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3.3. Tectonics of Rifting and Drifting: Pangea Breakup

3.3.1. Rift Basin Architecture and Evolution

Roy W. Schlische & Martha Oliver Withjack

Department of Geological Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854-8066 U.S.A.

Rift basins have been increasingly the focus of research in tectonics, structural geology, and
basin analysis. The reasons for this interest include: (1) Rift basins are found on all passive
(Atlantic-type) continental margins and provide a record of the early stages of (super)continental
breakup. (2) The architecture of these basins and the basin fill are strongly influenced by the
displacement geometry on the bounding normal fault systems (e.g., Gibson et al., 1989). Thus,
aspects of the evolution of these fault systems, including their nucleation, propagation and
linkage, can be extracted from the sedimentary record. (3) Many modern and ancient extensional
basins contain lacustrine deposits (e.g., Katz, 1990) that are sensitive recorders of climate.
Milankovitch cycles (e.g., Olsen and Kent, 1999) recorded in these strata provide a quantitative
test of the predictions of basin-filling models (e.g., Schlische and Olsen, 1990) that can, in turn,
be used to infer aspects of crustal rheology during rifting (e.g., Contreras et al., 1997). (4) Many
of the major petroleum provinces of the world are associated with rift basins (e.g., the North Sea
basins, the Jeanne d'Arc basin, the Brazilian rift basins).

This section provides a brief overview of the rift basins related to Pangean breakup, especially
those along the central Atlantic margin (e.g., Olsen, 1997). In particular, we examine (1) the
structural architecture of rift basins; (2) the interplay of tectonics, sediment supply, and climate
in controlling the large-scale stratigraphy of rift basins; (3) how the sedimentary fill can be
subdivided into tectonostratigraphic packages that record continental rifting, initiation of
seafloor spreading, basin inversion, and drifting; and (4) how coring can be used to answer
fundamental questions related to these topics.

Structural Architecture
A typical rift basin is a fault-bounded feature known as a half graben (Fig. 3.3.1.1a). In a cross
section oriented perpendicular to the boundary fault (transverse section), the half graben has a
triangular geometry (Fig. 3.3.1.1b). The three sides of the triangle are the border fault, the rift-
onset unconformity between prerift and synrift rocks, and the postrift unconformity between
synrift and postrift rocks (or, for modern rifts, the present-day depositional surface). Within the
triangular wedge of synrift units, stratal boundaries rotate from being subparallel to the rift-onset
unconformity to being subparallel to the postrift unconformity. This fanning geometry, along
with thickening of synrift units toward the boundary fault, are produced by syndepositional
faulting. Core from the Newark basin confirms the thickening relationships (see Section 3.3.2).
Synrift strata commonly onlap prerift rocks. In a cross section oriented parallel to the boundary
fault (longitudinal section), the basin has a synclinal geometry (Fig. 3.3.1.1c), although more
complicated geometries are associated with segmented boundary fault systems (e.g., Schlische,
1993; Schlische and Anders, 1996; Morley, 1999).

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Figure 3.3.1.1. Geometry of a simple half graben. (a) Map-view geometry.

(b) Geometry along a cross section oriented perpendicular to the boundary
fault, showing wedge-shaped basin in which synrift strata exhibit a
fanning geometry, thicken toward the boundary fault, and onlap prerift
rocks. (c) Geometry along a cross section oriented parallel to the boundary
fault, showing syncline-shaped basin in which synrift strata thin away
from the center of the basin and onlap prerift rocks.

The half-graben geometry described above is directly controlled by the deformation

(displacement) field surrounding the boundary fault system (Gibson et al., 1989; Schlische,
1991, 1995; Schlische and Anders, 1996; Contreras et al. 1997). In a gross sense, displacement is
greatest at the center of the fault and decreases to zero at the fault tips (Fig. 3.3.1.2a); this
produces the syncline-shaped basin in longitudinal section. In traverse section, the displacement
of an initially horizontal surface that intersects the fault is greatest at the fault itself and
decreases with distance away from the fault. This produces footwall uplift and hanging-wall
subsidence, the latter of which creates the sedimentary basin (Fig. 3.3.1.2b). However, this
geometry is affected by fault propagation and forced folding (e.g., Withjack et al., 1990;
Gawthorpe et al., 1997). As displacement accumulates on the boundary fault, the basin deepens
through time. Because the width of the hanging-wall deflection increases with increasing fault
displacement (Barnett et al., 1987), the basin widens through time. Because the length of the
fault increases with increasing displacement (e.g., Cowie, 1998), the basin lengthens through
time. The growth of the basin through time produces progressive onlap of synrift strata on prerift
rocks (Fig. 3.3.1.3).

