Graphing Techniques

Introduction

Some alignment situations require the use of a graphical method to identify the necessary correction moves.
For example, if the laser alignment system does not provide a mechanism to enter thermal growth offsets,
graphing allows you to quickly determine the required non-operating misalignment. If you encounter a base-
bound or bolt-bound situation, a simple graph will identify the necessary moves for both the stationary and
moveable machines.
Although using graph paper may seem archaic, the ability to actually see the shaft centerline positions and
easily perform “what if” scenarios makes it a valuable tool even when powerful alignment systems and
computer programs are available. Many people need to “see” something in order to understand it. The
numbers that magically appear on the screen of a laser alignment computer can be confusing or intimidating,
especially to someone with limited exposure to shaft alignment. For many, the transition to an automated
computer-aided alignment system is easier if it is first presented in graphical form. The following sections
merge the technology of the laser with the practicality of graphing.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter the student will:
 Understand the relationship between coupling offsets and angles and foot offsets.
 Understand non-operating shaft and foot positions for thermal growth correction.
 Understand optimum / alternative vertical and horizontal moves to overcome bolt-bound or base-bound
conditions.
 Understand methods to convert alignment figures from other alignment methods for use with a new
alignment system.

Graphing Fundamentals

Any type of graph paper may be used with linear vertical and horizontal scales to graph alignment solutions.
To ensure accuracy to 0,025 mm (0.001”), the graph paper should have a scale of approximately 25 mm (1”)
per major division and ten minor divisions per major division. Different scale factors are selected for the
vertical and horizontal graph axes to accommodate the small values for misalignment and the relatively larger
values of the machine’s physical dimensions. For example:
 The vertical axis of the graph is used to show coupling and foot misalignment offsets, which are
generally measured in one-thousandths of an inch. A scale of 0,02 mm (0.001”) per minor division might
be selected for the vertical axis.
 The horizontal axis of the graph paper is used for the machine dimensions. A factor of 25 or 50 mm (1 or
2”) per minor division might be used for a medium-sized machine.
The selection of scale factors is important to ensure accuracy. The goal is to utilize as much area on the graph
as possible without running over the edges. Instructions on scale factor selection are provided in following
sections.
Plotting the Planes of the Feet, Coupling, and Alignment Fixtures
Before plotting the current shaft positions, the axial positions of the feet, coupling, and laser alignment head
planes must be plotted. It is unnecessary to include the stationary machine on the graph to plot the
misalignment of the moveable machine. However, to determine offsets for thermal growth or to identify
corrections for base-bound and bolt-bound conditions, both machines must be plotted. For consistency, better
visualization, and to handle unexpected situations, it is good practice to always include both machines when
graphing.
The first step is to identify a reference point from which all other dimensions are measured. On many laser
alignment systems, this reference point is the face of the measurement plane in the laser head attached to the
moveable machine. Check the documentation supplied with the laser to determine its dimension conventions
and adjust the following measurements accordingly. Necessary dimensions for graphing are:
A. The distance from the measurement plane of the alignment fixture on the moveable machine to the
measurement plane (or mirror) of the alignment fixture mounted on the stationary machine (terminology
may differ depending on the manufacturer and model of the laser used).
B. The distance from the moveable machine fixture to the centerline of the coupling. Although not always
possible, alignment fixtures should be mounted so they are equidistant to the centerline of the coupling.
Generally, offset and angle misalignment values provided by laser alignment systems are at the center of
the two fixtures. If the laser fixtures are not symmetric about the coupling, the misalignment offset value,
in particular, may be incorrect at the true center of the coupling. However, the offset values at the feet
will be correct, which is where the corrections must be made.
C. The distance from the moveable machine laser measurement plane to the plane of the inboard (coupled,
or drive-end) feet of the moveable machine.
D. The distance between the planes of the inboard and outboard feet of the moveable machine.
E. The distance from the moveable machine laser measurement plane to the plane of the inboard (coupled,
or drive-end) feet of the stationary machine.
F. The distance between the planes of the inboard and outboard feet of the stationary machine.
G. The total distance between the planes of the outboard feet of both machines. This value is the sum of
dimensions C, D, E, and F.
The dimensions should be accurate to within approximately 3 to 6 mm (0.125” to 0.25”).
The objective is to get the entire machine to fit on the graph paper. To accomplish this, a horizontal plotting
scale factor must be determined. Consider a machine with the following dimensions:

Dimension MM Inches
A 250 10
B 125 5
C 380 15
D 500 20
E 500 20
F 635 25
G 2030 80
Table 1. Machine Dimensions.
If the graph paper has approximately 120 minor divisions, a scale factor can be calculated by dividing the
total distance between outboard feet (dimension G) by the number of minor divisions - in this case, 2030/120,
or 16.9 mm per division (80/120, or 0.67”). Round up to a number that is easy to work with. In this example,
20 mm per division (0.7”) provides a convenient scale factor. Label the graph paper to indicate that the
horizontal scale is 20 mm (0.7”) per division.
The next step is to graph the centerline of the moveable machine alignment fixture. It is easiest to place this
line on one of the major division lines. An easy way to find the best location for this reference line is to take
the sum of dimension E and dimension F (the distance from the outboard foot plane on the stationary machine
to the measurement plane), and divide it by the scale factor - in this example, 1135/20 (45/0.7), or
approximately 60 divisions. Starting from the left side of the graph paper, count over 60 divisions and then
select the next major division line to the right as the reference line. As a quick check, verify that the outboard
foot of the moveable machine fits on the graph paper. Divide dimension C plus dimension D by the scale
factor, 880/20 (35/0.7), or approximately 50. Count over 50 divisions to the right of the reference line and
ensure that the plane of the outboard feet of the moveable machine can be plotted on the graph. If, for some
reason, the machine does not fit, check all math and dimensions. If it still does not seem to fit, increase the
scale factor slightly and try again. The goal is to use as much of the graph paper as possible to achieve the
best accuracy from plot results.
Draw a vertical line from top to bottom on the graph paper and label it so that it can be easily identified. For
example, use “ML” to indicate that it is the measurement plane of the laser head mounted on the moveable
machine. Divide each dimension by the scale factor and round up or down to the nearest whole number.
Count over from the reference line to the right or left, and draw and label each plane, as shown in Figure 1.

PLANE LINES
SO SI SL CL ML MI MO

Figure 1. Graph of the Planes.

At this point, the graph paper may be used for horizontal or vertical alignment graphing since the plane
dimensions are identical. This graph will be used to demonstrate various vertical movements, so label it as
vertical. The vertical scale on the graph is used to identify foot or coupling offsets and angles. The scale
factor should be determined after initial readings are taken, or when thermal growth offsets have been
determined. Again, the goal is to utilize as much of the graph paper as possible to improve graphing
accuracy.

