9.

Electron Beam Welding

9. Electron Beam Welding 120

The application of highly accelerated elec-

high voltage supply trons as a tool for material processing in the

cathode
fusion, drilling and welding process and also
beam generation

control elektrode for surface treatment has been known since

anode
the Fifties. Ever since, the electron beam
adjustment coil
welding process has been developed from the
beam forming and guidance

valve to vacuum pump

laboratory stage for particular applications. In
viewing optics stigmator

focussing coil this cases, this materials could not have been
defelction coil joined by any industrially applied high-
production joining method.
working chamber

workpiece The electron beam welding machine is made

workpiece to vacuum pump
handling up of three main components:
beam generation, beam manipulation and
forming and working chamber. These compo-
chamber door
br-er9-01e.cdr © ISF 2002

nents may also have separate vacuum sys-

Schematic Representation of an
Electron Beam Welding Machine tems, Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1
A tungsten cathode which has been heated
under vacuum emits electrons by thermal power supply

evacuation
emission. The heating of the tungsten cathode chamber evacuation system for gun
system control cabinet
EB-gun
may be carried out directly - by filament cur- valve

rent - or indirectly - as, for example, by coiled

filaments. The electrons are accelerated by
high voltage between the cathode and the
pierced anode. A modulating electrode, the so-
called “Wehnelt cylinder”, which is positioned
between anode and cathode, regulates the
electron flow. Dependent on the height of the
workpiece working chamber
receiving platform
cut-off voltage between the cathode and the workpiece handling
control panel

modulating electrode, is a barrier field which control desk

may pass only a certain quantity of electrons. br-er9-02e_f.cdr © ISF 2002

This happens during an electron excess in All-Purpose EBW

Machine and Equipment
front of the cathode where it culminates in
Figure 9.2
2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 121

form of an electron cloud. Due to its particular shape which can be compared to a concave
mirror as used in light optic, the Wehnelt cylinder also effects, besides the beam current ad-
justment, the electrostatic focussing of the electron beam. The electron beam which diverges
after having passed the pierced anode, however, obtains the power density which is neces-
sary for welding only after having passed the adjacent alignment and focussing system. One
or several electromagnetic focussing lenses bundle the beam onto the workpiece inside the
vacuum chamber. A deflection coil assists in maintaining the electron beam oscillating mo-
tion. An additional stigmator coil may help to correct aberrations of the lenses. A viewing op-
tic or a video system allows the exact positioning of the electron beam onto the weld groove.

The core piece of the electron beam welding machine is the electron beam gun where the
electron beam is generated under high vacuum. The tightly focussed electron beam diverges
rapidly under atmospheric pressure caused by scattering and ionisation development with air.
As it would, here, loose power density and efficiency, the welding process is, as a rule, car-
ried out under medium or high vacuum. The necessary vacuum is generated in separate
vacuum pumps for working chamber and beam gun. A shut-off valve which is positioned be-
tween electron gun and working chamber serves to maintain the gun vacuum while the work-
ing chamber is flooded. In universal machines, Figure 9.2, the workpiece manipulator as-
sembly inside the vacuum chamber is a slide with working table positioned over NC-
controlled stepper motors. For workpiece removal, the slide is moved from the vacuum
chamber onto the workpiece platform. A distinction is made between electron beam ma-
chines with vertical and horizontal beam manipulation systems.

back-scattered electrons x-ray

The energy conversion in
the workpiece, which is
thermal radiation
secondary electrons schematically shown in
Figure 9.3, indicates that

x
the kinetic energy of the
convection
highly accelerated elec-
trons is, at the operational
y
heat conduction
point, not only converted

z
into the heat necessary for
br-er9-03e.cdr © ISF 2002

welding, but is also re-

Energy Transformation Inside Workpiece
leased by heat radiation
Figure 9.3
2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 122

and heat dissipation. Furthermore, a part of the incident electrons (primary electrons) is sub-
ject to backscatter and by secondary processes the secondary electrons are emitted from the
workpiece thus generating X-rays.

The impact of the electrons, which are tightly focussed into a corpuscular beam, onto the
workpiece surface stops the electrons; their penetration depth into the workpiece is very low,
just a few µm. Most of the kinetic energy is released in the form of heat. The high energy
density at the impact point causes the metal to evaporate thus allowing the following elec-
trons a deeper penetration.
This finally leads to a metal
vapour cavity which is sur-
rounded by a shell of fluid
metal, covering the entire
weld depth, Figure 9.4. This
deep-weld effect allows
nowadays penetration
a) b) c) d) depths into steel materials
of up to 300 mm, when
br-er9-04e.cdr © ISF 2002

modern high vacuum-high

Principle of Deep Penetration Welding
voltage machines are used.
Figure 9.4
The diameter of the cavity
corresponds approximately

motion of the molten metal electron beam with the beam diameter. By
groove groove
front side a relative motion in the di-
keyhole
melting pool
vapour capillary
molten rection of the weld groove
welding direction zone
between workpiece and
F1
electron beam the cavity
solidified F2 penetrates through the ma-
zone
F3
terial, Figure 9.5. At the
F1
F1 : force resulting from vapour pressure
F2 : force resulting from surface tension
front side of the cavity new
F3 : force resulting from hydrostatic pressure
material is molten which, to
br-er9-05e.cdr © ISF 2002

some extent, evaporates,

Condition in Capillary
but for the most part flows
Figure 9.5
2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 123

around the cavity and rapidly solidifies at the backside. In order to maintain the welding cavity
open, the vapour pressure must press the molten metal round the vapour column against the
cavity walls, by counteracting its hydrostatic pressure and the surface tension.

However, this equilibrium of

forces is unstable. The tran-
sient pressure and tempera-
ture conditions inside the
cavity as well as their re-
spective, momentary diame-
β
ters are subject to dynamic I II III
changes. Under the influ-
ence of the resulting, dy- workpiece movement
namically changing geome-
br-er9-06e.cdr © ISF 2002

try of the vapour cavity and

Model of Shrinkage Cavity Formation
with an unfavourable selec-
Figure 9.6
tion of the welding parameters, metal fume
bubbles may be included which on cooling
turn into shrinkholes, Figure 9.6.

The unstable pressure exposes the molten

150

backside of the vapour cavity to strong and

irregular changes in shape (case II). Pressure

EBW MSG UP UP
variations interfere with the regular flow at the
(narrow gap)(narrow gap) (conventional)

MSG UP UP
cavity backside, act upon the molten metal
EBW
(narrow gap) (narrow gap) (conventional)
welding current 0,27 A 260 A 650 A 510 A and, in the most unfavourable case, press the
welding voltage 150.000 V 30 V 30 V 28 V

unevenly distributed molten metal into differ-

2 2 2 2
groove area 896 mm 2098 mm 4905 mm 5966 mm
number of passes 1 35 81 143
filler metal 0 23 kg 54 kg 66 kg
melting efficiency 7,7 kg/h 5 kg/h 13 kg/h 9 kg/h ent zones of the molten cavity backside, thus
3 3 3 3
energy input 64·10 kJ 128·10 kJ 293·10 kJ 377·10 kJ
welding time 27 min 4 h 35 min 4 h 11 min 7 h 20 min forming the so-called vapour pockets. The
cavities are not always filling with molten
br-er9-19e.cdr © ISF 2002

metal, they collapse sporadically and remain

Comparison of EB, GMAW and SAW-
Narrow Gap and Conventional SAW as hollow spaces after solidification (case Ill).
The angle ß (case I) increases with the rising
Figure 9.7

2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 124

weld speed and this is defined as a turbulent process. Flaws such as a constantly open va-
pour cavity and subsequent continuous weld solidification could be avoided by selection of
job-suitable welding parameter combination and in particular of beam oscillation characteris-
tics, it has to be seen to a constantly of the molten metal, in order to avoid the above-
mentioned defects. Customary beam oscillation types are: circular, sine, double parabola or
triangular functions.

