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Approach – Answer: Geography Mock Test – 772 (2016)

1.(a) Climate is a major determinant of landform evolution. Discuss.
Approach:
1. Start with listing the main determinants.
2. Scholars’ opinion about climate’s role.
3. Why and how climate is a major determinant, with some examples.
Answer:
Various factors affecting landform development are Energy, Lithology, Processes and movements,
Structure, Relief, Climate and Time 

Climate plays following roles in landform development
 Determines which processes are active in a given area at a given time. e.g.: Ice 
age – Glaciation,
Present, times – Aeolian, fluvial, humid in limestone – karst. 

 Controls flora and fauna cover therefore influencing effectiveness of biological and other weathering
processes and 
erosive process. 

 Controls humidity and temperature and their variations.

Climate’s influence on overall Landscape development 


 J. Budel (1944, 48) suggested about climatic influence on landscape development. He talks of
morphogenetic regions which implies that under a certain set of climatic conditions, particular
geomorphic processes will dominate, leading to particular landscape development. Hence,
landscapes developed under different climatic conditions would differ. 

 Davis also recognized to some extent the importance of Climatic differences in classing under
‘Climatic accidents’, the arid and glacial cycles. 


1.(b) Differentiate between Pediplain and Endrumpf.

Approach:
1. Give the scholars associated.
2. The relation with cyclic erosion theories.
3. The regions in which they are envisaged.
4. Diagrams showing them.
Answer:
Pediplain (concept given by King 1948)
It refers to a series of coalescing Pediments. A Pediment is a rock-floored plain adjacent to or
interpenetrating mountain masses in desert region, developed by planation of the mountains. It is
supposed to be marked by the presence of isolated residual hills called Bonhardt.
King interpreted widely separated surfaces in Africa, Asia, N. America, Europe, S. America and Australia
as ancient Pediplains. ( pediplains shown on right end of fig. 20)
Endrumpf , on the other hand, is the outcome of the 3rd stage of Walther Penck’s explanation of
landscape development.

The completion of first 2 phases sees straight slope development.

In Phase 3, also called Waning (decelerating) Development or declining intensity of erosion,
 Erosion is dominant.
 Concave slopes develop, with flatter and flatter surfaces.

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  This is due to the fact that erosion on the slopes is more prominent than the down cutting, which is
considerably reduced as upliftment comes to a halt.
 Penck further explains 2 basic elements to any valley side slope;
 The upper, relatively steep slope called as bosche or steilwand or gravity slope.
 The lower, more gentle slope called as Haldenhang or wash slope.
They meet at distinct angle. The wash slope, in this phase extends to form later on the conclave slope, as
the gravity slope retreats parallely so as to reduce the relative relief and lead to formation of isolated
residual landforms called Inselberg.
 This gradually developed terminal plain, due to degradation, was called as ENDRUMPF. ( shown on
right end of fig. 18)

1.(c). Elaborate what are geostrophic currents in the Oceans.

Approach:
1. Elaborate how these horizontal currents are an outcome of the balance between the coriolis and
pressure gradient force.
2. Discuss how eventually they lead to the surface gyres in the ocean
3. Also state that the different major current are in a geostrophic balance.
Answer:
Sea water, like other fluids, naturally tends to move from a region of high pressure, in this case high sea
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 level, to a region of low pressure or the low sea level. The force pushing the water towards the low
pressure region is called the pressure gradient force. In a geostrophic flow, just as in the upper
atmosphere’s geostrophic winds case, instead of water moving from a region of high sea level to a region
of low sea level, it moves along the lines of equal pressure (isobars). This occurs because the coriolis
force, due to the rotating earth. The Coriolis force acts at right angles to the flow, and when it balances
the pressure gradient force, the resulting flow is known as geostrophic, as shown below.

As stated above, the direction of flow is with the high pressure to the right of the flow in the Northern
Hemisphere, and the high pressure to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Hence, on can conclude that the horizontal movement of surface water arising from a balance between
the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force is known as geostrophic flow.
As noted earlier, viewed from above, geostrophic flow in a subtropical gyre is clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
The major currents of the world's oceans, such as the Gulf Stream, the Kuroshio Current, the Agulhas
Current, and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, are all approximately in geostrophic balance and are
examples of geostrophic currents.

1.(d) What are the outcomes of condensation and what are the different types of clouds.
Approach:
1. Discuss the process of condensation and how it leads to precipitation.
2. Could enlist the 2 theories which explain condensation in warmer and cooler regions.