Graphing Laser Alignment Results and Graphing Techniques

Once the machine dimensions are placed on the graph paper, the alignment figures from the laser can be
plotted. Most laser systems provide the alignment / misalignment data for the moveable machine in terms of
offset and angle at the coupling, and offsets at the feet. Typically, the offset and angle values provided
indicate the true position of the moveable machine’s shaft, and can be plotted directly. The foot values,
however, may be shown as the actual offset (i.e., whether the feet are high or low) or the amount of correction
required. For example, if the outboard feet were 0,5 mm (0.020”) high, the actual, or true, misalignment
would be reported as +0,5 on some laser alignment systems. Other systems may provide a value of –0,5,
indicating that 0,5 mm would have to be removed from both feet in that plane to bring the machine into
alignment. Either system is technically correct, and confusion only occurs when switching from one device to
another. Since graphing is intended to provide a visual representation of the position of the shaft centerlines,
the true position or offset should be plotted. If the laser provides correction values, simply reverse the sign
and plot the value. Generally, it is easiest to plot the shaft positions from the foot - offset values, especially
when the angle and offset at the coupling are small. Both methods are demonstrated below.
One of the most important rules when graphing is consistency. The use of consistent line colors and line
styles will avoid confusion on the current job and will enable others to interpret the data in the future. No one
method is perfect and the following may be used as a starting point. If color pens are unavailable while
performing an alignment, labeling of the various lines will probably be sufficient.
 Use black solid lines to represent the coupling, fixture, and foot centerlines. Label each line accordingly
and be sure to identify the stationary and moveable machines. Generally, the stationary machine should
be placed on the left side of the graph.
 If the alignment will not include offsets for thermal growth, a non-operating final alignment line should
be drawn in green. Since some machines remain warm during the alignment (e.g., a pump on bypass)
and some machines, such as refrigeration compressors, may get cold when running, the distinctions of
operating and non-operating will be used in place of the more familiar hot and cold positions.
 If the alignment will include offsets for thermal growth, it should show the non-operating and operating
shaft positions. The operating shaft position should be drawn as a horizontal line for both machines with
a red pen. The non-operating line should be offset the correct amount above or below each foot plane to
identify the required non-operating misalignment to compensate for thermal growth.
 The misalignment line showing the current position of the moveable machine shaft centerline should be
drawn in blue.

Example 1 – Plotting Misalignment from Foot Offsets

Using the machine dimensions calculated above, plot the misalignment of the moveable machine. The laser
system indicates that the inboard feet (drive-end) of the machine are 0,10 mm (0.005”) high and the outboard
(non-drive-end) feet are 0,44 mm (0.022”) high.
Step 1 – Plot the measurement, coupling, and foot planes

Using the data from the example machine above, plot vertical lines on the graph paper, as shown in Figure 2.
Label each line. The following convention can be used:
SO - stationary machine outboard foot plane
SI - stationary machine inboard foot plane
SL - stationary fixture mounted on the fixed machine shaft
CL - coupling centerline
ML - laser fixture mounted on the moveable machine
MI - moveable machine inboard foot plane
MO - moveable machine outboard foot plane
LC – center between lasers if different from the coupling center
 PLANE LINES
SO SI SL CL ML MI MO

Figure 2. Graph of Planes for Example 1.

Step 2 – Determine vertical scale factor and plot stationary machine shaft

The vertical scale factor should be optimized to use a large portion of the available plotting area. This
improves the ability to accurately measure coupling offsets and angles, and provides the most accurate
shimming values for the foot planes. Common scale factors are 0,5, 0,2, and 0,1 mm (0.002”, 0.001”, and
0.0005”) per minor division. In this example, a scale factor of 0,2 mm (0.001”) per division is used for the
vertical scale.
The position of the stationary shaft on the graph does not have to be drawn at the center of the page, as all
offsets are determined from the position of the line. Some experimentation may be required and a transparent
ruler can be used to quickly assess if the centerline and scale factor chosen will allow all pertinent information
to fit on the graph paper. In this example, the horizontal line for the stationary shaft non-operating position
can be drawn at the center of the graph and the misalignment line of the moveable machine will easily fit on
the graph.
Draw a horizontal line with a green pen from the moveable machine laser to a point slightly left of the
outboard foot of the stationary machine, as shown below. Be sure to document the scale factor on the form.
Next, plot the desired position of the moveable machine shaft. Since this machine is not subject to thermal
growth, draw a green line from the plane of the moveable machine laser to a point to the moveable machine
outboard foot.

Figure 3. Plot Desired Position.

Step 3 – Plot the misalignment

Find the line representing the moveable machine inboard feet. Move up the from the shaft centerline 5 minor
divisions (5 mils/0.5 mils per division = 10 divisions) and make a small mark indicating the intersection point.
At the plane of the outboard feet, make a small mark 22 divisions above the shaft centerline. Using a blue
pen, draw a line connecting the two intersection points over to the stationary machine laser measurement
plane, as shown in the Figure 4.