Thick plate welding accentuates the process-specific advantage of the deep-weld effect and,
with that, the possibility to join in a single working cycle with high weld speed and low heat
input quantity. A comparison with the submerged-arc and the gas metal-arc welding proc-
esses illustrates the depth-to-width ratio which is obtainable with the electron beam technol-
ogy, Figure 9.7. Electron beam welding of thick plates offers thereby decisive advantages.
With modern equipment, wall thicknesses of up to 300 mm with length-to-width ratios of up to
50 : 1 and consisting of low and high-alloy materials can be welded fast and precisely in one
pass and without adding any filler metal. A corresponding quantification shows the advantage
in regard of the applied filler metal and of the primary energy demand.

Compared with the gas-shielded narrow gap

welding process, the production time can be
in vacuum

thin and thick plate welding (0,1 mm bis 300 mm)

reduced by the factor of approx. 20 to 50.

extremely narrow seams (t:b = 50:1) Numerous specific advantages speak in fa-

low overall heat input => low distortion => vour of the increased application of this high
welding of completely processed components

high welding speed possible

productivity process in the manufacturing

no shielding gas required practice, Figure 9.8. Pointing to series produc-

high process and plant efficiency tion, the high profitability of this process is

material dependence, often the only welding method dominant. This process depends on highly

at atmosphere energetic efficiency together with a sparing

very high welding velocity use of resources during fabrication.

good gap bridging

no problems with reflection during

energy entry into workpiece

br-er9-12e.cdr © ISF 2002

Advantages of EBW

Figure 9.8

2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 125

Considering the above-mentioned advan-

tages, there are also disadvantages which
in vacuum

electrical conductivity of materials is required

emerge from the process. These are, in par-

high cooling rates => hardening => cracks ticular, the high cooling rate, the high equip-

high precision of seam preparation ment costs and the size of the chamber, Fig-

beam may be deflected by magnetism ure 9.9.

X-ray formation

size of workpiece limited by chamber size

In accordance with DIN 32511 (terms for

high investment
methods and equipment applied in electron
at atmosphere
and laser beam welding), the specific desig-

X-ray formation
nations, shown in Figure 9.10, have been

limited sheet thickness (max. 10 mm)
standardised for electron beam welding.

high investment

small working distance

Electron beam units are not only distinguished
br-er9-13e.cdr © ISF 2002

by their working vacuum quality or the unit

Disadvantages of EBW
concept but also by the acceleration voltage
level, Figure 9.11. The latter exerts a consid-
Figure 9.9
erable influence onto the obtainable welding
results. With the increasing acceleration voltage, the achievable weld depth and the depth-to-
width ratio of the weld geometry are also increasing. A disadvantage of the increasing accel-
erating voltage is, however, the exponential increase of X-rays and, also, the likewise in-
creased sensitivity to flash-over voltages. In correspondence with the size of the workpiece to
be welded and the size of
groove end crater
the chamber volume, high- upper bead
voltage beam generators
weld reinforcement

a m
f se
(150 - 200 kV) with powers gt ho m
len ea
fs
width of seam t ho
of up to 200 kW are applied len
g
penetration

in industrial production,
thickness
Nahtdicke

depth

weld
weld

blind bead
while the low-voltage tech-
root reinforcement

nology (max. 60 kV) is a molten area

unapproachable gap
good alternative for smaller
lower bead root weld
units and weld thicknesses.
br-er9-07e.cdr © ISF 2002

The design of the unit for the

Basic Definitions
low-voltage technique is
Figure 9.10
2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 126

simpler as, due to the lower acceleration voltage, a separate complete lead covering of the
unit is not necessary.

by accelerating voltage: -6
< 1 x 10 mbar
 high voltage machine (UB=150 kV)

 low voltage machine (UB=60 kV)

< 5 x 10-4 mbar

by pressure:
 high vacuum machine

 fine vacuum machine

 atmospheric machine (NV-EB welding)

by machine concept:
 conveyor machine

 clock system

 all-purpose EBW machine

 local vacuum machine

 mobile vacuum machine

 micro and fine welding machine

br-er9-20e.cdr
br-er9-09e_f.cdr

Classification of EBW Machines EB-Welding in High Vacuum

Figure 9.11 Figure 9.12

While during the beam generation, the vacuum (p = 10-5 mbar) for the insulation of the beam
generation compartment and the prevention of cathode oxidation is imperative, the possible
working pressures inside the vacuum chamber vary between a high vacuum (p = 10-4 mbar)
and atmospheric pressure. A collision of the electrodes with the residual gas molecules and
the scattering of the electron beam which is connected to this is, naturally, lowest in high vac-
uum.
The beam diameter is minimal in high vacuum and the beam power density is maximum in
high vacuum, Figure 9.12. The reasons for the application of a high vacuum unit are, among
others, special demands on the weld (narrow, deep welds with a minimum energy input) or
the choice of the materials to be welded (materials with a high oxygen affinity). The applica-
tion of the electron beam welding process also entails advantages as far as the structural
design of the components is concerned.

2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 127

With a low risk of oxidation and reduced demands on the welds, the so-called “medium-
vacuum units” (p = 10-2 mbar) are applied. This is mainly because of economic considera-
tions, as, for instance, the reduction of cycle times, Figure 9.13. Areas of application are in
the automotive industry (pistons, valves, torque converters, gear parts) and also in the metal-
working industry (fittings, gauge heads, accumulators).
Under extreme demands on the welding time, reduced requirements to the weld geometry,
distortion and in case of full material compatibility with air or shielding gas, out-of-vacuum
welding units are applied, Figure 9.14. Their advantages are the continuous welding time
and/or short cycle times. Areas of application are in the metal-working industry (precision
tubes, bimetal strips) and in the automotive industry (converters, pinion cages, socket joints
and module holders).

< 1 x 10-6 mbar < 1x 10 mbar

-4

< 5 x 10-2 mbar

-1
~ 10 mbar

~ 1 mbar

br-er9-10e_f.cdr br-er9-11e_f.cdr

EB-Welding in Fine Vacuum Atmospheric Welding (NV-EBW)

Figure 9.13 Figure 9.14

2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 128

A further distinction criterion is the adjustment of the vacuum chambers to the different joining
tasks. Universal machines are characterised by their simply designed working chamber, Fig-
ure 9.15. They are equipped with vertically or horizontally positioned and, in most cases,
travelling beam generators. Here, several workpieces can be welded in subsequence during
an evacuation cycle. The largest, presently existing working chamber has a volume of 265
m³.

br-er9-14e_f.cdr br-er9-15e_f.cdr

Machine Concept - Conventional Plant EBW Clock System Machine

Figure 9.15 Figure 9.16

Clock system machines, in contrast, are equipped with several small vacuum chambers
which are adapted to the workpiece shape and they are, therefore, characterised by short
evacuation times, Figure 9.16. Just immediately before the welding starts, is the beam gun
coupled to the vacuum chamber which has been evacuated during the preceding evacuation
cycle, while, at the same time, the next vacuum chamber may be flooded and
charged/loaded.

2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 129

Conveyor machines allow the continuous production of welded joints, as, for example, bi-
metal semi finished products such as saw blades or thermostatic bimetals, Figure 9.17. In the
main chamber of these units is a gradually raising pressure system as partial vacuum pre
and post activated, to serve as a vacuum lock.

butt weld

T-joint/ fillet weld

a) b)

T-joint butt welded lap weld

semi-finished material

endproduct

br-er9-16e_f.cdr br-er9-17e.cdr © ISF 2002

EBW Conveyor Machine Seam Appearance

for EB-Welding in Vacuum

Figure 9.17
Figure 9.18

Systems which are operating with a mobile and local vacuum are characterised by shorter
evacuation times with a simultaneous maintenance of the vacuum by decreasing the pump-
ing volume. In the “local vacuum systems”, with the use of suitable sealing, is the vacuum
produced only in the welding area. In “mobile vacuum systems” welding is carried out in a
small vacuum chamber which is restricted to the welding area but is travelling along the
welded seam. In this case, a sufficient sealing between workpiece and vacuum chamber is
more difficult.

