology, which would involve a chord of six
stacked thirds.
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Main uses:
(a) The II7, IV7, and their inversions function in a manner similar to the II and IV triads
and their inversions. That is, they lead to a V, V7, or to an inversion of a V or V7.
(b) The II6/5 is an extremely popular chord and is often used in cadential progressions.
(c) The upper tones of the II7, IV7, and their inversions usually resolve stepwise when
moving to a V. When moving from a IV7 to a V, however, often one must leap in an
inner voice to avoid a voice-leading problem (see Aldwell-Schachter, p. 175,
Example 12-18 a and b).
VI Chord
Basic outline: The VI chord functions as a predominant. It often follows a I chord, but
can follow a V in a deceptive cadence or in a similar progression.
Main uses of VI: (See Aldwell-Schachter, pp. 150-54)
(a) The VI chord can move to V as part of a I-VI-IV-V or I-VI-II6-V progression
(creating a brief descending arpeggio motion in the bass).
(b) The III chord moves to V as part of a VI-II-V progression (creating a cycle of fifths
progression leading to the dominant chord.
(c) In rare instances, a VI can move directly to a V, V7, V6 or V6/5 chord.
(d) In its main uses, the VI chord always appears as a root position chord.
(a) Sometimes a root position V or V7 will move to a root position VI. (Of course,
normally a V will move to a I or I6). If a V or V7 moves to a VI at a cadence, this
progression forms what is known as a “deceptive cadence.” Note: in this
progression, both the V and VI chords must be in root position!
(b) In a typical four-part harmony setting of the V-VI progression (or V7-VI
progression), two voices move up, two voices move down, and the third of the
VI chord is doubled. Note the unusual features of this special progression: in
most other progressions when the bass ascends by step, all the voices will move in
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opposite direction.1 Also, in almost all other progressions, one avoids doubling
the third of a root position chord. This special treatment of the V (7)-VI
progression should be memorized.
(c) After the V or V7 moves to a VI, the VI chord then proceeds in a normal fashion
to a IV-V, II6-V, II-V, or even (though rarely) directly to a V or inversion of a V.
IV6 Chord
Basic outline: The IV6 chord functions as a predominant. It functions much like a VI
chord, except that a IV6 can more easily move straight to a root position V chord
(without creating parallel fifths) than can a VI chord.
Plagal Use of IV
Basic outline: Often a IV chord can decorate a I or I6. (See pages 179-82)
1
Such a strategy occasionally may be found in V-VI progressions in major keys, though never with V-VI
progressions in minor keys.
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Basic outline: The III chord is rarely used in major keys. The III chord will be used more
frequently in minor keys, since in minor keys there will often be a modulation to the key
of III (the relative major). The III chord shares two notes in common with the I chord
and two notes in common with the V chord. In most cases where students use a III chord
to harmonize a melody they are making a questionable decision; it would be better in
most of these cases to harmonize the melody note with a I chord or a V chord. In the rare
instances where a III chord does appear in a major key, it usually functions as a
predominant.
(a) The III chord can move to V via a III-IV-V or III-II6-V progression (creating a
rising stepwise motion in the bass).
(b) The III chord can move to V via a III-VI-II-V progression (creating a cycle of fifths
progression leading to the dominant chord).
(d) Remember that a III is used rarely in major keys; in most cases, a I or V chord would
be preferable. A III chord is used a bit more often in minor keys; in minor keys, the
III chord appears as a major triad, not as an augmented triad (that is, do not raise the
leading tone of the III chord in minor keys).
(e) In its main uses, the III chord always appears as a root position chord.
(b) VI6 : The VI6 is sometimes used as a type of I chord with an embellishing tone(see
Aldwell-Schachter, page 278, bottom). It is also used as a pivot chord leading to the
key of V (see Aldwell-Schachter, page 200, regarding I 5-6).1 The VI6 should not be
used by students in simple harmony exercises, however.
(c) II6/4, III6/4, VI6/4, VII6/4 : Six-four chords are dissonant chords, and they can be
used only in specific contrapuntal contexts (such as when they are functioning as
cadential six-fours, passing six-fours, arpeggiated six-fours, or neighbor six-fours).
The II6/4, III6/4, VI6/4, and VII6/4 have no special function outside of these specific
contrapuntal contexts. As a result, the chords labeled as II6/4, III6/4, VI6/4,
andVII6/4 chords should not be used in harmony exercises.
(d) bVII (that is, in a minor key a chord whose root is the subtonic): This chord has
three functions: (1) The bVII can function as a V of III, the relative major. This is a
common function. (2) The bVII can function as part of a cycle of fifths, in the
progression I-IV-VII-III-VI-II-V-I. (3) The bVII can also function as a type of
predominant, leading to a V, V7, or V chord in inversion. (See Aldwell-Schachter,
pp. 221-23.)
(e) vii o 5/3 (i.e., a chord whose root is the leading tone of a major or minor key): (1) In
major keys this chord can function as part of a cycle of fifths, in the progression I-IV-
VII-III-VI-II-V-I. (2) In analyzing compositions, you will occasionally come across a
VII 5/3 that functions as a V6. You should label such a chord as V6. Students should
not use a leading tone viio 5/3 in harmony exercises, however (see Aldwell-Schachter,
pages 223-24).
(f) Remember that not every simultaneity (group of tones sounding at the same time)
will produce a functional harmony. In analyzing a piece, one should not simply label
the Roman numeral of a chord unless it forms part of a logical harmonic progression.
If it does not, the chord would be better understood as a contrapuntal sonority .