Figure 4. Connect Intersection Points.

Step 4 – Determine the angle and offset of the misalignment

Visually, it can be seen that the moveable machine is higher than the stationary machine, and that it angles up,
moving towards the outboard end of the movable machine. However, at the center of the coupling, the
centerline of the movable machine is actually below the shaft centerline of the stationary machine. Place a
transparent ruler on the misalignment line. At the point where the misalignment line crosses the centerline of
the stationary machine, rotate the ruler clockwise. Notice how the offset and angle at the coupling decrease as
the offsets at the feet decrease. This illustrates the necessary moves to correct the misalignment. It also
shows that both feet must be corrected. Place the ruler on the misalignment line again. This time, rotate the
ruler clockwise about the inboard foot of the moveable machine. When the offset has been corrected at the
outboard feet, it can be seen that the machine is still out of alignment at the coupling, but this time the offset
is positive rather than negative.
The measurement of the coupling offset is simple. Start at the point where the stationary machine shaft and
the coupling centerlines intersect. Count the number of minor divisions up or down to the misalignment line.
If the misalignment line is above the intersection, the offset is positive. If the misalignment line is below the
intersection, the offset is negative. Multiply the number of divisions by the scale factor for the actual offset in
mils. In this example, the offset is 12 divisions below the centerline. The offset equals -12 divisions x 0,02
mm/division, or –0,24 mm (-12 x 0.001”/division, or –0.012”).

C/L

12
divisions

Figure 5. Determine Angle and Offset.

The angle is simply the slope of the misalignment line mm per 100 mm (0.001” per inch). This representation
is actually a pitch value; similar to the way a roofline is measured. It can be measured directly from the graph
or from the data. In this example, the offsets at the feet are 0,1 mm and 0,44 mm (0.005” and 0.022”) high at
the inboard and outboard feet respectively. The difference is 0,44 mm – 0,10 mm, or 0,34 mm (0.022”-
0.005”, or 0.017”) and the distance between the feet is 500 mm (20”). The angle is 0,34/5, or 0,068 mm/100
mm (0.017/20, or 0.85 0.001”/1”). One of the reasons a pitch value is used is because the actual angle, if
measured in degrees, is usually very small.
The angular misalignment readings obtained from the graph can be readily compared to values obtained using
the rim and face method. For example, if the machine has a 150 mm (6.0”) diameter coupling (measured at
the outside diameter of the rim), the face reading would be 0,068 X 1,5, or 0,102 mm (0.86 X 6, or 0.0051”)
The angle can also be measured from the coupling centerline. The key to obtaining an accurate value is to
determine the rise / fall over a distance of at least ten or twenty minor divisions. Record the value where the
moveable machine misalignment line crosses the centerline of the coupling. Move over ten minor divisions
towards the moveable machine and record the value at the misalignment line. Subtract the coupling value
from the second value. Care must be taken when dealing with positive and negative numbers.

Example 2 – Optimum and Alternative Moves for a Base-Bound Condition

A base-bound condition exists when a vertical move requiring the removal of shims exceeds the shim pack
thickness for one or both foot planes of the moveable machine. This is most likely to occur in situations
where a thick shim was not used under all of the feet when the machine was first installed, or when working
with poorly constructed base plates or machine bases. The correction of a base-bound condition requires that
the stationary machine be moved to a new position so the moveable machine is no longer constrained by the
base. To facilitate future alignments, additional shims may be added to both machines so there are sufficient
shim packs under all of the feet to allow precision movements and soft foot corrections.
The correction is very easy to determine using a graphical method. However, since the correction involves
moving the stationary machine, it is important to check for any possible pipe or duct strain that may result
from moving the machine. Soft foot should also be suspected and corrected when moving the stationary
machine.
Step 1 – Plot the misalignment

For this example, use the misalignment condition described in Example 1. The misalignment is plotted in
Figure 6. The correction calls for the inboard feet of the movable machine to be lowered 0,13 mm (0.005”)
and the outboard feet by 0,56 mm (0.022”). An inspection of the shim packs reveals that the shim packs
under the inboard feet are only 0,075 mm (0.003”) thick and the shim packs under the outboard feet are only
0,10 mm (0.004”) thick. Therefore, even if all of the shims were removed, the machine would still be
misaligned.