With these types of machine design, electron beam welding may be carried out with compo-
nents which, due to their sizes, can not be loaded into a stationary vacuum chamber (e.g.
vessel skins, components for particle accelerators and nuclear fusion plants).

2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 130

In general the workpiece is moved during electron beam welding, while the beam remains
stationary and is directed onto the workpiece in the horizontal or the vertical position. De-
pending on the control systems of the working table and similar to conventional welding are
different welding positions possible. The weld type preferred in electron beam welding is the
plain butt weld. Frequently, also centring allowance for centralising tasks and machining is
made. For the execution of axial welds, slightly oversized parts (press fit) should be selected
during weld preparation, as a transverse shrinkage sets in at the beginning of the weld and
may lead to a considerable increase of the gap width in the opposite groove area. In some
cases also T-welds may be carried out; the T-joint with a plain butt weld should, however, be
chosen only when the demands on the
strength of the joints are low, Figure 9.18. As
the beam spread is large under atmosphere,
odd seam formations have to be considered
during Non-Vacuum Electron Beam Welding,
Figure 9.19.
In order to receive uniform and reproducible
results with electron beam welding, an exact
knowledge about the beam geometry is nec-
essary and a prerequisite for:

- tests on the interactions between

beam and substance
- applicability of welding parameters to
br-er9-18e.cdr © ISF 2002
other welding machines
Seam Appearence at Atmospheric
Welding (NV-EBW) - development of beam generation
systems.
Figure 9.19

The objective of many tests is therefore the exact measurement of the beam and the investi-
gation of the effects of different beam geometries on the welding result.
For the exact measurement of the electron beam, a microprocessor-controlled measuring
system has been developed in the ISF. The electron beam is linearly scanned at a high
speed by means of a point probe, which, with a diameter of 20 µm is much smaller than the
beam diameter in the focus, Figure 9.20. When the electron beam is deflected through the
aperture diaphragm located inside the sensor, the electrons flowing through the diaphragm

2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 131

are picked up by a Faraday shield and diverted over a precision resistor. The time progres-
sion of the signal, intercepted at the resistor, corresponds with the intensity distribution of the
electron beam in the scanning path. In order to receive an overall picture of the power density
distribution inside the electron beam, the beam is line scanned over the slit sensor (60 lines).
An evaluation program creates a perspective view of the power density distribution in the
beam and also a two-dimensional representation of lines with the same power density.

hole sensor
hole with aperture
diaphragm Faraday
cup (20 µm)
track of
cross section the beam
of the beam measurement
field

slit sensor

slit with
Faraday cup
FILENAME: R I N G S T R
cross section Accel. voltage: 150 kV
of the beam
Beam current: 600 mA
Prefocus current: 700 mA
Main focus current: 1500 mA
voltage

Cath. heat current: 500 mm

Max. Density: 26,456 kW/mm2
2
Ref. Density: 26,456 kW/mm
beam deflection
br-er9-21e.cdr br-er9-22e_f.cdr © ISF 2002

Two Principles of Energy Concentration and

Electron Beam Measuring Development in Electron Beam

Figure 9.20 Figure 9.21

An example for a measured electron beam is shown in Figure 9.21. It can be seen clearly
that the cathode had not been heated up sufficiently. Therefore, the electrons are sucked off
directly from the cathode surface during saturation and unsaturated beams, which may lead
to impaired welding results, develop. During the space charge mode of a generator, the elec-
tron cloud is sufficiently large, i.e., there are always enough electrons which can be sucked
off. In the ideal case, the developed power density is rotationally symmetrical and in accor-
dance with the Gaussian distribution curve.
The electron signals are used for the automatic seam tracking. These may be either primary
or secondary electrons or passing-through current or the developing X-rays. When backscat-
tered primary electrons are used, the electron beam is scanned transversely to the groove. A
2005
9. Electron Beam Welding 132

computer may determine the position of the groove relative to the beam by the signals from
the reflected electrons. In correspondence with the deflection the beam is guided by electro-
magnetic deflection coils or by moving the working table.
This kind of seam tracking system may be used either on-line or off-line.

The broad variation range of the weldable ma-

terials and also material thicknesses offer this
industrial areas:
 automotive industries joining method a large range of application,
 aircraft and space industries

 mechanical engineering Figure 9.22. Besides the fine and micro weld-
 tool construction

 nuclear power industries ing carried out by the electronics industry

 power plants

 fine mechanics and electrical where in particular the low heat input and the
industries
 job shop precisely programmable control is of impor-
material: tance, electron beam welding is also particu-
 almost all steels

 aluminium and its alloys

larly suited for the joining of large cross-
 magnesium alloys

 copper and its alloys

sections.
 titanium

 tungsten

 gold

 material combinations

(e.g. Cu-steel, bronze-steel)

 ceramics (electrically conductive)

br-er9-20e.cdr

EBW Fields of Application

Figure 9.22

2005
 Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Manufacturing Engineering, Quality and Production Systems (Volume II)

The influence of the input parameter in case of electron beam welding

MUNTEANU ADRIANA, NAGÎŢ GHEORGHE
Department of Machine Tools, Department of Machine Manufacturing Technology
Technical University Gh Asachi Iasi
B-dul D. Mangeron, no.59A
ROMANIA
adycypmunteanu@yahoo.com, nagit@tcm.tuiasi.ro

Abstract: - Choosing an optimum working value for the electron beam welding input parameters is important both for
obtaining some technological parameters and for ensuring the quality required.
Mathematical empirical modelling of experimental data allows obtaining dependent relationships between weld
penetration depth and width welding and inputting parameters. This selection of the process parameters makes it
possible to choose the conditions favourable for any type of material. In this paper, a model for penetration depth and
weld width estimation based on the working parameters is proposed. One can study the dependence of the penetration
depth (H) and width welding (B) on the process parameters so that in the end the mathematical model describing this
dependence will be validated based on experimental test results.

Key-Words: - welding, electron beam process, mathematical model, penetration depth, width welding

1 Introduction the influence of electron-beam welding parameters on

Unconventional technologies are used in the processing
of many common materials, not just for those with
special properties. In many cases, due to the large
volume of material that can be processed in a certain
unit time these processes are more effective in
comparison to classical processes, which imply a major
consumption of energy and tools. In most of these new
processes, energy and tools consumption is reduced or
almost zero, some tools having high durability, as the
processing electrochemistry, beams of electrons or ions,
laser etc.
The main processes that are based on the use of electron
beam are: welding, drilling, hardening and heat
treatment. Such processes are only part of many
processing procedures based on the applications of
electron beam. The process of electron beam welding is
a method of making fusion weld; the heat is generated at
the impact of an electron beam of high energy with the
working pieces to be joined. This method produces deep
welds without adding overly heat that can
disadvantageous affect the properties of the surrounding
metal.
In the field of electron beam welding, the specialized
literature is vast and covers up the research in the filed.
Regarding the aspect mentioned in his paper, Koleva in
2005, [1] connected the electron beam welding
parameters to the improvement of the process thermal
efficiency. Chi in 2008, [2] analyzed the influences of
electron beam welding parameters on weldments
strength and defect formation in case of AZ-series
magnesium alloys.
Items related to heat-affected zone have been clarified in
his work by Richards in 1994, [3]; these aspects regard
heat-affected-zone in case of INCOLOY 903, especially
in case of microfissuring apparition. A process model
for the heat-affected zone microstructure evolution in
duplex stainless steel weldments was realised by
Hemmer in 2000, [4].
The effects of electron beam focusing characteristics on
fusion zone are analytically investigated by Ho in 2005
[5]. The paper analyzed the weld quality during electron
beam welding depending on beam power, welding
velocity, and focusing parameters.
There are different researches connecting the weld
penetration depth of linear energy, the speed of welding
or theoretical relationships which attach an expression
for determining the approximate relationship. Many
studies associate the weld penetration with welding
speed and focus on the effect of welding speed to
penetration depth under conditions in which other
parameters are kept constant, but do not take into
account interactions between factors.
In this way fewer issues addressed are related to the
parameters dependence on the working parameters of
the output process, requiring a relationship of this
dependency.
2 Input parameter after systemic
approach
The main electro-technological parameters
characterising electron beam welding process, according
to their extent of interference in the welding process,
may be the following [6, 7]:

ISSN: 1790-2769 484 ISBN: 978-960-474-122-9

 Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Manufacturing Engineering, Quality and Production Systems (Volume II)
a. The parameters related to the electron beam: -
accelerating voltage, Ua; - beam current, If; focusing
current, F; beam diameter, d;
b. The parameters characteristic to the welding features:
the type of the material, thermo-physical and chemical
features of the material; workpiece thickness;
c. Other parameters: welding speed, v; focal distance, dt
(the distance from the inner surface of the gun to welded
workpiece); vacuum pressure in the electronic gun
chamber cannon Pt; vacuum pressure of the welding
chamber Ps, preheating temperature, Tpr; heat treatment
after welding.
Starting with this theoretical consideration, the necessity
to attach a particular working condition is imposed.
Choosing the technological parameters is a basic
problem of further conducting the experiment. The
correct choice of these parameters depends on the ability
to reflect the most important phenomena of the
technological process studied. When one chooses the
input parameters one should take into consideration the
possibility to easily change and measure them, their
ability to significantly influence the process being also
important. Furthermore, these factors should not have
functional dependencies between them.
Establishing the dependent parameters, which depend on
the entire structure of the experiment, is based on the
Fig.1. Electron beam process parameter
ISSN: 1790-2769
optimization objectives pursued, as the strategy for
obtaining the mathematical model. They represent the
output values and are generally economic parameters
(productivity, quality, and cost) or parameters
concerning the operating behaviour of the product
(figure 1) [8, 9, 2].
Analyzing and synthesizing the amount of information
available on the electron beam process, one may form a
clear idea of the processing operation as a whole, but for
the achievement of experiments one should neglect
certain parameters, in order to obtain a better
productivity of the process and to keep the focus on the
direction of interest.
The variation of the process parameters has a distinct
and complex influence on the electron beam machining
process products.
The systemic models for the electrons-material
interaction allow establishing the main parameters for
each application (accelerating voltage, focus current,
processing speed etc.) and by these factors an efficient
control in processing time. Thus, the systemic approach
gives the possibility to modify the specific parameters,
and also to obtain the convenient results.
485 ISBN: 978-960-474-122-9
 Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Manufacturing Engineering, Quality and Production Systems (Volume II)

The initiation of some research regarding the electron Following this analysis, the factors’ change during the
beam welding has requested an analysis of the process process can be observed in Figure 2. Parameters that
conditions. The specific knowledge has allowed remain constant and the main input parameters and
development of a graphical representation designed to values for this parameters can be seen in Table 1.
reveal the parameters of interest in electron beam
welding and the factors that influence these parameters.
Thus, the proper choices of the input parameters are
important for the successful application on electron
beam welding process.

3 Experimental research Fig.2. Electron beam welding parameters

The proposal for this paper implies obtaining an
objective function of the parameters output from the Table 1. Factor levels in the experimental program for
input process that connect width and penetration the electron beam welding
welding with the working regime and default of
technological parameters of the processing equipment.
The specimens were made from steel with little
percentage of carbon with the chemical composition
presented as following: 0.112 % C, 0.048 % Si, 0.58 %
Mn, 0.014 % P, 0.032% S, 0.166% Cr, 0.026% Mo,
0.108% Ni, 0.039% Al, 0.011% Co, 0.189% Cu,
0.003% Nb, 0.001% Ti, 0.004% V, 0.010% W, 0.004%
Pb, 0.016% Sn, 0.003% As and 98.649% Fe.
The equipment used was ELA 60/60 (AFE) welding
equipment fit out with a vacuum system and a working
chamber. The technical characteristics of the equipment Establishing the analytical size-dependence of the
imply an accelerating voltage of 60 kV, the current penetration depth H and welding width B and the
intensity, measured in mA, between 5 and 1000, the parameters of (If, v and F) means finding a method
focusing current from 400 mA to1000 mA, and the which, based on a series of measured values of the two
pressure in the electron gun chamber, Pa (mm Hg) - 10.7 output variables, should allow a general relationship
* 10-3 (8 * 10-5). between them.
In this study one used an accelerating voltage of 60 kV The choice of regression equation is based on some
and two values for beam current: 150 mA and 250 mA. theoretical considerations or on the graphical
The vacuum of the work chamber was better than Pa representations of experimental data.
(mm Hg) – 10. 7*10-3 (8*10-5)
In order to obtain the model proposed in the practical
realisation of the experimental research, in carrying out
the experimental tests one took into account, in the
4 Results and discussion
Using the experimental data obtained, polynomial
choice of input parameters, the process of preliminary
regression models for the behaviour of weld penetrating
tests, which revealed the levels of each factor, for which
depth (H) and weld width (B) are found. These two
the simulation software specialist EBSim was used;
output parameters depend on various factors, such as
furthermore one needed to consider the technological
beam power (through beam current and acceleration
possibilities of the welding beam electron equipments,
voltage), welding velocity, position of the focus of the
as well.
beam towards the welded material surface, the vacuum
According to bibliographical references in this field of
pressure, the welded material etc.
activity, the thermal energy or the thermal energy
The variation law of input factors in the process
quantity transferred to the workpiece varies according to
(recurrence relations) can be written as a matrix
four basics parameters: the number of electrons that
(proposed by Vigier) but also by using the method of
reach the workpiece in a certain unit of time (beam
least squares it can be written in the form of relations 1-
focusing current F); the electron velocity (accelerating
7.
voltage Ua); beam current (If); welding or working speed
The penetration depth is an important factor critical to
(v.)
the quality of an electron beam weld
H= - 144.143 + 0,137·If – 26.346 ·v +0.218·F (1)

ISSN: 1790-2769 486 ISBN: 978-960-474-122-9

 Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Manufacturing Engineering, Quality and Production Systems (Volume II)

H=5.805 ·10-20 · If1.273·v-0.537· F6.101 (2)
If the focalization current (F) is maintained at a constant
value (744 mA) the regression function has the main
expression:
H=0.201 · If0.04·v-0.509 (3)
For the welding width the mathematical model is:
B= - 57.17 + 0.0135·If - 6.731·v + 0.092·F (4)
B=1.892 ·10-17 · If0.216·v-0,286· F5.957 (5)
B=- 15.767 +0.135·If +5.855· v (6)
B=0.982 · If0.33·v-0.627 (7)
The models 1-7 are used for a visualisation of the
relationships between the main parameters considered.
Conclusions from analysis of determined empirical
functions. As expected, the empirical functions
determined emphasize the increase in the depth of
penetration and weld width along with an increase in
intensity value of the If current electron beam (Fig.3 and
Fig.4), this fact being revealed by the positive value of
the exponent If in the power type relations. Indeed, with
increasing intensity of the beam current, there is a
greater transfer of energy and the area affected by the
melting (and in which structural transformations take
place) is greater.
On the other hand, increasing the speed of welding
means that the maintaining time of workpiece under the
electron beam action is lower and, as such, the
penetration depth and width of welding bath will have a
lower value, the situation being suggested by the
negative exponents of the corresponding parameter v in
the empirical power type relations. One should also
observe that the corresponding exponent If, the current
intensity of electron beam, is smaller in absolute value
than the exponents attach to the welding speed v, which
means that the influence of intensity If current is less
than that exerted by the speed welding v, as it can be
ascertained from the analysis of power functions.

Fig.3. Penetration depth depending on current intensity and welding speed

Fig.4. Weld width depending on current intensity and welding speed

Should one take into consideration and analyze the important parameter is beam focusing current since it
dependence relation and the power expression, the most has the highest exponent.