1
Because a VI6 can function as the II6 of V, an extremely common chord.
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(a) I and I6 chords are goal chords of tonal rest; they can be followed by any chord.
(b) II and II6 chords are pre-dominant chords that lead to the V chord, inversions of V,
or similar chords (such as VII6). A II6 can move through a IV or a II before moving
to a V chord (as in the progressions II6-IV-V or II6-II-V). A II in root position is less
common than a II6, especially in minor keys.
(c) A III is a rarely used chord, especially in major keys. It functions as a pre-dominant,
moving to a V (or inversion of a V) either directly or (more normally) through a IV,
II6, or VI-II progression. The III6 is a contrapuntal chord that functions as type of V
chord with an embellishing tone; a III6 should not be used in simple harmony
exercises.
(d) A IV functions much like a II6; in other words, it is a pre-dominant that moves to a V
or similar chord. It can also move through a II6 or II before moving to V (as in the
progressions IV-II6-V or IV-II-V). Furthermore, a IV can function as a type of
embellishing chord by moving directly to a I chord within a I-IV-I progression.
(When used within the I-IV-I progression, the IV is known as a plagal IV). A IV6
also functions as a predominant. Usually, a IV6 moves directly to a V or V6, or else
it moves through a II6 or IV to a V (as in the progression IV6-IV-V or IV6-II6-V).
(e) AV moves directly to a I or I6. A root position V may also resolve deceptively to a
root position VI. A V6 functions like a V, except that it does not usually appear at
important cadences. A V6 resolves to a I chord (a V6 may not resolve to a I6).
Furthermore, V ad V6 may interchange with one another (so that a V can move to a
V6 and V6 can move to a V).
(f) VI is a pre-dominant chord. Usually it moves to a V through a IV, II6, or II (as in
the progressions VI-IV-V, VI-II6-V, or VI-II-V). At times, it may also move directly
to a V or V6. A VI6 is a contrapuntal chord that functions as type of I chord with an
embellishing tone; sometimes it functions as a type of pivot chord leading to the key
of V (where a VI6 in the original key functions as a II6 the new key). Aside from this
pivot function, a VI6 should not be used in simple harmony exercises.
(g) A viiot d (whose root is the leading tone) sometimes appears within a cycle of fifths
sequence (as in the progression I-IV-viio -iii-vi-ii-V-I). Otherwise, a root position viio td
triad should not be used in simple harmony exercises. A viio6, on the other hand, is
quite common. It functions like a V chord, and directly to a I or I6. Any pre-
dominant chord that can move to a V (such as a IV, II6, or I) may also move to a
viio 6 chord.
(h) The 6/4 chords all have a contrapuntal function, and should only be used in specific
contrapuntal contexts. These include use as appogiaturas (as in the cadential 6/4 ), as
neighbor tones (as in the I-IV6/4-I progression) or as passing tones (as in the I-V6/4-
I6 or I6-V6/4-I progressions). 6/4 may not be used freely; they do not function in the
same manner as their root position or first inversions counterparts.
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II6
IV V, V7 or inversions I or I6
(V6 , V6/5,V4/2)
V 6/4-5/3 , V 4-3
V 8-7 (I-IV-I)
viio6
viio7 or inversions (I-IV6/4 -I)
VI
IV6 II r
• It is more normal for a bass or root to move down by a third or down by a fifth than it is for a root or bass to
move up by a third or up by a fifth.
• A Neapolitan six functions like a II6; augmented six chords are all predominant chords.
Sequences
Basic outline: Sequences consist of a progression that repeats a specific harmonic
motion. (pp. 246-69, 380-85, 410-18).
Main uses:
(h) In a sequence, a specific harmonic motion is repeated a number of times. Usually,
every other chord of the sequence will be similar. (For instance, see p. 585. Note
that in each example, the 1st, 3rd, 5th , and 7th chords are similar to one another—albeit
transposed by step—and likewise the 2nd, 4th , 6th and 8th chords are similar to one
another).
(i) In a sequence, not only does the bass line repeat, but usually all of the upper voices
repeat in a pattern as well.
(j) The specific Roman numerals of the chords in the middle of the sequence usually do
not matter; the sequence creates its own sense of harmonic propulsion.
(k) The most common sequence is the descending fifth sequence, in which the roots of
the chords in the sequence descend by fifths (or ascend by fourths, or both).
(l) Another common sequence is the ascending fifth sequence, in which the roots of
the chords in the sequence ascend by fifths (or descend by fourths, or both); do not
use a diminished chord within an ascending fifth sequence.
(m) Another common sequence is the ascending 5-6 sequence, in which the roots of the
chords alternate by descending a third, then ascending a fourth (some people call this
the “down a third, up a fourth sequence”).
(n) A less common sequence is the descending 5-6 sequence, also known as the “down a
fourth, up a step” sequence or (in slang terminology) the “Pachelbel canon”
sequence.
(o) Within the middle of the sequence, scale-degree ^7 may be doubled (since the scale
degree ^7 does not function as a leading tone within the middle of a sequence). On
the other hand, one may not have illegal parallels, unresolved sevenths, or other rule
violations in the middle of a sequence.
(p) Any sequence (including those mentioned above) may be varied by using inversions,
chromaticisms, and chordal sevenths. For instance, one may have not only a
sequence of descending fifths, but also a sequence of descending fifths in which
every other chord is a seventh chord in first inversion.
(q) Seventh chords may be used within sequences; in such cases, the seventh of the
chords must resolve down. In four-part harmony, in a descending fifth sequence
with seventh chords, in every other chord the fifth will be omitted and the seventh
doubled (see example below).