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 3. Enlist the major types of clouds.
Content support:
Clouds are the source of precipitation. A cloud is physically an aerosol, that is, a suspension of minute
water droplets or ice crystals and other particles in air.
In order to fall from the cloud, the water forms most grow to sizes that can no longer be buoyed up (held
up) by the air. This process is initiated by condensation.
Condensation is the process of change of state from gaseous to liquid or solid state. Condensation in the
atmosphere results from cooling around very small particles, which are water seeking and are called as
Hygroscopic condensation nuclei.
Once condensation has been initiated, the droplets produced by condensation are very small in size.
Hence, the growth of these droplets into sizes required for precipitation to occur are further explained by
theories related to precipitation such as Ice Crystal Theory and Collision and Coalescence Theory.
Condensation further leads to related precipitation.
Types of clouds
Luke Howard, an English naturalist, developed a cloud classification system employing Latin words to
describe clouds as they appear to a ground observer. He named a sheetlike cloud stratus (Latin for
“layer”); a puffy cloud cumulus (“heap”); a wispy cloud cirrus (“curl of hair”); and a rain cloud nimbus
(“violent rain”). In Howard’s system, these were the four basic cloud forms. Other clouds could be
described by combining the basic types. For example, nimbostratus is a rain cloud that shows layering,
whereas cumulonimbus is a rain cloud having pronounced vertical development. 

Hence a general classification , is as shown below

1.(e) How are the depths in the oceans determined.

Approach:
1. Give the two usually applied methods to measure ocean depth.
2. Explain them in brief, supporting with diagrams, where required.
Answer:
The depth of the ocean is usually measured two ways:
1) Acoustic echo-sounders on ships
2) Data from satellite altimeters.
Echo Sounders : Most maps of the ocean are based on measurements made by echo sounders. The
instrument transmits a burst of 10–30 kHz sound and listens for the echo from the sea floor, as shown in
diag. below. The time interval between transmission of the pulse and reception of the echo, when
multiplied by the velocity of sound, gives twice the depth of the ocean. The first transatlantic echo
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 soundings were made by the U.S. Navy Destroyer Stewart in 1922. Since then, oceanographic and naval
ships have operated echo sounders almost continuously while at sea.
Echo sounders make the most accurate measurements of ocean depth. Their accuracy is ±1%.

Satellite Altimetry : Gaps in our knowledge of ocean depths between ship tracks have now been filled by
satellite-altimeter data. Altimeters profile the shape of the sea surface, and its shape is very similar to
the shape of the sea floor.

The Relationship Between Sea Level and the Ocean’s Depth : Excess mass at the sea floor, for example
the mass of a seamount, increases local gravity because the mass of the seamount is larger than the
mass of water it displaces. Rocks are more than three times denser than water. The excess mass
increases local gravity, which attracts water toward the seamount. This changes the shape of the sea
surface, as shown below. Using this method the sea floor is marked.

2.(a) Examine how the plate tectonics Theory is an improvement over the geosynclinal theory, especially
from the perspective of discussing the Tethy’s sea and the related formations. 20
Approach:
1. Discuss how geosynclinal theory explains the deposition and subsidence in the ‘mobile zones of
water’and the role of Craton (rigid masses) w.r.t. these weak zones.
2. Explain how compression lead to uplift, further explained by Kober in his geosynclinal theory of
mountain building.
3. Bring out how PTT discusses this more accurately in terms of lithospheric plate movements.
4. How PTT explains not only mountain building but also ocean floor, plains etc. and hence is a more
comprehensive theory.
Note: The content given below is more than the answer.
Answer:
 The concept of Geosynclines was given in 1859, by American Geologist James Hall while working in a
survey, in the Appalachians (folded mountains) in New York state, USA.

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  As per this concept, Geological history of continents and ocean basins bring out the fact that initially our
globe was characterized by 2 important features.