ISSN: 1790-2769 487 ISBN: 978-960-474-122-9

 Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Manufacturing Engineering, Quality and Production Systems (Volume II)
If one examines the cases and steels with a less
percentage of carbon and a steel with 0.45% of C, which
is expected to be primarily a difference between the
carbon content, one finds out that in case of the
penetration depth the exponents attach to v and If
parameters are larger in absolute terms in the second
analysed case, which could justify the decrease in
melting temperature of steel, with increasing carbon
content. This heat affected area (HAZ) is small in the
studied case, ranging between 0.02-0.06 mm.
In the case of steel with small percentage of carbon, in
the weld area and heat affected zone, the granular value
is smaller than for other classic welding processes.
There is no danger of split in the cold, so-called split by
hardening, due to reduced quantity of heat introduced
during the welding process and to high speed of heating
and cooling. The structure of the weldments of common
steel is similar to that of carbon steel; however, one can
notice more Fe a, because lower quantities of carbon are
present. Melted zone is characterized by a scratchy
structure of similar structural composition but with a
much less grainy value and, as we mentioned, the heat
affected zone is small.
5 Conclusion
In this paper the electron beam welding process for
common steel has been modelled by using the least
squares method. These approaches are used in an
attempt to determine a regression function between the
inputs and outputs of the welding process.
Following the systemic study conducted [1, 3] there
were chosen main parameters that define the process of
electron beam welding which were further on used in the
research program to determine the process functions
such as H and B for a common steel with a little
percentage of carbon, while other parameters were
maintained at a constant value.
By following this analysis one considered that as the
input of various parameters, the most important
influence on the main features of the process parameters
are the current intensity If , welding speed v and
focusing current F.
- The various welding speeds will have different effects
on welding geometry (H and B); by increasing the
welding speed, the value of the welding decreases.
- The experimental data have shown that the penetration
depth of an electron beam into a workpiece is influenced
by several factors. In order to achieve the weld criterion
the beam must completely penetrate the workpiece, in
which case the energy to do the welding, the speed and
focusing current were significant.
- Relative to the previous expression, the impact of the
beam current (current intensity) is significant on the
ISSN: 1790-2769
weld characteristics but the welding speed seams to be
more important than all the other factors considered. For
the results, it has been observed that the penetration
depth increases with the increase of the current intensity
value.
References:
[1] X1. Koleva, E., Electron beam weld parameters and
thermal efficiency improvement, Vacuum, No.77,
2005, pp. 413-421. Available at:
www.elsevier.com/locate/vacuum. Accessed: 23 .08.
2006.
[2] X2. Chi, C.T., Chao, C.G., Liu, T.F., Wang, C.C.,
Relational analysis between parameters and defects
for electron beam welding of AZ-series magnesium
alloys, Vacuum No.82, 2008, pp. 1177–1182.
[3] X3. Richards, N. L., Nakkalil, R., Chaturvedi, M.
C.,. The influence of electron-beam welding
parameters on heat-affected-zone microfissuring in
INCOLOY 903. Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A, Vol. 25, No. 8 / August, 1994.
[4] X4. Hemmer, H., Klokkehaug, S., Grong Ø., A
process model for the heat-affected zone
microstructure evolution in duplex stainless steel
weldments: Part II. Application to electron beam
welding. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions
A, Vol. 31, No 3 / March, 2000.
[5] X5. Ho, C.Y., Wen, M.Y., Lee, Y.C., Analytical
solution for three-dimensional model predicting
temperature in the welding cavity of electron beam.
Vacuum, No.82, 2008, pp. 316–320.
[6] X6. Dulau, M., Advanced control methods in
electron beam processing. Nonconventional
Technologie Review, No.1, 2005, pp. 67 -73.
[7] X7. Evgrafov, N. N., Lysenkov, Yu. T. Feoktistova,
E. M., Mashkova, M. A., Khokhlov, V. V.,
Properties and structure of welded joints of high-
strength steel after zonal heat treatment by electron
beam. Metal Science and Heat Treatment, Vol. 33,
No. 3 / March, 1991.
[8] X8. Schmid, U., Schmitt-Landsiedel, D., Krötz G.,
Evaluation of electron beam welding technique for
the integration of robust sensor elements into high-
pressure automotive systems. Microsystem
Technologies, Vol. 14, No. 8 / August, 2008.
488 ISBN: 978-960-474-122-9
Electron Beam
welding process

www.airliquidewelding.com
 Electron beam welding general presentation
The principle of electron beam welding is relatively simple:
electrons are accelerated by a high difference electrical
potential and concentrated on a target. The electron’s kinetic
energy is then transformed, for the most part, into thermal
energy melting the metal and producing welds.

The electron emission Vacuum environment necessity

Some materials such, tantalium or hexaboride
of lanthanum allow to get an appropriate quantity of free
electrons when they are,heated up to a high
temperature, and are used for emissive gun elements
manufacturing.
Inside electron guns these emissive elements can be
heated up by two different modes:
• direct heating by joule effect,
• indirect heating by use of an electron bombardment
from a filament.
The emissive element and the electrodes are placed in
the gun. The piece to be welded is located in the welding
chamber.
Since the collision of free electrons and gas molecule
which would induce beam dispersion and a decrease in
the carried power density, the gun and the piece to be
welded are vacuum pumped.
The dimension of the welding chamber depends on the
dimension of the parts to be welded with its positioning
equipment and can vary from few litres up to few ten m3.

The electron acceleration

In order to be extracted from the surface of the emissive Filament heating voltage
- +
element, the free electrons need to be submitted to a Filament

strenuous electrostatic field. The potential difference -

Cathode
between the emissive element (cathode) and the
Reference potential
opposite electrode (anode) allows to create this field, Bias Voltage
which accelerates the electrons by giving them a kinetic -
energy. Accelerating
voltage

Wehnelt
+
Electron Beam creation
Anode
In the inter-electrode space, the electrodes geometry
defines the electron trajectories. First, the electron beam
converges in the anode drilled in its center.
Focusing
Then, the beam continues by inertia and diverges. coil
In order to be used for welding, the beam is focused by
Target: parts
an exciting coil placed in the gun. The focus length is set to be welded
up by current adjustment inside the focusing coil.

Air Liquide Welding indirect heating gun

2
Since the beginning of the Electron Beam Welding process 40 years ago and its first
dedicated application; the welding of tubular fuel elements of nuclear cells; Electron beam
welding has since being used world-wide and its range of applications extends from
welding thin foil to workpieces with walls over 100 mm thick.

Electron Beam process

The electrons are small particles of matter with small mass.
When they are accelerated they hit the piece transferring
their kinetic energy into thermal energy ensuring metal
melting creating plasma of metallic vapours.
The E.B. welding process is a high energetic process
allowing to use very high power up to ten's of kW
on small surfaces of 5/10 of mm diameter.
However, the total heat input is actually much lower
than that of any arc welding process.

U 13% chrome steel

U 20 mm thickness
U One pass
penetration butt
welding
U Welding speed
1 m/min
U 2 strips stainless steel of 0.1 mm thickness U Power 10.3 kW
U Overlapping welds

Principals advantages of the electron beam

welding process:
• very small deformations after welding,
• very thick materials (exceeding 60 mm with steel) in one pass,
• possibility to weld all the steel, copper, nickel materials, aluminium,
metals sensitive to oxygen and other gases as zirconium, titanium… U Zirconium Zr2 of 10 mm thickness
U Fillet weld
• no filler metal and no gas,
U Total penetration 14.2 mm
• high welding quality. The welds obtained are exceptionally pure, U Welding speed 1 m/min
• high reliability, U Power 7.2 kW

• high reproducibility,
• high productivity.