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Chord Repetition
Basic Outline: One can always repeat a chord in harmony exercises from a strong to a
weak beat. This is known as “chord repetition.” When a chord repeats, the upper voices
can leap freely.
Main concepts:
(a) When moving between two chords, the upper voices usually should not leap more
than a third. When chord repeats, however, the upper voices may leap freely!
(b) A chord can always be repeated from a strong beat to a weak beat (only rarely may a
chord be repeated from a weak beat to a strong beat; see pp. 91-92).
Examples: (Note: in each case of the following cases, upper voices can leap when the
chord repeats, but usually move stepwise when the chord changes.)
Mixture
Basic Outline: Mixture occurs when there is a shift between parallel major and minor
keys (see Aldwell-Schachter, pages 355-65).
Main Uses:
(a) A piece in a major key can shift to the parallel minor (and vice versa) for a section,
phrase, or even a single chord. This is known as mixture.
1 ^
For instance, the IV chord in a major key normally is a major chord. But if scale-degrees 6 is lowered, the IV
^
chord will become minor (as the IV chord is in a minor key). Similarly, the II chord in a major key is usually a minor chord, but if 6 is
lowered, the II will become a diminished chord.
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(c) Chords altered by mixture function the same way as unaltered chords. (For instance,
a iv chord functions the same way as a IV chord does.)
(d) Scale-degree b ^7 rarely is involved in mixture. (For instance, one rarely finds a minor
V chord in a minor key, since a minor V chord would involve a b ^7. Similarly, one
will rarely find a minor V chord involved in mixture within a major key context.)
(e) As an exception to item (d) above, the bIII chord—when used as a mixture chord—
will include scale-degrees b^7 . That is, the bIII must be a major triad, not an
augmented triad. (For instance, the lowered-III of C major is Eb-G-Bb, not Eb-G-B.)
(f) Similarly, the bIII should be a major triad, not an augmented triad (for instance, the
lowered-VI of C major is Ab-C-Eb, not Ab-C-E).
(g) In minor keys, mixture takes place when the I chord (which should be a minor chord)
is transformed into a major triad by means of a Picardy third.
(h) Mixture can arise on the deeper levels of structure, as when there is a modulation to a
key involving mixture. For instance, in a piece in C major, a modulation to F minor
(as opposed to F major) would be a modulation that involves mixture.
(i) “Secondary mixture” takes place when a chord is altered by an accidental that is not
borrowed from the parallel major or minor key (see Aldwell-Schachter, pages 363-
364).
Applied Chords
Basic outline: An applied chord (sometimes referred to as a secondary dominant)
momentarily tonicizes (i.e., makes into a tonic) a chord other than the I chord (see
Aldwell-Schachter, pages 195-97 and 397-409).
Main uses:
(a) Any major or minor chord can be preceded by its own V, V7, viio 7, or similar chord.
For instance, you may precede a V chord by a “V/V” (that is, a V in the key of V;.
this chord can also be labeled as “V of V”).
(b) An applied chord either moves to the chord to which it is applied or to a similar
chord. For instance, a V of V will usually go to a V, but it can also progress to a V7,
a V6, a viio 6 (which is like a V).
(c) Usually, the raised tone of an applied chord functions as a local leading tone. This
tone should not be doubled. In harmonizing a melody, consider that a raised tone in
the melody might function as part of an applied chord.
(d) Be careful to check the use of accidentals when using an applied chord. Remember
that an applied V should be a major triad, an applied V7 should be a major chord
with a minor 7, and an applied VII should be a diminished chord.
(e) Remember that the root of an applied V or V7 will be a perfect 5th above the chord to
which it is applied.
(f) Remember that the root of an applied VII will be a minor second below the chord to
which it is applied.
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Examples: (A) What is the V/V in E major? (a) The V of E major is a B chord. (b) The V chord of B is a
perfect fifth above B; that is, it is an F# major chord. (c) Therefore, the V/V in E major is F#, A#, C#.
(The F# and C# are already in the key of E major, but you will have to add an accidental to A#, the leading
tone of B). (B) What is the VIIo 7/II in C? (a) The II of C is a D chord. (b) The VII of D is C# (not C!; the
VII is always a half step below the tonic). (c) Therefore, the VIIo 7/II in D is C#, E, G, Bf.
(a) In minor keys, the V/III or V7/III will have b^7 (the subtonic) as its root. Though in
minor keys the ^7 is usually raised to become the leading tone, one should not raise &
within the V/III or V7/III, since within these chords the ^7 does not function as a
leading tone. (For instance, in A minor, the root of the V/III is G-natural, not G-sharp.)
(b) The V/III will have the same notes as a major triad built on the subtonic (that is, the
bVII chord). (For instance, the V of III in C minor is Bb-D-F.)
(c) The V/II involves # ^1 (^7 of II); the V/VI involves #^5; in major keys, the V/III (a
rarely found chord) involves both # ^2 (^7 of III) and # ^4.
(d) Notice that a raised tone in the melody will function as a ^ 7 of the tonicized chord
in most cases. (For instance, since # 5 is a half step below 6, therefore it can function as the leading tone of ^6. As
^ ^
^
a result, # 5 in the melody will often be harmonized with a V/VI chord.)
(e) Since the vii o chord is a diminished chord, there cannot be an applied chord to vii o .
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Reference Harmony and Figured Bass
1 ^ ^
A raised 7 is particularly common in minor keys. When 7 is not raised in minor, a modulation to the
^
relative major key is implied (unless the lowered 7 clearly forms part of a descending melodic minor
scale).