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Figure 3.3.1.2. Fault-displacement geometry controls the first-order geometry of a

half graben. (a) Perspective diagram before (left) and after faulting showing how
normal faulting uplifts the footwall block and produces subsidence in the hanging-
wall block. The yellow dashed line shows the outer limit of hanging-wall subsidence
and marks the edge of the basin. Displacement is a maximum at the center of the
fault (only the right half of the fault is shown) and decreases toward the fault tip. (b)
Traverse section before faulting (left) and after faulting and sedimentation showing
footwall uplift and hanging-wall subsidence. The latter produces a wedge-shaped
basin (half graben).
Figure 3.3.1.3. Simple filling model
for a growing half-graben basin
shown in map view (stages 1-4),
longitudinal cross section (stages 1-5),
and transverse cross section (stages 1-
4). Dashed line represents lake level.
The relationship between capacity and
sediment supply determines whether
sedimentation is fluvial or lacustrine.
For lacustrine sedimentation, the
relationship between water volume
and excess capacity determines the
lake depth. Modified from Schlische
and Anders (1996).

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The simple structural architecture described above may be complicated by basin inversion, in
which a contractional phase follows the extensional phase (e.g., Buchanan and Buchanan, 1995).
Typical inversion structures include normal faults reactivated as reverse faults, newly formed
reverse and thrust faults, and folds (Fig. 3.3.1.4, 3.3.1.5). Basin inversion occurs in a variety of
tectonic environments (e.g., Buchanan and Buchanan, 1995), including several passive margins
related to the breakup of Pangea (e.g., Doré and Lundin, 1996; Vagnes et al., 1998; Withjack et
al., 1995, 1998; Hill et al., 1995; Withjack & Eisenstadt, 1999). The causes of inversion on these
passive margins is not well understood. Section 4.2.1 describes how coring, in combination with
other methods, may help further our understanding of basin inversion on passive margins.

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Figure 3.3.1.4. Examples of positive inversion structures. a) Cross section across

part of Sunda arc. During inversion, normal faults became reverse faults,
producing synclines and anticlines with harpoon geometries (after Letouzey,
1990). b) Interpreted line drawings (with 3:1 and 1:1 vertical exaggeration) of
AGSO Line 110-12 from Exmouth sub-basin, NW Shelf Australia (after Withjack
& Eisenstadt, 1999). During Miocene inversion, deep-seated normal faults
became reverse faults. In response, gentle monoclines formed in the shallow,
postrift strata.

Figure 3.3.1.5. Experimental models of

inversion structures. Cross sections
through three clay models showing
development of inversion structures
(after Eisenstadt and Withjack, 1995). In
each model, a clay layer (with colored
sub-layers) covered two overlapping
metal plates. Movement of the lower
plate created extension or shortening.
Thin clay layers are prerift; thick clay
layers are synrift; top-most layer is
postrift and pre-inversion. Top section
shows model with extension and no
shortening; a half graben containing very
gently dipping synrift units is present.
The middle section shows model with
extension followed by minor shortening;
a subtle anticline has formed in the half
graben, and is associated with minor
steepening of the dip of synrift layers.
Bottom section shows model with
extension followed by major shortening.
The anticline in the half graben is more
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prominent, and is associated with

significant steepening of the dip of
synrift strata. New reverse faults have
formed in the prerift layers. Although the
inversion is obvious in this model,
erosion of material down to the level of
the red line would remove the most
obvious evidence of inversion in the half
graben. Furthermore, the prominent
reverse faults cutting the prerift units
could be interpreted to indicate prerift
contractional deformation, as is common
in the rift zones related to the breakup of
Pangea.