3
 Air Liquide Welding answer:
Electron Beam welding equipment

A large range of solutions

The specific chamber, tools and vacuum system have
to be defined according to the piece characteristics and
the needs in term of quality and quantity.
For that, we will define jointly your specific requirement
in term of:
• piece characteristics with drawing and especially
joint definition,
• grade steel (chemical composition),
• the required quantity (pieces/hour),
• criteria of acceptability,
Remote control box Emergency Stop
Air Liquide Welding offers:
Start gun shot
• In term of production rate some Turn tables to load End gun shot
Axis displacement choice
in masked time, robot for handling...
Focalisation current set Beam current set
• In term of process quality, Recorder, Video control
Axis displacement
(process), Beam deflection. hand crank

Thanks to our experienced teams, we can respond

to yours specifics need. Central system control by CNC
Based on its long experience, Air Liquide Welding
developed a specific software dedicated to the E.B.W
process which controls the overall machine operation.
Through a C.N.C, it manages:
ST Standard • The operation cycle,
gun based on
a motorized • The vacuum system,
displacement • The numerised axis,
carriage.
• The main parameters through the E.B.Generator.
One manual
closing door A control panel will receive the general controls of the
equipped with
2 viewing machine (Automatic cycle start/stop, welding chamber
windows.
venting…) and can on demand be modified to accept
Two the specific control required by the customer.
Headstocks.
A very useful remote control box permits to modify the
current of the focalisation and the current beam closed
Examples of a universal welding chamber for automotive to the welding chamber. Thus, through the viewing
application (gear-wheels...)
136 litres (580 mm x 500 mm x 470 mm) window, it makes easier set up of welding parameter.

4
Intensive working for over 35 years ST Standards series:
in industries autonomous E.B generator
All our E.B generators are low voltage triode gun. It gives
many advantages as:
• A beam a little bit thicker and consequently a much
larger tolerance in the preparation of the edge to be
Our ST Standard gun
welded.
• Low emission of X rays parasite.
Moreover, our solid cathodes are heated indirectly and are
made from W in some case (Zirconium welding) and more
generally in LaB6 material. These last materials present the
characteristic to work at low temperature compared to
other materials such as W or Ta. It offers a very long life
from 1000 hours up to 2000 hours in comparison with
the common consumable parts of industrial electron beam
generator. Moreover, the electrodes have a short coupling.
It confers to the gun a very good stability of electronic
trajectories and a good repeatability of the impact position. Air Liquide Welding proposes a large range of
autonomous electron beam welding generator from
6 kW - 45 kV to 100 kW - 100 kV made up of:
• Our triode gun with indirect cathode heating,
• Our high voltage resonance power supply
assembly with oil free and auxiliary tank,
• A high voltage cable with low capacitance.
An electrical cabinet with all the control loop of
the process, a P.L.C, and a control box to set all
the fundamentals E.B.W parameters.
Thus, our E.B.Generator can work alone or under
control of our C.N.C. In this way, the maintenance is
made easier and on the other hand, we can on
demand realize refurbishment on existent machine.

Air Liquide Welding automous E.B generator

(High voltage cable not represented)

5
 Think different: Think Electron Beam welding

A new fashion to design your pieces

The wide range of energy density of the electron beam allows to readily obtain
sound welds, presenting satisfactory mechanical characteristics and almost
without any deformation, on materials for which a conventional welding process
would be extremely complex, or even impossible, to perform:

Integral machined piece

Cost Reduction
100 mm thickness titanium butt weld

The same piece welded by E.B.W

Up to 2 pieces welded by minute

Fillet welds of stainless steel possible on this kind of application.
Total penetration without deformation

6
Electron Beam welding activity
Air Liquide Welding is part of the Air Liquide group the world
leader in industrial and medical gases and related services.
The group offers innovative solutions based on constantly
enhanced technologies to help manufacture many indispensable
products and preserve life.

Air Liquide Welding experience Consequently the elements of our installation have
The electron beam welding installations offered by already met the many functioning criteria required in
Air Liquide Welding is the result of the integration of those demanding
the technologies developed and the experience gained industrial contexts.
from our industrial achievements over the last thirty five The optimization
years in electron beam technology. of technical
Air Liquide Welding has many more references in characteristics due
electron beam welding in technological environment to those different
known through the trademark SAFMATIC as varied as: applications has
• aeronautics, lead to a high level
• mechanic, hydraulic, pneumatic components, of stability and
• motorcar automobile, reliability which is
• nuclear, well appreciated
• boiler construction. by our Customer.

Electron Beam welding workshop

Project feasibility Benefit from the research
and small size production department of Air Liquide Welding
Our means of production and our means of control are Our research and development team is composed of
at your service for prototypes and small quantities more than 140 persons working to develop innovative
production. solutions in:
• metallurgy,
Machine Characteristic
• health and safety,
12 kW maxi.
Controlled
Enclosure: 24 dm 3
• productivity,
Controlled axis for radial welding
by micro-computer
• gas, equipment,
10 kW maxi.
Enclosure: 900 x 400 x 400
• consumables and
Controlled
Controlled axis for axial and radial welding tool combinations.
by micro-computer

6 kW maxi. Innovation is a state of mind for the group employees.

Enclosure: 520 x 410 x 460
Controlled
Controlled axis for axial and radial welding This is clearly illustrated through the many patented
by micro-computer

inventions developed by our researchers in the CTAS

(Technical Centre for Welding Applications) the largest
private research centre for welding and cutting technologies.

7
Contacts
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AIR LIQUIDE WELDING BELGIUM SA
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Founded in 1902, Air Liquide is the world leader in industrial and medical gases and related services. The company has offices in 75 countries and employs a work force
of 43.000. Drawing on constantly renewed technologies, Air Liquide develops groundbreaking solutions used in making countless everyday products and in helping to
preserve life.
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AIR LIQUIDE WELDING THAILAND Co. Ltd.
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E-mail: export.alwfrance@airliquide.com E-mail: export.oerlikonwelding@airliquide.com
www.airliquide.com
 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes- Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

IDGH ENERGY DENSITY WELDING PROCESSES

Branko Bauer
Faculty ofMechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, University ofZagreb,
Ivana LuCica J, JO 000 Zagreb, CROATIA

Matija Busic
Faculty ofMechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, University ofZagreb,
Ivana LuCica J, JO 000 Zagreb, CROATIA

Summary

Occurring late in the manufacturing stream, the joining process is typically the final step
in assembly and plays the major role in ensuring structural performance. Additionally,
the emergence of near-net-shape processes to produce sub-components has raised the

©Encyclopedia ofLife Support Systems (EOLSS)

 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes- Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

importance of assembly processes as the next area for increased production efficiency.
To solve all the joining needs that require welding, many different processes have been
developed along the years. Two of welding technologies can be classified as High
Energy Density Welding (HEDW) processes because of their working characteristics.
These technologies are Laser Beam Welding (LBW) and Electron Beam Welding
(EBW). Both are capable of proving extremely high-power-density weld input levels
and making deep weld penetration possible. LBW and EBW are quite similar, differing
most notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused
laser beam, while electron beam welding uses an electron beam. LBW and EBW have
been developed rapidly and have been successfully used in many industrial applications;
the potential of the HEDW process is continuously being exploited in further industrial
sectors. This chapter presents description of the fundamental principle of work of both

r.-
EBW and LBW. Equipment, process parameters, control of energy, weld formation and
typicaljoint designs are described

1. Introduction ~~J '1_:

s
Welding is a precise and reliable joining process t pro u~ces
/i~~l~cence of
materials. This is often done by local melti~ kr.' e~dding a filler

~'
material to form a pool of molten material co to co a strong joint, with
pressure sometimes used in conjunction r b ts , to produce the weld. In
essence, the welding process fuses the surfa tw~' st t elements to form a single
unit. Welding encompasses a broad ran e o jo ·ni iques that include fusion
welding, solid state welding, weldbo~,
diffus elding, brazing, and soldering.
Various techniques allow a g a a l o f : e · e· i the design of components to be
welded. Welding technologi als incl e <ls for welding metals, dissimilar
metals, polymers, and ~i as we as merging composite and engineered
materials. V /,,
2. High Ener~:,~eld~""Vses
High ene~gy
~w s every fusion welding process utilizing a heat source
capa~ble
o extre ·gh-power-density weld input levels. The density of the
ener y le fr e source for welding is often more important than the

E
1
abso s ce ~ wo major types of high energy density welding processes are
Electron m , and Laser Beam Welding. Both processes use a very high-
intensity b e heating source for welding, one in which the energy from the
source is hig oncentrated by electromagnetic or optical lenses, respectively. The
energy density in these processes is approximately 10 10-10 13 W/m2• Typical arc welding
2
processes have energy density of about 5 xl08 W/m • Conversion of the kinetic energy
of fast-moving electrons in EBW and photons in LBW into heat occurs as these
particles strike the workpiece, leading to heating, melting, and vaporization in a highly
localized area. Both processes usually operate in the keyhole mode. Penetration into
workpiece can be high, producing deep, narrow, parallel-sided fusion welds with narrow
heat-affected zones and minimal angular distortion due to non-uniform weld metal
shrinkage or thermal contraction. The Electron Beam Welding process is almost always
performed autogenously, so joint fit must be excellent. If filler is needed for thick
section welds, pre-placed shims must usually be used, as getting wire down into a deep

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 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes- Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

weld is difficult. Laser Beam Welding is usually done autogenously also, but can use
wires as a filler. Shielding for the EBW process is provided by the vacuum (typically
I 0-3-10- 5 atmospheres) required to allow the beam of electrons to flow to the workpiece
unimpeded by collisions with molecules comprising air. Shielding for the LBW process
is accomplished with inert gases, gas mixtures or in so-called "dry-boxes" or from
special shrouds over the vicinity of the weld puddle.