Figure 6. Misalignment Plot.

Step 2 – Determine the optimum move

To align the machines, the stationary machine must be moved. There are many potential solutions, but one
move in particular will involve changes in only two foot planes. This is the called the optimum move. Place
a transparent ruler at the outboard foot of the stationary machine and line it up with the intersection of the
misalignment line and the inboard foot of the moveable machine. Notice that the ruler edge intersects the
outboard foot of the moveable machine below the misalignment line. This is shown in Figure 7. The plot
scales have been changed to enhance the view.

Misalignment Line

Trial Optimum Move Line

Figure 7. Determine Optimum Move.

The machine could still not be aligned in this scenario since the move at the non-drive-end feet is still thicker
than the current shim pack. Next, run the edge of the ruler from the outboard foot of the stationary machine to
the intersection of the outboard foot of the moveable machine and the misalignment line. This line shows that
the inboard feet of both machines would have to be raised slightly and the outboard feet would not have to be
changed. This is the optimum move for this misalignment situation. Draw a line and label it as the Optimum
Move Line. To determine the required shim thickness to add to the inboard feet of the stationary machine,
measure the distance from the original non-operating shaft position to the Optimum Move Line drawn with
the ruler. For the moveable machine, measure the distance from the Misalignment Line to the Optimum
Move Line, as shown in Figure 8.

Optimum Move Line

Misalignment Line
+ 0,3 mm
+ 0.012”

+0,18mm
+0.007”

Figure 8. Distance from Misalignment Line to Optimum Move Line.

It is difficult to control movement when both machines have to be moved. An additional correction may be
required to bring the machine within tolerance.
Step 3 – Evaluate alternative moves

At this point, the shim packs under the outboard feet of the movable machine are still only 0,1 mm (0.004”)
thick. This does not leave much margin if future alignment moves are necessary. To correct the
misalignment and to provide greater shim thickness at the outboard feet, place one end of the ruler at the
outboard foot plane on the stationary machine. Place the other end 0,25 mm (0.010”) higher than the
intersection of the misalignment line on the moveable machine. Draw a line and label it as the Alternative
Move Line. This move requires shimming at three feet, but the corrections at the inboard feet will be slightly
larger and 0,25 mm (0.010”) shims would be placed under the outboard feet of the movable machine, as
shown in Figure 9.

+ 0,25 mm
+ 0.010”

Alternative Move Line

+ 0,48 mm
+ 0.019”
+ 0,25 mm
+ 0.010”

Misalignment Line

Figure 9. Shims at Both Feet.

In fact, the Alternative Move Line does not have to intersect with any of the original foot positions. The
stationary machine can be lowered, or equal shims can be placed under the inboard and outboard feet to raise
the entire stationary machine by 1,25 mm (0.050”). Before making a final decision, check to make sure the
move will not create any binding, interference, or pipe / duct strain. In situations where it is impractical or too
costly to move the stationary machine, machining of the moveable machine base and/or feet may be required.
Every situation is different, and a little investigation and creativity up front may save hours of rework.