2 ^
Note the lowered 7 is the only normal chromaticism in a major key that implies an applied chord and yet
does not involve a raised tone.
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Reference Harmony and Figured Bass
(d) A lowered scale-degree ^2 in minor often implies use of a Neapolitan 6 chord (see
below).
(e) Lowered scale-degrees ^6 and ^3 in major keys often imply the use of mixture; a raised
^3 in minor at a cadence can imply use of a Picardy third.
(f) A chromaticism might merely form part of an ornamental embellishing motion,
especially when it is used in an obviously incidental manner.
(g) If a specific note is chromaticized in a consistent and persistent manner, or if it
appears at a pivotal cadence within a piece, a modulation might be implied. Many a
modulation will involve a pivot chord (see above).
(h) Remember that a raised tone will most likely function as a local leading tone. Thus,
for instance, in the key of C major, an A major chord (with a C#) suggests a
tonicization of D (because C# is the leading tone of D) and not a tonicization of A
major!
Neapolitan 6 Chord
Basic outline: The Neapolitan 6 chord is a bII6 chord that functions as a predominant.
(See Aldwell-Schachter, pages 456-60.)
Layout and main uses:
(a) The Neapolitan 6 chord is almost exclusively found in minor keys. (If a Neapolitan 6
were found in a major key, it would be an extreme example of mixture).
(b) The root of the Neapolitan 6 is scale-degree ^2 . (That is, the root is the lowered second
scale degree. For instance, the root of the Neapolitan 6 in A minor is B-flat, and the
root of the Neapolitan 6 in E minor is F-natural).
(c) The Neapolitan 6 is always a major triad.
(d) The third of the Neapolitan 6 should be in the bass and should be doubled.
(e) The Neapolitan 6 chord functions in a manner similar to a II6, that is, it moves to a V,
V7, or similar chord. It may also move through a IV, cadential six-four, or V6/V,
vii7/V, or similar chord before progressing to the dominant.
(f) When the Neapolitan 6 progresses to the following chord, b ^2 must resolve down (it
cannot move up to natural ^2 !).
(g) This chord is sometimes referred to as a Phrygian II6.
Examples
J L
:
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Reference Harmony and Figured Bass
Augmented-six chords
Basic outline: Augmented six chords are special predominant chords that have a powerful
drive towards V or V7. (See pp. 477ff.)
Examples:
(a) With a true seventh chord, the seventh functions as an “essential dissonance” that
must resolve down by step. With “apparent seventh chords,” either the apparent
seventh is an embellishing tone (as in Example 1 below) or the apparent root is an
embellish tone (as in Example 2). In these chords, there is no true dissonant seventh
that must resolve down.
(b) Sometimes the seventh of a true dissonance will be transferred while the seventh
chord is being prolonged (Example 3), or—more radically—the resolution will
transferred into another voice as the chord resolves (Example 4) or the resolution will
be implied (Example 5).
(c) Sometimes the seventh chord will be prolonged, so that the seventh of the chord is
“extended” (Example 6) or so that its resolution will be “delayed” (Example 7).
Chord Doublings
(a) One should not double strong tendency tones in a chord. Thus do not double the
leading tone (that is the scale degree 7), even if it is in the bass. Likewise, do not
double a chordal dissonance (such as the seventh of a seventh chord or the fourth
above the bass in a C6/4 ), even if it is in the bass.
(b) With a root position chord, it is usually best to double the bass (unless the bass is the
leading tone). One notable exception occurs with the progression V-VI. That is,
with the progression V-VI, one often doubles the third of the VI chord, even though
the VI chord is in root position.
(c) With a second inversion chord, it is also usually best to double the bass. One notable
exception occurs with the second-inversion V chord, where one can double either the
bass or the root.
(d) With a first inversion triad, one can usually double any note of the chord (except for
the leading tone).
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Reference Species Counterpoint
SPECIES COUNTERPOINT
Species counterpoint is a teaching tool developed over the centuries to help
students learn the technique of writing for two or more voices at the same time. Species
counterpoint rules are stricter than the rules for real composition (much as the rules for
grammatical exercises are stricter than the rules for grammar in poetry). Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven, Chopin, and many other famous composers studied species counterpoint.
In traditional species counterpoint exercises, the teacher provides a melody,
known as a cantus firmus. Against this cantus firmus, the student writes a
countermelodies, know as the counterpoints. In a good counterpoint exercise, each part
must have a viable melody and be able to stand on its own. The harmonic intervals must
be treated carefully, especially perfect consonances (which may not be approached in
parallel motion) and dissonances.
In first species the rhythms of the counterpoint and the cantus firmus are the
same; in first species, all the notes must be consonant.
In second species, there are two notes of the countermelody for every one note of
the cantus firmus. Dissonant passing tones are allowed on the weak beats; the strong
beats must be consonant.
In third species, there are four notes of the countermelody for every one note of
the cantus firmus. Dissonant passing tones and neighbor tones are allowed on the weak
beats; the strong beats must be consonant.
In fourth species, there are notes of the countermelody are (for the most part)
syncopated against the cantus firmus. Dissonant suspensions are allowed on the strong
beats; the weak beats must be consonant. The suspensions must be prepared by a
consonance which is held over to become a dissonance that resolves down by step.
In fifth species, the countermelody has a variety of rhythms against the cantus
firmus. The dissonances must be weak beat passing tones, weak beat neighbor tones, or
suspensions.
In each species, perfect intervals must not be approached by parallel motion.
Intervening passing tones or suspensions will not eradicate faulty parallel motion.