These two processes are compared in Table I.

Table 1. Comparative Adva dDis~n~

3. Basic Principle of El tro earn et.V

Electron Beam e · a fusion l · g process in which a beam of high-velocity

transform~d
· e po 1 ac surface of the working material. The workpiece
and the fi ~fu Its to form a part of the weld. The welding is often done

;;::strons~
in cond ·o o va m r vent dispersion of the electron beam.

As e workpiece, their energy is converted into heat, instantly

vaporizing ~ l under temperatures near 25,000 °C. The heat penetrates deeply,
making it p o weld much thicker workpieces than is possible with most other
welding proce . However, because the electron beam is tightly focused, the total heat
input is actually much lower than that of any arc welding process. As a result, the effect
of welding on the surrounding material is minimal, and the heat-affected zone is small.
Distortion is slight, and the workpiece cools rapidly, and while normally an advantage,
this can lead to cracking in high-carbon steel.

Almost all metals can be welded with electron beam welding technology, but the most
commonly welded are stainless steels, superalloys, and reactive and refractory metals.
Due to special features of this process, e.g., high energy density and accurately
controllable beam size and location, in many cases it has proven to be an efficient way
of joining dissimilar metals. Electron Beam Welding process is not limited or controlled

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 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes- Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

by thermal conduction. This enables welding of metals with high thermal conductivity,
or joint designs with asymmetric heat transfer characteristics. EBW is a very similar
process to Laser Beam Welding, except that electrons are focused in electron beam
instead of photons in the case of lasers beam. The advantage of using an electron beam
is that the beam does not have a tendency to diverge as laser beams do when they
contact the workpiece.

3.1. Formation of an Electron Beam

Electron beam processing can be performed both in and out of vacuum utilizing fixed or
mobile guns, high or low voltage, etc. An EBW system typically includes the following
subsystems: electron beam gun column, high-voltage power supply, vacuum pumping,
motion control, and welding enclosure. Two additional subsystems available on many
machines are seam tracking and programmable system controls. Electron beam gun
column allows the electron beam welding machine to produce free electrons, from these
electrons into a concentrate high-power beam, and direct the electron beam through
space. Electrons are generated .in a vacuum enclosure by heating the cathode made of
tungsten, a negatively charged emitter, to its thermionic emission temperature causing
electrons to "boil off' of the filament. As the temperature is increased, more electrons
are emitted from the cathode until a maximum emission level is reached. This level,
called space charge limited emission, occurs when a cloud of electrons is formed that
repels further emission from the filament. In a triode gun this cloud of electrons is
shaped into a beam by an electrostatic field created by an appropriately shaped and
charged bias cup and a positively charged anode. The combination of all three of these
components constitutes an electron beam gun, Figure I presents a simplified scheme of
an Electron Beam Gun.
EMITIER
(CATHODE)

0--------il +
BEAM
ACCELERATING
VOLTAGE

ELECTRON BEAM I
MAGNETIC
DEFLECTION
COIL~~ ~~
I
DEFLECTION I
CAPABILITY

l'OCALRANGI!

\VORKPIECE

Figure 1. Simplified scheme of an Electron Beam Gun

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 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes- Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

In a diode gun, the bias cup and the emitter are at the same electrical potential and are
referred to as the cathode. In a triode gun, the cathode is at one potential while the
potential (bias) between it and the bias cup is varied to control the beam current. At a
large negative bias, electron flow is inhibited, and the beam current is zero. As the value
of the negative bias is reduced, electron flow increases. In both gun designs, electrons
are accelerated to a hollow anode (which is at ground potential) inside the gun column
by means of a high voltage differential. They pass through the anode at high speed
(approximately half of the speed of light) and then are directed to the workpiece with
magnetic forces resulting from focusing and deflection coils. All of these components
are housed in an electron beam gun column, in which a high vacuum is maintained. The
difference between a diode and triode gun is that beam current and beam voltage can be
independently varied (within limits) with a triode gun.

3.2. Control of the Electron Beam C..., ~

Since electrons are charged particles, their direction ofra~~e!e~~y the

use of electromagnetic fields. The electron optics segm~~th~l assembly is
comprised of a focus coil and a set of deflection coi~at ilrv~ tr· the electron
beam to a tightly concentrated focal spot an~"-.M"e m the workpiece
surface. When the accelerated beam of elec n me e~ perture in the anode
and begins to diverge (because of mutu e ls an o r causes) a focusing coil
located below the anode can be used to co e t ~d1 gence. By simply varying
the current applied through this coil ~he_rlec on be be focused at the desired
location beyond the plane of the coil. ~lection co be added below the focus coil
to cause the beam to move toermined · ns. odem welding systems usually
include a function generator a p gram able ection module to power deflection
coils, thus providing a v v ns of c ro ng beam movement.

3.3. Weld Formati~ ~

The high ener./~:1\') of ~beam vaporizes some of the material on which it
is directe~. ~J: a steady state condition between the pressure of this
expand· nd the a: tension of the molten material on the wall. As the beam
trav rses he ba e material melts at the leading edge of the keyhole, flows
aro the eyh~ idifies at the trailing edge. The formation of the keyhole in
high po e r e i provides the unique capability for deep, narrow welds and
narrow heat zones resulting in minimized distortion of weldments. This type of
melting is refi to as keyhole mode welding. In contrast, lower energy density beam
spots results in wider, shallower welds with aspect ratios typical of arc welds. This latter
mode of energy transfer is called the conduction mode.

3.4. Welding Variables

In EBW, the primary welding parameters are beam voltage, beam current, travel speed
and focus coil current. The secondary variables are vacuum level, distance from gun to
work, and oscillation of the beam spot. The amount of heat input, and thus the
penetration, depends on several variables, most notably the number and speed of
electrons impacting the workpiece, the diameter of the electron beam, and the travel

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 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes - Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

speed. Greater beam current causes an increase in heat input and penetration, while
higher travel speed decreases the amount of heat input and reduces penetration. Figure 2
presents shapes and dimensions of melted zones in stainless steel at different values of
beam power.
The diameter of the beam can be varied by moving the focal point with respect to the
workpiece. Focusing the beam below the surface increases the penetration, while
placing the focal point above the surface increases the width of the weld.

The energy conversion efficiency of electron beam welding is higher than that for arc
and laser beam welding process. A lower energy input can be used to give equivalent
penetration with EBW than with conventional arc and laser beam welding processes.