Example 3 – Optimum and Alternative Moves for a Bolt-Bound Condition

A bolt-bound condition exists when one or more of the base bolts interfere with a required horizontal move.
For example, the correction for the drive-end, or inboard, feet calls for a horizontal move of 25 mils (0.025
inches). However, a dial indicator placed against one of the inboard feet indicates the machine moves
approximately 0,25 mm (0.010”) and then stops. Attempts to move the machine further cause the base bolt to
bind and the outboard end of the machine to move. The machine is considered bolt-bound. Since a precision
alignment is not possible, the situation must be corrected with an optimum or alternative move, machining, or
the use of a bolt with a reduced diameter.
In most cases, the optimum or alternative move will be the easiest and most time and cost effective method.
As with a base-bound condition, the alternative move in a bolt-bound situation requires that the stationary
machine be moved. The same restrictions also apply. The stationary machine must be checked to ensure that
a horizontal movement will not affect the operation of the machine or create undue pipe / duct strain.
Machining of the feet or base of the moveable machine may be an acceptable solution providing that proper
bolt torque can be achieved and washers or spacers do not deform or cup. Several suppliers offer bolts with
reduced cross sections below the head. These bolts may offer a quick fix, but it is important to verify that
they will provide the correct clamping force when tightened. Field grinding bolts is not recommended as the
strength of the bolt will be limited, the heat treat may be lost, and poor grinding can lead to stress risers that
may cause the bolt to break or fatigue quickly.
It should be noted that when only one dial indicator per foot-plane is used, a bolt-bound condition might be
over-looked. For example, if the dial indicator is placed at the foot where a horizontal jacking screw is used
and the foot on the opposite side of the machine is bolt-bound, it is possible to continue moving the
unobstructed foot. The machine is put into a bind and when the alignment is checked, it will not be within
specification. For this reason, it is recommended that four dial indicators, one per foot, be used when making
horizontal moves. See the section on precision horizontal moves for more information.
Step 1 – Plot the misalignment

When a bolt-bound condition is encountered, it will probably be difficult to know exactly how much the
machine has already been moved in the horizontal direction at both foot planes. Therefore, a new set of
readings should be acquired before making any changes to the stationary machine. After confirming which
bolt or bolts are preventing horizontal movements, remove any binding pressure from the horizontal jacking
screws and ensure that the base bolts are loose so none of the feet are stressed. Check all of the base bolts to
ensure that they can be turned freely. If a bolt is being side-loaded, move the machine slightly to relieve it.
Remove all of the bolts and check to make sure the bolts are not bent or otherwise damaged. Inspect the
washers to ensure they are not hitting the foot or frame. Look down the bolt clearance hole to make sure there
is no debris in the hole restricting horizontal movement. Inspect washers and spacers for any cupping and
replace if necessary. Take another set of readings and determine the current misalignment.
Step 2- Determine the optimum move

Indicate the foot plane that is bolt-bound on the horizontal misalignment graph. The procedure is now the
same as a base-bound problem. Starting at the intersection of the outboard feet of the stationary machine and
the non-operating alignment line, draw a line through the bolt-bound foot location and extend it to the
outboard feet of the moveable machine. Label this line as the Optimum Move Line. Measure from the
current foot positions on the fixed and moveable machines to the Optimum Move Line to determine the
horizontal moves for each machine (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Determine Optimum Move.

Step 3 – Identify alternative moves

Any time both machines are moved, it is likely that another move will be required to bring the machine within
precision specifications. It is possible that a second correction move will again create a bolt-bound condition.
Therefore, an alternative move should be investigated, rather than an optimum move. The optimum move is
designed to get the machine aligned with the fewest possible moves. The alternative move will typically
require moves at more than two foot-planes, but it will make realignments in the future less troublesome. If
practical, determine the amount of bolt clearance for the moveable and stationary machine feet. The goal is to
create more clearance at the closest holes without moving the machine so far that a bolt-bound condition is
created in the opposite direction. At a minimum, try to allow 0,125 to 0,25 mm (0.005 to 0.010”) side
clearance at all bolts to facilitate future corrections. Figure 11 shows an Alternative Move Line. In this
example, the foot that was previously bound is being moved 10 mils away from the bolt. Use a clear ruler to
investigate a number of moves to determine the one best suited to a particular situation. The required foot
moves are determined by measuring the distance from the current shaft positions to the Alternative Move
Line.

Figure 11. Alternative Move Line.