 The rigid land masses, which represent the ancient nuclei of present continents, were supposed to have
been surrounding by ‘mobile zones of water’, which J.A. Steers has explained as ‘Long and relatively
narrow depressions’ which have subsided during the accumulation of sediments in them and are known
as Geosynclines.
 They have further been converted by compressive forces into folded mountain ranges, as per
Geosynclinal Orogen Theory of Kober.
 E. Haug also drew palaeo-geographical maps of the world depicting Geosynclines, to further clarify that
these tracts were subsequently folded into mountain ranges.
 He located 4 major geosynclines in the past:
1. Rockies Geosyncline (From Top till Tierra – Del – Fuega)
2. Ural Geosyncline.
3. Tythes Geosyncline (Alpine Himalayan Chain) (Aral, Caspian, Mediterranean, Pursian crust etc)
4. Circum – Pacific Geosynclines.
 Here the sediments were squeezed and folded into mountain ranges due to compressive forces from the
rigid masses (5 of them as identified by him)
Haug gave Cycles of Geosyncline:
1. Sedimentation (From different sources, Fluvial, Aeolian, Glacial, etc)
2. Subsidence.
3. Compression.
4. Folding.
but further said that not all geosynclines complete the full cycle.
Stages of Geosynclinal history:
1) Litho genesis – Creation of Geosynclines: sedimentation and subsidence of beds of Geosyncline.
2) Oro genesis – Squeezing Compression and folding of geosynclines into mountain ranges.
3) Glipto genesis – Gradual rise and denudation of mountains.
Views of Suess and Argand:
Based on study of Tethys Sea Geosyncline, Suess said that both the edges of this geosyncline were not
moving toward each other, but the southern continental landmass, Gondwanaland (Specially Africa) was
moving towards North and he has referred to it as Backland. The stationary Northern Landmass (Laurasia)
against which southern landmass was pushing has been called as Foreland.
Argand too supported the concept of hinterland (Backland) and foreland, but taking account of continental
drift theory of Wagner, his view was that Africa & Europe were moving towards the north, but Africa was
moving at a faster rate than Europe.
They both used these concepts to explain the alignment of folding and binds and Nappes in the Alpine
chain.

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 Geosyncline term is slowly being replaced by Geocline.
Plate tectonics
 The concept of Plate tectonics has brought considerable change in the understanding of geosynclinal
theory and its importance.
 The plate tectonic theory explains the realistic movement of Lithospheric plates, rather than cratons and
geosynclines.
 These plates comprise of continents and ocean floors.
 They converge and diverge, in the process forming fold and fault mountains and also Mid Oceanic ridges,
along with other major and smaller formations.
 Fold mountains on continental margins (oceanic – continental convergence) and mid continent fold
mountains (continental- continental convergence) both are explained by PTT.
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  Plate tectonic explains most of the formations on the earth surface, along with the sub surface
asthensopheric convections.
 This way plate tectonic is a more comprehensive and accurate explanation.
But before Theory of Plate Tectonics, concept of Geosynclines was very important to explain fold
mountain orogeny.

2.(b) Elaborate the formation of ‘eye’ of a cyclone and the conditions associated with it. 15
Approach:
1. Explain the formation and conditions in the ‘eye’.
2. Support with diagrams.
Answer:
At the centre of a tropical cyclones is a characteristics feature of ‘EYE’,as shown in the figure below,
which could be 10 to 50 km in diameters.

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 This is the part of the tropical cyclone, where despite of low pressure conditions, the winds do not reach,
because rather than reaching here, the winds move vertically upwards in the cyclone eyewalls, due to
low pressure, high speed and spirally effect and the related upward movement.
So, rather than ascending, the air is descending in the eye and hence, here clear skies and calm winds
prevail. As the eye passes over a site, calm prevails and the skies are cloud free. Passage of an eye may
take about half an hour, after which the storm related with cyclone strikes with renewed, ferocity. Now
the winds are in opposite direction. Wind speeds are highest along the cloud the cloud wall of the eye.

2.(c) Explain the difference between ‘drought’ and ‘defficiency rainfall’ and its importance. 15
Approach:
1. Discuss about drought , specifically as per IMD, as the context of the question is the recent decision by
IMD.
2. Mention why recently IMD has stopped using the term Droughts and would be rather using the term
‘Deficient rainfall’.
3. What will be the impact of such change.
Answer:
Generally, there are different types of droughts, explained differently, such as
1. Meteorological Drought
2. Hydrological Drought
3. Agricultural Drought
4. Soil Moisture Drought
5. Socio-Economic Drought
6. Ecological Drought
According to India Meteorological Department (IMD), meteorological drought over an area is defined as
a situation when the seasonal rainfall received over the area is less than75% of its long term average
value.
It is further classified as "moderate drought" if the rainfall deficit is between 26-50% and "severe
drought" when the deficit exceeds 50% of the normal.
Further, as per IMD earlier, a year was considered to be a Drought Year in case the area affected by
moderate and severe drought, either individually or together, was 20-40% of the total area of the
country and seasonal rainfall deficiency during south-west monsoon season for the country as a whole is
at least 10% or more.
When the spatial coverage of drought was more than 40% it was called as All India Severe Drought Year.
Recently, in a move, to re-define terms that are not scientifically precise, The India Meteorological
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 Department (IMD) has officially expunged the word “drought” from its vocabulary.
So presently, if India’s monsoon rainfall were to dip below 10 per cent of the normal and span between
20 and 40 per cent of the country’s area, it would be called a “deficient” year instead of an “All India
Drought Year” as the IMD’s older manuals would say. A more severe instance, where the deficit exceeds
40 per cent and would have been called an “All India Severe Drought Year,” will now be a “Large Deficient
Year”.
The IMD has never used the term “drought” in its forecasts and has maintained that declaring droughts
was the prerogative of States.
The agency had several definitions of drought: meteorological, hydrological and agricultural, and it was
quite possible for a State to have a meteorological drought — 90 per cent shortfall of the average
monsoon rainfall — but not suffer an agricultural drought —if the shortfall didn’t affect more than 20 per
cent of the State’s area. Declaring a drought has never been the IMD’s mandate and, in fact, not even
that of the Central government. That’s because drought is not a measure of productivity (agricultural).
Officials said the change in the nomenclature would not practically influence the way States viewed
droughts.