Precise control of high power densities is required because of the strong influence they
can have on the weld geometry. Thus, variations on parames:anoften aced to
differences in power density that occurred even when all me eldl.ii"~l'llfl'iii)
(accelerating voltage, beam current, focus coil current PA·
sp )
remaining the same. In critical applications care mus_r"IJvke~sure
ins~all~tion, chamber pressure, beam deflection an'-.distpe} u o work are
mamtamed constant. ()'
"' j(._ V
_,.
P [kW]
15

I :?5

1.0

05

0.25

0 ~~~

Figlj[e ~es an~ltons of melted zones in stainless steel at different values of

'V,,,,,. ~'""' beam power

3.5.Metho~

The three primary methods ofEBW are each applied in different welding environments.
The method first developed requires that the workpiece in the welding chamber be at a
high vacuum approx. 0.133 Pa or lower. Material as thick as 150 mm can be welded,
and the distance between the welding gun and workpiece (the stand-off distance) can be
as great as 0.7 m. While the most efficient of the three modes, disadvantages include the
amount of time required to properly evacuate the welding chamber and the cost of the
entire machine. As electron beam gun technology advances, it became possible to
perform EBW in a soft vacuum, under pressure of 13.3 Pa. This allows for larger
welding chambers and reduces the time and equipment required to achieve soft vacuum
in the chamber, but reduces the maximum stand-off distance by half and decreases the

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 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes - Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

maximum material thickness to 50 mm. The third EBW mode is called nonvacuum or
out-of-vacuum EBW, since it is performed at atmospheric pressure. The stand-off
distance must be reduced to 40 mm, and the maximum material thickness is about
50 mm. However, it allows for workpieces of any size to be welded, since the size of
the welding chamber is no longer a factor. Highest production rates and lowest costs per
part are some of the advantages of nonvacuum EBW since there is no evacuation time
involved. The welding atmosphere scatters the beam which results in decreased power
density, lower aspect ratio welds compared to those of equivalent power made in
vacuum. Figure 3 shows both modes of operation.

At.IG!..:~rt~T (_'Oii, Y.U'.CTROSt;{IN

('OLl~IN \',\L\'E
,\l,IC;Nl\U:NT <'Ori.
11c><.·n; c·o11.
UEflJ!l"l'ION ('011.

FOt'llSt'Oll•
..__.....,1•t:11t.f.f"f1UN ('(IU,

t'll.\~U11·:n

a) b)
Figure 3. EBW modes of operation: a) EBW at a high vacuum b) EBW at non vacuum

3.6. Description of the Equipment

As mentioned before, Electron Beam Welding can be performed both in and out of
vacuum utilizing fixed or mobile guns, high or low beam voltages, etc. The electron
beam gun column is the main part of the electron beam welding system. It produces free
electrons, form these electrons into a concentrated high-power beam, and direct the
electron beam through space.

The electron optics segment of the column assembly is comprised of a focusing coil and
a set of deflection coils that serve to constrict the electron beam to a tightly concentrated
focal spot and deflect the beam over the workpiece surface.

The high-voltage power supply is housed in an oil-filled tank. The same tank also
contains the beam current control and the cathode-heating power supplies. An
associated control system serves to maintain the outputs of the power supplies constant
regardless of line voltage or load variations. Some variations of power supply
incorporate fiber optics for sending and receiving of control signals to achieve fast
response times.

EBW machines with high vacuum mode of working have either one or two vacuum
pumping systems. Before start of working the gun column and the welding chamber are

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 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY - High Energy Density Welding Processes- Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

evacuated together when using one pumping system and separately when using two
pumping systems. The latter system is preferred to minimize evacuation time and to
maintain a better vacuum in the gun column while welding chamber is vented. For the
gun column, only a small capacity auxiliary vacuum pump is required to ensure high-
vacuum level. The welding chamber must be airtight and strong enough to prevent it
from being crushed by atmospheric pressure. It must have openings so that the
workpieces can be inserted and removed, and its size must be sufficient to hold the
workpieces but not significantly larger, as larger chambers require more time to
evacuate.

Weld motion system ensures either workpiece motion or a combination of gun and
workpiece motion to accomplish welding. In order to fuse the entire length of a welded
joint, the joint must be advanced under the beam or, conversely, the beam must be
advanced along the joint. EBW equipment manufacturers generally offer both fixed
(externally mounted) and mobile (internally mounted) gun systems.

Seam-tracking equipment is available for all electron beam welding systems. Some
seam trackers work on the principle that electron backscatter, produced by an incident
low-power electron beam, is absorbed or randomly scattered by discontinuities on the
work surface. If the level of backscatter current is monitored as the beam is scanned, a
change will be noted each time when the beam crosses the joint. This technique can be
used either prior to, or during the actual welding process.

Modem EBW systems are supplied with programmable logic control of the discrete
sequencing functions and welding parameter analog inputs/outputs. A beam-control
module serves to tum the beam instantaneously ON/OFF and vary the magnitude of
beam current in a ramped or stepped mode. Separate focus and deflection control
modules may be installed to intermittently or continuously vary the plane in which the
beam focal spot occurs, and may move this beam focal spot about in fixed or oscillatory
manner, or both. CNC is optionally provided with software that allows part programs to
be entered in conventional CNC machine tool manner.

Bibliography

Schultz H.,(1993). Electron beom welding. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abrington, Cambridge CB!
6AH, England, [This book summarizes all the electron beam welding processes and machines employed,
and describes their applications]
Messler R.W. (2004.) Joining of Materials and Structures: From Pragmatic Process to Enabling
Technology, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, USA [This is one of the
most comprehensive texts available for the reference shelf on joining technologies]

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

 WELDING ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY -High Energy Density Welding Processes- Branko Bauer and Matija Busic

Duplik J., Vlcek I, Zobac M., (2001). Electron gun for computer-controlled welding of small
Components. Vacuum 62, 159-164. [The paper presents a new electron gun operating at 50 kV equipped
by electronics for computer control of a fine electron beam with the power up to 2 kW. Its function,
construction arrangement and the first experiences of its operation are briefly described]
American Welding Society (1999). Recommended Practice for Electron Beam Welding, 550 N.W.
LeJeune Road. Miami, Florida, USA [This document presents recommended practice for electron beam
welding. Processes definitions, safe practices, general process requirements, and inspection criteria are
provided]
Cary H.B., Helzer S.C., (2005). Modern welding technology, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey, USA, [This book contains coverage of the latest codes, materials, and processes necessary to
become proficient in an ever more complex welding industry]
Aussenegg F. R., (1995). The laser principle - how laser radiation is generated. International conference
LASER MATERIAL PROCESSING, 1-7. Opatija, Croatia, 1995 [This paper presents the working principle
of laser systems. The physical background oflaser properties is discussed.]
Schu5cker D. (1995) Heavy section laser welding. International c~ LASE~RIAL
PROCESSING, 103-112. Opatija, Croatia, 1995 [This article pr!'8s
background equipment for welding, main process parameters a
conventional welding methods]
s

Sprunk S., Jenko M. (1995) Microstructure and compositio of v uum

dissimilar metals. International conference LASER MAT
ur y~f
o s ysical

ase
l
!:Z
ves c

elds between
s~:f! I . Opatija, Croatia,
n with

1995 [This paper explains the influence of the lase'/;~rgy n weld~m~tru lure]

Biographical Sketches

Branko Bauer has received his diploma of l;Aineering

v ~
~from the University of Zagreb,
Faculty of mechanical engineering and nava1'fcchitect e, ~ti~~t: of Welded Structures, Chair of
Welding, Croatia in 1997. He beework at ulty of mechanical engineering and naval
architecture, Zagreb in 1997. He o ained certifi ate o opean Welding Engineer after completing
course according EWF progra6 er com tin urther studies he obtained a Master of Science
(M.Sc.) degree in 2002, and earn a Ph egree .sc.) in 2006. At the Welding department of the
Faculty he is in charge$ · aser. e elding and cutting. In 2007 he was appointed Assistant
professor at the Facul hanical eng er and naval architecture in Zagreb. He has published
an t nical ~rs.~
more than 30 scie&!c

Matija Busic ll r i
of mechan"
his a o~ineering
(Dipl.Ing.) from the University of Zagreb, Faculty
ing a ~-:0.chitecture, Department of Technology, Chair of Machine Tools,
Croa~ia i He st i 1 employment in 2009, in the company BAM - ING d.o.o. in Zagreb.
Afte o t he bega rk on the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zagreb, as
an As a on th~ ent of Welded Structures. In academic year 2009/2010 he started
postgradua e r~ he acuity. In his work he participates in academic activities and scientific
activities relat~ welding and high energy density welding processes.

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