Similar motion into perfect intervals is tolerated only in special circumstances. Oblique
or contrary motion into perfect intervals are acceptable.
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Reference Species Counterpoint
Perfect 4ths and augmented and diminished intervals are treated as consonances
between upper voices in counterpoint exercises of three or more parts.
Compound intervals have the same classification as simple equivalents. For
instance a major 10th , like a major 3rd, is an imperfect consonance. You should
memorize the relation between simple intervals and their compound equivalents:
There are only a limited number of sonorities in three-parts that are consonant.
The best of these sonorities are (1) a major or minor 5/3 chord; (2) a major, minor, or
diminished chord; (3) a sixth with the bass doubled [8/6] and (4) a third with the bass
doubled [8/3] . Also acceptable are (5) a sixth with the upper voice doubled or (6) a third
with the upper voice doubled.1
The interval of a fifth with a note doubled or a three-part sonority with the bass
tripled sound hollow, and should be avoided except for the first and last bars of an
exercise. All other three-note sonorities are dissonant.
1
Avoid doubling the leading tone, however, especially in the penultimate bar.
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Reference Species Counterpoint
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Reference Species Counterpoint
Labeling a counterpoint exercise can help a to see better (and thus hear better) what is written.
Once you learn how to label carefully and correctly, you will find completing species
counterpoint exercises to be relatively easy.
(1) Label each and every interval.
(a) Don’t omit any interval, even ones you consider to be obvious.
(b) For the most part, you don’t have to label the quality of the intervals. But do
check to see if a 5th is perfect (therefore consonant) or diminished (therefore
possibly dissonant).
(c) You may refer to compound intervals by their simple equivalent. For instance, if
the interval is a 10th , you may call it a 3.
(d) In 3-part counterpoint (i) in the space below the alto clef, write the intervals that
are found between the bass voice and the alto voice; (ii) in the space below the
treble clef, write the intervals that are found between the bass voice and the treble
voice; and (iii) label the intervals between the alto and treble above the treble
staff.
(2) Label each and every dissonance.
(a) Place a triangle around every dissonant interval.
(b) Place a triangle around every dissonant note. (For some reason, unfortunately,
students often neglect this important labeling suggestion.)
(3) Label each and every perfect consonance.
(a) Circle every perfect interval. (Unlike with dissonances, you do not have to circle
the notes involved in the perfect interval; simply circle the interval number).
(b) Label how each perfect interval is approached (by parallel, similar, oblique,
contrary, or stationary motion). Remember to double-check every similar
interval: an interval that you might think is approached in similar motion might
actually be approached in parallel motion.
(4) Do not label how 3rds or 6ths are approached; do not circle 3rds or 6ths.
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Reference Species Counterpoint
Dissonances
(1) Don’t use any dissonant harmonic intervals in first species counterpoint.
(2) Dissonant harmonic intervals are 2nds, 7ths, and their compound equivalents.
(3) Also, between the bass and an upper voice, 4ths and augmented and diminished
intervals are treated as dissonances.
(4) However, between the upper voices, 4ths and diminished and augmented intervals are
treated as consonances.
Perfect intervals
(1) Approach perfect consonances (unisons, 5ths, 8ves, and their compound equivalents)
in contrary or oblique motion.
(2) Never approach perfect consonances in parallel motion!
(3) Similar motion into a perfect fifth or octave is not so bad in three-part counterpoint.
This is especially true if (a) there is stepwise motion in the upper voice of the two
voices involved in the similar motion; (b) the similar motion involves an inner voice
(that is, it is between the alto and soprano or the alto and the bass); and (c) the third
voice (that is, the voice not involve in the similar motion into a perfect fifth or octave)
moves in contrary motion to the other two voices. This chart sums up these concepts:
Similar motion into a perfect fifth or octave Similar motion into a perfect fifth or octave
in 3-part counterpoint is better if: in 3-part counterpoint is less good if:
Third voice moves in contrary motion J Third voice moves in similar motion L
(4) You may move from a perfect 5th to a diminished 5th without creating parallel fifths.
On the other hand, in three-part counterpoint you may move from a diminished 5th to
a perfect 5th only in the upper voices and only if all three voices move up by step.
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Reference Species Counterpoint
(4) Except for the first and last bar, avoid having a sonority with all perfect intervals
on the downbeat.
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Reference Species Counterpoint
(1) If there is a dissonant interval between the cantus firmus and the counterpoint, we
must assume that the note of the counterpoint is the dissonant note.
(2) Dissonant notes are not allowed on the first beat of a measure.
(3) A dissonant notes is allowed only on the weak beats of a bar and only if it is (a) a
passing tone, (b) a neighbor tone, (c) part of a double-neighbor figure (double-
neighbors will be discussed below) or (d) part of a cambiata (cambiatas will be
discussed in class). The weak beats are beats 2, 4, and even beat 3 (which is
relatively weak). You may have two passing tones in a row. You may not have a
passing tone directly followed by a neighbor tone, however, nor may you have a
neighbor tone directly followed by a passing tone.
Perfect Intervals
(1) Perfect intervals on the downbeat of a bar must be approached in contrary motion.
Perfect intervals on the first beat of a bar may not be approached in parallel motion;
furthermore, one should avoid approaching perfect intervals on the first beat of a bar
in similar motion (see rules for first species regarding when it is allowable to
approach perfect intervals in similar motion).
(2) If there is a perfect interval on the downbeat of a measure, avoid having the same
perfect interval in the previous measure, especially on the last two beats (For
instance, if there is a perfect fifth on the downbeat of a measure, there should not be a
perfect fifth on the third beat of the previous measure).