Stratigraphic Architecture

Numerous non-marine rift basins of varied geography and geologic age share a remarkably
similar stratigraphic architecture (Lambiase, 1990; Schlische and Olsen, 1990; Fig. 3.3.1.6).
Known as a tripartite stratigraphy, the section begins with basin-wide fluvial deposits overlain by
a relatively abrupt deepening-upward lacustrine succession overlain by a gradual shallowing-
upward lacustrine and fluvial succession. The key to understanding the significance of this
tripartite stratigraphy rests in the relationships among basin capacity and sediment and water
supply (Schlische and Olsen, 1990; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999). Tectonics creates accommodation
space or basin capacity. Sediment supply determines how much of that basin capacity is filled
and whether or not lake systems are possible (Figure 3.3.1.7). In general, fluvial deposition
results when sediment supply exceeds capacity, and lacustrine deposition results when capacity
exceeds sediment supply.

Figure 3.3.1.6. Stratigraphic

architecture of Triassic-Jurassic rift
basins of eastern North America. For
tectonostratigraphic (TS) package III,
nearly all basins exhibit all or part of a
tripartite stratigraphy: 1, basal fluvial
deposits; 2, "deeper-water" lacustrine
deposits; 3, "shallow-water" lacustrine
and fluvial deposits. The southern
basins do not contain TS-IV. TS-I is
only recognized in the Fundy basin
and may or may not be a synrift
deposit. Where TS-II is recognized, a
significant unconformity (in terms of
missing time) commonly separates it
from TS-III. Modified from Olsen
(1997), Olsen et al. (2000), and
Schlische (2000).

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Figure 3.3.1.7. [BELOW] Relationships among basin capacity, sediment supply, and
volume of water determine the large-scale depositional environments of terrestrial rift
basins. In example 1, basin-wide fluvial sedimentation is predicted. In example 2,
shallow-water lacustrine sedimentation is predicted. For the basin capacity and
available sediment supply shown in this example, no very deep lakes are possible
because the excess capacity of the basin (and thus lake depth) is limited. Thus, under
these conditions, climate is a relatively unimportant control on lake depth. In example
3, deep-water lacustrine sedimentation is predicted.

The relationships shown in Figure 3.3.1.7 allow us to interpret the large-scale stratigraphic
transitions observed in many non-marine rift basins. The fluvial-lacustrine transition may result
from an increase in basin capacity and/or a decrease in sediment supply. The shallow-water
lacustrine to deep-water lacustrine transition may result from an increase in basin capacity, a
decrease in sediment-supply, and/or increase in the available volume of water. The deep-water

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lacustrine to shallow-water lacustrine transition may result from a decrease or an increase in

basin capacity (depending on the geometry of the basin's excess capacity), an increase in the
sediment supply, and/or decrease in the available volume of water. How do we go about
choosing the more likely interpretation? Interestingly, all of the major stratigraphic transitions
can be explained by an increase in basin capacity, for which a simple basin-filling model is
shown in Figure 3.3.1.3. Other basin filling models are described by Lambiase (1990), Smoot
(1991), and Lambiase and Bosworth (1995). As discussed in Section 3.3.3, long cores from rift
basins, combined with basin modeling (e.g., Contreras et al., 1997) and seismic reflection data
(e.g., Morley, 1999), are required to test the predictions of these basin-filling models.

Figure 3.3.1.8. Idealized rift basin showing unconformity-bounded

tectonostratigraphic packages. Thin black lines represent stratal truncation
beneath unconformities; red half-arrows represent onlaps. In eastern North
America, TS-I may not be a synrift deposit, and thus the geometry shown here
would be incorrect. TS-II is much more areally restricted and more wedge-
shaped than TS-III. The transition between TS-III and TS-IV is likely related
to an increase in extension rate. An offset coring technique (vertical orange
lines), as used in the Newark basin coring project, does not sample TS-I and
most of TS-II. A deep core (vertical yellow line) is necessary to recover TS-I
and TS-II. Modified from Olsen (1997).