Step 4 – Dealing with a bind in both directions

There are occasions when the machine is bound at the inboard and outboard feet, which prevents “rotation” of
the machine in one direction. Causes include a poorly machined or constructed base, or an improperly
positioned stationary machine. For example, a technique to reduce pipe strain is to connect all piping to a
pump with the base bolts loose, so the pump aligns to the piping. When the pump is anchored to the base or
frame, it may be nearly impossible to align the movable machine to it within the limits of its clearance holes.
Before getting out the big drill to open the holes, the pump should be inspected to determine the extent of pipe
strain. The best long-term solution is to disconnect the piping, center the pump on the frame, and align the
moveable machine to it. Pipe strain should be corrected after the alignment, using procedures outlined
elsewhere in this text.
If the stationary machine can be moved without hitting the limits of its travel, the alternative move becomes
the misalignment line of the moveable machine. After ensuring that the base bolts on the moveable machine
are not bound, move (i.e., rotate) the machine slightly away from the bolts to provide allowance for future
moves. Take a set of horizontal alignment readings and plot the misalignment. Draw a line extending from
the misalignment line to the outboard foot of the stationary machine and label it as the Alternative Move Line.
Measure the required horizontal movements for the stationary machine from the Non-Operating Line of the
stationary machine to the Alternative Move Line, as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Bolt-Bound Moves – Both Feet Bound.

Thermal Growth

When a machine is aligned cold, the centerlines of the two shafts are co-linear. When the machine is first
started, it will run smoothly. However, as the machine reaches operating temperature, it is possible that the
two machines will rise or shrink to the point that they are no longer properly aligned. Just because a machine
is small or does not feel particularly hot or cold, it cannot be assumed that it is immune from misalignment
due to thermal growth.
Of all alignment issues, thermal growth is one of the least understood and most frequently overlooked
problems. Using simple procedures, it is possible to measure and compensate for thermal growth on a large
majority of machines in a plant. Required offsets can range from zero, for machines where the driver and
driven components run at nearly the same temperatures, to situations where there is over 6 mm (0.25”)
difference at the coupling centerline. Most cases requiring thermal growth compensation need only minor
corrections, which are made while vertically aligning the machine. Thermal growth calculation and
measurement methods include:
Hot alignment – The principal behind this technique is that once the machine reaches normal operating
temperature, it can be shut-down and realigned while still hot. Unfortunately, the machine temperatures
change quickly enough that even if the first reading can be taken within 15 minutes of shutdown, lockout, and
tag-out, the shaft centerlines will no longer be in the same position. If attempts are made to continue with the
alignment, the results deteriorate as time increases and the result may be worse than the original cold
alignment. Therefore, this method is not recommended. This technique is not to be confused with the
alignment of a machine that has process material being bypassed through the machine while being aligned
(e.g., bypassing hot water through a pump). Since the pump is being maintained at a steady-state temperature
through the alignment, proper compensation can be accomplished.
Calculated thermal offsets - While the machine is operating, temperature readings are taken from the feet or
pedestal bases up to the centerline of the machines in the plane of each foot / support. Following shutdown
and after the machine has reached ambient conditions, readings are reacquired. The differences between the
operating and non-operating temperatures are multiplied by the coefficient for thermal expansion for the
material and the height to give the offset. This method is accurate for machines subjected primarily to vertical
thermal growth. It is easy to screen for machines most likely to require thermal growth by simply comparing
operating temperatures to an ambient reading of 21° C (70° F), for example. Those machines exceeding
alignment tolerances can be realigned as opportunity permits. A sample thermal growth calculation form is
included in Appendix X.
Measured offsets – There are several thermal and dynamic offset measuring devices on the market that
physically measure machinery movement. Dynamic movement is due to flexure of the machine and
foundation while under load. Very large machines, or those with weak bases or foundations, can move
considerably due to operating loads. A dynamic movement measurement is recorded immediately upon
startup or shutdown. As the machine reaches ambient (on shutdown) or operating (on startup) conditions, the
thermal growth is measured. While these readings are very accurate, it is often an expensive process.
Therefore, these methods are reserved only for complex machinery or those with a history of misalignment
symptoms where other methods of thermal growth compensation have failed.