(3) You may freely use any perfect intervals on the second, third, and fourth beats of a
measure. After all, such intervals will always be approached in oblique motion
(since only the counterpoint—not the cantus firmus—moves on the weak beats).
(4) Except for the first and last bar, avoid having a sonority with all perfect intervals (a
so-called “open fifth” sonority”) on the downbeat.
Melody
(1) Melody must sound decent; obey melody rules shown on earlier page. In
particular, avoid going too many notes in one direction.
(2) Avoid “leaping over the bar line.” That is, you should try to have a stepwise
motion from the fourth beat of one measure to the first beat of the next.
(3) You may not repeat a note twice in a row.
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Double-Neighbor Figure
(1) A double-neighbor figure is made up of four notes. The first and last notes of this
figure are the same. One of the middle two notes is a step above these outer notes,
the other is a step below (see example below).
(2) The two middle tones function as neighbor tones and thus may be dissonant. Note
that only with the double-neighbor figure (and the cambiata, to be discussed in class)
may you leap to or from a dissonance in third species.
may be may be
dissonant dissonant
Dissonances
(4) In this species, dissonant notes allowed only on the first beat of a measure.
(5) Dissonant notes must be tied to.
(6) Dissonant notes must resolve (a) down, (b) by step (c) to a consonance. However,
a 7th must never resolve down to an 8ve, and a 2nd must never resolve down to a
unison.
(7) Though the first beat of a measure may be dissonant, it does not have to be
dissonant. In other words, one may tie to a consonant half note on the first beat of a
measure.
(8) Remember that all dissonant tones in fourth species must fulfill five requirements.
Namely, in fourth species, dissonant tones must be
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Reference Species Counterpoint
(a) on the first beat
(b) tied to; and resolve
(c) down
(d) by step
(e) to a consonance (with no 7-8 or 2-1 resolutions allowed).
Perfect Intervals
(4) If perfect interval that is tied to appears on the first beat of a measure, that note will
necessarily be approached in oblique motion. Approaching a perfect interval in
oblique motion is always permitted.
(5) If a perfect interval is formed by a note that is not tied to, it should be approached
in contrary motion. Perfect intervals on the first beat of a bar may not be approached
in parallel motion; furthermore, one should avoid approaching perfect intervals in
similar motion (see rules of first species regarding when it is allowable to approach
perfect intervals by similar motion).
(6) Dissonant suspensions do not break up parallel octaves. Thus, for instance, the
interval succession 8ve-9th-8ve creates faulty parallel octaves.
Perfect Intervals
(1) All perfect intervals should be approached in contrary or oblique motion; never
approach a perfect interval in parallel motion.
(2) Avoid approaching a perfect interval in similar motion, especially if the upper
voice moves by leap (see rules of first species regarding when it is allowable to
approach perfect intervals by similar motion)..
(3) If a perfect interval is attacked on the downbeat, the same perfect interval should
not be in the previous measure.
(7) A dissonant suspension will not remove would-be illegal parallels (see rules for
fourth species).
(1) The following rhythms may be used freely: (a) four quarter notes in a bar; (b) two
half notes in a bar; (c) two half notes in a bar of which either or both are tied to a
half note in another bar; (d) a half note followed by two quarter notes; or (e) two
quarter notes followed by a half note that is tied to the next bar.
(2) Do not use syncopations, such as a quarter note followed by a half note and then
another quarter note. (quarter-half-quarter = L).
(3) Do not use two quarter notes followed by a half note; this important rule is often
forgotten by students! (quarter -quarter-half = L). Contrast this rule with rule
(1e) above.
(4) You may not tie from a quarter note!
(5) Try to vary the rhythms in this species, creating a flowing rhythmic feel.
(1) Some teachers allow the use eighth notes; even so, eighth notes should be used
sparingly, if at all. If eighth notes are used, (a) there should be at most one pair of
eighth notes per bar; (b) each eighth note should be approached and left by step;
and (c) use the eighth notes on either beat 2 or beat 4.
(1) Though one may not tie from a quarter note, one may tie to a quarter note.
(2) If there is a tie to a quarter note that is a dissonance, the dissonance must resolve
down on the third beat of the measure. The second beat of the bar will be called
the decoration of the suspension. On this second beat, there may either be (a) two
stepwise eighth notes, or (b) a consonant quarter note.
1. In the last 2½bars, the fourth species (or fifth species) part should end with a (a)
half-note tonic tied to another half note tonic; (b) followed by a half-note leading
tone; (c) ending with a whole note tonic.
Example:
2. If the fourth or fifth species voice is in the bass, the first species voice should end
with a ^5 moving to a ^3
3. If the cantus firmus is in the bass, the first species voice should end with a ^4
moving to a ^3.
4. If the first species part is in the bass, it should end ^5- ^1.
Some other possibilities exist, but the solution offered above will always work.
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Reference Form
FORM
Phrases and other groupings
A phrase is a short complete musical gesture, one that is usually about four or
eight bars long. It should frame a complete harmonic progression and end with a
cadence.
A subphrase is a musical gesture that is shorter than a phrase. Often, a phrase
can be subdivided into two or more subphrases. A subphrase need not frame a complete
progression or end with a cadence. In many cases, deciding whether a musical gesture is
a phrase or a subphrase is largely subjective. Within each composition, however, one
should try to be roughly consistent with the length of segments that one labels as phrases
or subphrases.