Tectonostratigraphic Packages and Basin Evolution

Olsen (1997) subdivided the synrift strata of central Atlantic margin rift basins into four
tectonostratigraphic (TS) packages (Fig. 3.3.1.6, 3.3.1.8). An individual TS package consists of
all or part of a tripartite stratigraphic succession, is separated from other packages by
unconformities or correlative conformities, and generally has a different climatic milieu
compared to other TS packages. TS-I is a Permian deposit that may or may not be synrift,
whereas TS-II, TS-III, and TS-IV are Late Triassic and Early Jurassic synrift deposits (Olsen et
al., 2000). The unconformities between TS-I, TS-II, and TS-III represent significant geologic
time. However, it is not yet clear if these unconformities are related to regional tectonic changes
(e.g., pulsed extension) (Olsen, 1997) or to relatively local processes such as strain localization
(a change from distributed extension on lots of small faults to extension on a few large ones; e.g.,
Gupta et al., 1998) (Fig. 3.3.1.9). Given their geometry and location in the rift basin, TS-I and
TS-II can generally only be sampled through deep coring and not the relatively shallow offset
coring utilized in the Newark basin (Section 3.3.3). The rift-onset unconformity between prerift
rocks and various synrift units should not be taken as evidence of regional uplift preceding
rifting; rather, it more likely reflects erosion and non-deposition occurring over a topographically
elevated region resulting from the assembly of Pangea.

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Figure 3.3.1.9. Stages in the evolution of a rift basin. (a) Early rifting associated with
several minor, relatively isolated normal faults. (b) Mature rifting with through-going
boundary fault zone, widespread deposition, and footwall uplift and erosion.

TS-III and TS-IV were deposited in much larger basins or subbasins than was TS-II, and the
unconformity between them is small to non-existent (Olsen, 1997). TS-IV includes the
widespread CAMP basalts that were erupted in a geologically short interval at ~202 Ma (e.g.,
Olsen et al., 1996; Olsen, 1999) (The CAMP basalts comprise a large-igneous province or L.I.P.;
see Section 3.1.3). Significantly, TS-IV is absent in all of the southern basins of the central
Atlantic margin. As discussed more fully in Withjack et al. (1998), TS-IV was probably never
deposited in this region, indicating that synrift subsidence had ceased prior to TS-IV time. [A
postrift basalt sequence, which may or may not be the same age as CAMP, is present in the
southern region and plausibly can be connected to a seaward-dipping reflector sequence at the
continental margin (Oh et al., 1995). The temporal and spatial relationships of these igneous
rocks is a critical coring target; see sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2.] Also significantly, basin inversion
in the southern basins occurred shortly prior to and during TS-IV time, while inversion in the
northern basins occurred after TS-IV time. (During TS-IV time, the northern basins underwent
accelerated subsidence; see Figure 3.3.2.7). Thus, the end of rifting, the initation of inversion,
and probably the initiation of seafloor spreading are diachronous along the central Atlantic
margin (i.e., during earliest Jurassic time in the southeastern United States and Early to Middle
Jurassic time in the northeastern United States and Maritime Canada) (Withjack et al., 1998).
Coring, field analysis, and seismic-reflection profiles of synrift and immediately overlying
postrift deposits and the structures formed in them, are necessary to clarify the important events
occurring at the rift-drift transition.

The inferred diachronous initiation of seafloor spreading along the present-day margin of the
central North America Ocean is part of larger trend that reflects the progressive dismemberment
of Pangea. As the North Atlantic Ocean continued to develop, seafloor spreading propagated
northward. For example, seafloor spreading between the Grand Banks and southwestern Europe
began during the Early Cretaceous (e.g., Srivastava and Tapscott, 1986); seafloor spreading
between Labrador and western Greenland began during the early Tertiary (anomaly 27N) (e.g.,
Chalmers, et al., 1993); whereas seafloor spreading between eastern Greenland and northwestern
Europe began slightly later during the early Tertiary (anomaly 24R) (e.g., Talwani and Eldholm,
1977; Hinz et al., 1993).
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