Instrumentation includes:
 Dodd bars, which use eddy current probes to measure relative movement between measuring bars.
 Essinger bars that measure the change in the position of the bearings with respect to points on the frame
or foundation using precision measuring bars and tooling balls.
 Laser tools that measure vertical, or horizontal and vertical changes in relative stationary and moveable
machine positions.
 Theodolites or other surveying equipment that measures absolute bearing positions very accurately.
 Manufacturers’ specifications - Many manufacturers are aware that their machines will require thermal
growth compensation and provide offset values to the end-user. Unless explicitly stated by the
manufacturer that the values be used without exception, the offsets should only be used for the initial
setup of the machine. The manufacturers cannot duplicate the exact operating and environmental
conditions for their machines in the field, so the as-installed values may vary significantly from the
recommended values.
The required compensation for thermal growth is easy to identify when viewed on a graph. For example, the
thermal growth figures calculated for a machine are as follows:

FOOT GROWTH
Moveable 0,05 mm
Outboard
Moveable 0,22 mm
Inboard (0.009”)
Stationary 0,33 mm
Inboard (0.013”)
Stationary 0,19 mm
Outboard (0.0075”)

Table 2. Example Offsets.

When the machine reaches operating temperature, the shaft centerlines will move to the positions shown in
Figure 13.

Figure 13. Graph of Offsets.

It is obvious from the graph that although the misalignment as measured at the coupling is approximately 0,25
mm (0.001”), there is significant angular misalignment. For this machine to be aligned properly for its
operating condition, the moveable machine feet must be raised. The actual thermal growth compensation is
easily measured. Extend the centerline of the stationary machine to the outboard foot of the moveable
machine. The amount the machine must be moved is determined by measuring the distance from the feet of
the moveable machine to the stationary shaft centerline, as shown in Figure 14.
 Offset at
Offset at
outboard
inboard
foot
foot

Figure 14. Extend Stationary Centerline.

In this example, shims would be added under the moveable machine equal to the measured offsets. Therefore,
the machine will be misaligned in its non-operating condition and will “grow” into alignment as the machine
reaches operating temperature. If the offsets are significant, the machine may actually run slightly rough
when first started. When comparing the amount of time the machine operates during startup to its normal
operating time, the slight vibration that the machine experiences until it reaches operating temperature is
negligible. If the machine starts and stops frequently, a compromise between operating and non-operating
positions may be warranted. For example, one half of the required shim thickness would be added under the
feet of the moveable machine. However, a review of machine operating practices and temperature profiles
should be conducted before making a final shimming choice.
The previous example showed a condition where the moveable machine had to be raised to match the
centerline of the stationary machine. This is easily seen on the graph since the stationary machine shaft
centerline is above the moveable machine centerline. A positive move is required. However, in some
instances the moveable machine may have to be lowered. For example, an ammonia compressor may get
colder when in operation and the casing will shrink rather than expand. If the computed thermal growth
readings are as follows:
 FOOT GROWTH
Moveable Outboard 0,075 mm
(0.003”)
Moveable Inboard 0,05 mm
(0.002”)
Stationary Inboard 0,20 mm
(-0.008”)
Stationary Outboard 0,125 mm
(-0.005”)

Table 3. Thermal Growth Readings.

Offset at Offset at
inboard outboard
foot foot

Figure 15. Measure Offsets.

The graph of the thermal growth is shown in Figure 15.

Notice that in this example, the moveable machine must be lowered by the foot offset amounts to account for
the lower position of the stationary machine.

Many laser alignment systems provide a function to enter either the required offsets for the moveable machine
or the thermal growth values for the moveable and stationary machines. The alignment computer
compensates for the thermal growth during the alignment. For systems that do not support thermal growth,
simply move the moveable machine until the required foot offsets are achieved.