A period consists of a grouping of two phrases. Again, deciding whether a
musical gesture is a phrase or a period in many cases will be largely subjective. A
parallel period occurs when the two phrases of a period begin in a similar manner.1
Often a parallel period takes the form of an antecedent-consequent construction. In
such a construction, the first phrase of the period (the antecedent) will end incomplete
(with a half cadence or an incomplete authentic cadence). The second phrase of the
period (the consequent) will “answer” the first phrase by ending with a perfect authentic
cadence. An antecedent-modulating consequent construction occurs when the
consequent phrase ends with a perfect authentic cadence in a new key.
Many times the two phrases of a period will not begin in a similar manner. In
such cases, the second phrase will nevertheless seem to “answer” the first phrase. (This is
especially true if the first phrase ends with a half cadence and the second phrase ends
with an authentic cadence). Such a period is often referred to as a forephrase-
afterphrase.
The shortest musical segment is a motive. A motive is distinctive musical
fragment, one that returns (perhaps a number of times) in a significant fashion within a
composition. A motive can consist of a distinctive (a) interval or group of intervals, (b)
contour, (c) rhythm, (d) group of notes or scale degrees, (e) or a combination of these
items.
A sentence structure, in its ideal format, is an eight-bar phrase with the following
structure: (1) two bars present an idea; followed by (2) two bars that repeat (possibly in
transposed or varied form) the material of the first two bars; concluding with (3) four bars
that continue the phrase by developing motives from the opening four bars (usually by
breaking down or “liquidating” these motives) and then driving towards a cadence.
classic sentence structure:
x (2 bars); x’ (2 bars); y [developed from x, leading towards a cadence] (4 bars, ending
with cadence) [see example on next page]
classic antecedent-consequent:
x (2 bars); y (2 bars, ending with incomplete cadence) // x (2 bars); y’ (2 bars, ending
with complete cadence) [see example on next page]
1
Note: some theorists use the terms “period” and “parallel period” interchangeably.
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Reference Form
bar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
bar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A cadence occurs at the end of a phrase. Here are the cadences that occur in
mainstream Western music:
(a) A weak cadence is one that ends on a weak beat. A strong cadence is one
that ends on a strong beat.
(b) A half cadence (HC) is a cadence that ends on a V chord. In almost all cases,
a half cadence ends with a root position V triad. (A half cadence normally
does not end with an inverted V chord or with a V7 chord).
(c) An authentic cadence ends with a V-I (or V7-I) progression. A perfect
authentic cadence (PAC) involves root-position V and I chords, with the
tonic in the top voice of the final I. In an imperfect authentic cadence
(IAC) , either the V or I are not in root position, the tonic is not in the top
voice of the final I, or both.1
(d) A deceptive cadence ends with a root position V (or V7) progressing to a
root position VI.
Note that the number of bars in a phrase is usually 4, 8, or 16 bars (that is,
multiples of 4). A phrase may be shortened, however, through devices such as phrase
overlap. A phrase also may be lengthened through devices such as interpolations or
extensions, which may appear at the beginning, middle, or end of phrases (see next page
for demonstrations of these devices as indicated by the eighteenth-century music theorist
Heinrich Koch).
1
Note that whereas you may have an authentic cadence may be perfect or imperfect, there is no such thing
as a perfect or imperfect half cadence. Likewise, there is no such thing as a perfect or imperfect plagal,
Phrygian, or deceptive cadence.
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Reference Form
Binary form
Binary form is a two-part form that derives historically from dance movements
of the Baroque era. The two parts of the form (each of which is usually repeated) must
somehow relate to one another. Binary form can frame an individual piece, a movement
of a piece, or a section of a movement. Binary form can be divided into various
subcategories, which differ from each other in subtle yet important ways.
Symmetrical binary form arises when the two parts of the form are
approximately the same length. Asymmetrical binary form arises when the second part
of the form is approximately twice the length of the first part.
In simple binary form, the two parts of the form will not share any specific
thematic material. The two parts of a simple binary form movement will share motives
and various textural features, however. Simple binary form may be diagramed like this:
Simple binary
If the first part of the binary form ends with a harmonically stable cadence (that is,
an authentic cadence in the original key), then it is known as sectional. If the first part
ends with a harmonically unstable cadence (such as on a half cadence or on authentic
cadence in a non-tonic key), then it is known as continuous.
Balanced binary
thematic content: ||: A :||: A’ :||
harmonic content: stability---àinstability, instability-------àstability
tonic key-ànon-tonic key, non-tonic key--àtonic key
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Reference Form
In rounded binary form, the first part of the form returns at the end of the second
part. In asymmetrical rounded binary form, the second part of the form begins with new
material and then repeats the entire thematic material from the first part. (In many cases,
this material from the first part is altered harmonically when it returns.) A typical
asymmetrical rounded binary form can be diagramed like this:
In symmetrical rounded binary form (a.k.a. quatrain form), the first part is an antecedent-
consequent (or antecedent-modulating consequent) period. The second half begins with
new material that is about the same length as the antecedent phrase and that ends with a
half cadence in the original key. This is followed by a repeat of the consequent phrase
that ends with a perfect authentic cadence in the original key. A typical symmetrical
rounded binary form may be diagramed like this:
In practice, there are many exceptions to the basic formats described above. For
instance, often the repeats are omitted. At other times, the repeats are written out (rather
than being indicated by a repeat sign). Sometimes the form is expanded by transitional
material or by the use of a codetta. In these and other such cases, one must be flexible in
applying the terms associated with binary form.
1
HC = half cadence, PAC = perfect authentic cadence.
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Reference Form
Ternary form
Ternary form is a three-part, sectional form in which the last part is a repetition
of the first part. The two outer sections are in the same key; the middle section is often in
a contrasting key or mode. Each part usually will be tonally closed; that is, each part
usually ends with a perfect authentic cadence in its own key. Sometimes a transitional
passage will link the middle section with the return of the opening material.
Ternary form
A || B || A
(Typically, the first A section (The B section will often (The return of the A section
ends with a perfect authentic be in a contrasting key or ends with a perfect authentic
cadence in the original key.) mode. Typically, It will cadence in the original key.)
end with a perfect
authentic cadence in this
key or mode.)
Notice the difference between the typical ternary form and rounded binary form:1
1
Confusingly, some theorists refer to rounded binary form as ternary form—go figure!
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Reference Form
Sonata Form
Sonata form is an important form that governs many movements of the late-
Classical period and the Romantic period. (It is not found in the works of the high-
Baroque period or earlier.) It governs movements not only from sonatas, but also of
symphonies, string quartets, and many other genres.
Sometimes a large sonata form movement will begin with a slow introduction in
the tonic key. Introduction sections usually end with the V of the main key and they are
not repeated.
EXPOSITION The exposition, which is usually repeated, can be divided into various
subsections:
First group (sometimes called the first theme group): The first group consists
of a theme or group of themes that are in the tonic key or that center around the tonic key,
ending with a motion towards the second key area. The first group can consist of a single
phrase, a half of a phrase, or many phrases. The opening phrase(s) of the first group are
sometimes called the first theme. The last part of the first group is known as the bridge or
transition.
The bridge or transition is the final phrase (or phrases) of the first group during
which a motion toward the second key area takes place. The bridge can introduce a new
theme, though often it uses the same thematic material seen earlier during the first group.
In many pieces, the bridge section functions as a type of modulating consequent to the
first group. The transition usually ends on the V of the key of the second group or on a V
of the original key. The typical bridge section often can be subdivided into the following
subsections:
(a) The bridge will begin in the tonic key, either introducing new material or
developing material heard in the previous phrase.
(b) In the middle of the bridge phrase, tensions will increase, perhaps hinting at a
modulation to a new key.
(c) A dramatic motion to a V of the new key or V of the original key will take
place. Often this motion will entail a chromatic motion in the bass or top
voice, and the half cadence will be preceded by an augmented sixth chord or
by an applied dominant.
Second group (sometimes called the second theme group): The second group
consists of a group of themes in a secondary key, usually the key of V or (if the
movement is in minor) in the key of the relative major. The second theme usually(but
not always) has three subsections (a) The second theme is the first part of the second
group. (b) The closing theme is the part of the second group that follows the first firm
cadence in the new key and that has a closing function. (c) The codetta is a short passage
at the end of the second group that “wraps up” the section, following the second big
cadence in the new key. If there more or less than three big cadences during the second
group, then classifying the sections with a standard designation will be difficult, if not
impossible.
The second group is usually firmly demarcated from the preceding bridge, often
by means of a short pause. The second group often begins somewhat harmonically
unstable. It need not introduce a new theme: sometimes, the second group is based on
thematic material that clearly is based on material from the first group.
DEVELOPMENT and RECAPITULATION These two parts make up the second big
section of sonata form. They usually are repeated in the sonata form movements of
Haydn, Mozart, and their contemporaries. In the sonata form movements of Beethoven
and his successors, however, these sections rarely are repeated.
The recapitulation repeats the material of the exposition. The main difference,
however, is that, the second group appears in the tonic key in the recapitulation.
Accordingly, the bridge section is often drastically rewritten so as not to effect a
modulation. There also might be small changes in the first group as well.
Sometimes the recapitulation is followed by a coda; that is, a tail section that
wraps up the entire piece in the tonic key. The coda usually starts after all the material
first seen in the exposition has reappeared in the recapitulation.
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Reference Form
One might diagram the standard sonata form structure like this:
(many keys)
st 1st group
1 group
2nd
bridge group
(modulates) (non-tonic bridge
key) (doesn’t
2nd
modulate) group
1st theme
(tonic key) 1st group (tonic
(tonic key) key)
Rondo form
Rondo form involves a theme in the tonic key that alternates with a series of
contrasting themes that often are in contrasting modes or keys. An early form of rondo is
the rondeau, a form that is found in many French Baroque dance suites. In a rondeau, a
short refrain alternates with a succession of short “couplets.” There is no set number of
couplets allowed in a rondeau. Typically, both the refrain and couplets are about eight or
sixteen bars long. The refrain is always in the tonic key; the couplets often are in
contrasting modes or keys:
Rondeau form:
A B A C A D A ...
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Reference Form
A 5-part rondo form appears a slow movement in classical sonata, as well as in other
types of compositions. The 5-part rondo has the following structure:
A B A C A
(in the tonic key) (often in a (in the tonic key; (often in a (in the tonic key;
contrasting key or usually shorter contrasting key or usually about the
mode) than the first A mode; usually same length as the
section) longer than the B first A section)
section)
A 7-part rondo form often appears as the final movement in classical sonata, as
well as in other types of compositions. The 7-part rondo has the following structure:
A B A C A B’ A
(in the tonic (in a non- (in the tonic (in a (in the tonic (in the tonic (in the tonic
key) tonic key, key) contrasting key) key) key)
usually the key or keys)
key of the
dominant or
the relative
major)
A 7-part rondo can also take the form of a “sonata rondo” if the initial A and B sections
are structured like a sonata-form exposition, the C section is structured like a sonata form
development section, and the A and B sections following the C section are structured like
a recapitulation.