3.(a) Examine the role of Air masses in the polar front theory, elaborating the latter. 20
Approach:
1. briefly explain fronts ( preferably with the barocline diag) and their relation to temperate cyclone.
2. Add how polar front theory, elaborating the role of air masses, explains these cyclones. Support with
appropriate diag.s
Answer:
A front is a ‘A term describing a sloping boundary plane or surface separating two AIRMASSES that exibit
different meterological properties or characteristics.’ Strahler and Strahler define it as ‘A surface of
context between two unlike air masses’
Fronts lead to creation of temperate cyclones. The origin of temperate cyclones can be explained in
terms of Polar front theory.
Polar front theory:
The concept of Polar front was given by FITZROY in 1863. The Polar front theory was developed by
Vilhelm Bjerknes. Jacob Bjerknes and Solberg for temperate cyclone formation.
As per the theory:
 When air masses having different temperature and moisture properties meet, they do not mix readily,
but maintain a boundary surface of discontinuity for some time.
 Warmer, less dense air is forced aloft over the colder mass.
 The sloping boundary surface between contrasting air masses is called a front.
 A front, which is 3 dimensional, extends vertically as well as horizontally and has a typical thickness of 50
to 100 kms.
 Frontal zone always slopes upward over the cold air mass, and is also called BAROCLINIC zone (figure 1).
 The discovery of properties related to Baroclinic zone led to BAROCLINIC WAVE THEORY which provides
more satisfactory explanation of temperate cyclone formation.
 Between the prevailing westerlies, and the Polar easterlies lies a more or less permanent, undulating
zone known as the Polar front, along which most temperate cyclones originate.
Stages of development of a temperate cyclone:
fig. (2A – 2F) here
1. A warm and cold air mass are present side by side separated by a quasi – stationary front. (fig. 2A). It is
the initial stage.
2. A wave has formed on the front and a centre of low pressure is developing at the apex of wave. This is
the beginning of the cyclonic circulation. (figure 2B)
3. The young cyclone continues developing. Here, the warm sector is well defined between the cold and
ward fronts. (figure 2C)
4. The cold front overtakes the warm from and the system is set to occlude. (figure 2D)
5. The occlusion process continues, the warm air is lifted, to higher levels. (figure 2E) and precipitation
intensifies as the cyclone comes into existence.

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 6. Eventually, the polar front is re-established (figure 2F) and with this dissolving stage for cyclone starts.
Still a pool of warm moist air remains aloft. As the moisture content of the pool is reduced, precipitation
dies out and the clouds gradually dissolve.

3.(b) What are the factors which cause winds and what are the different types of winds on earth? How do
they impact the climate and weather?
Approach:
1. Discuss the general factors like temperature, pressure, coriolis force, topography etc.
2. Add the specific factors from the perspective of planetary, regional and local winds.
3. Discuss how the planetary and regional winds largely impact the climate and how the local winds mostly
impact the weather.
4. Add some of the diag.s given below to support the answer.

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Answer:
Winds, are the movement of air in a horizontal or near horizontal manner over the surface of the earth. It
could be, on the basis of scale ( where and how much area of the earth it covers) , classified into
1. Global or planetary winds ( part of primary circulation),
2. regional winds (part of secondary circulation) and
3. local winds (part of tertiary circulation).

1. Planetary winds system are related to the general arrangement of pressure belts on the earth’s surface.
Hence the 7 pressure belts ( thermally or dynamically created) lead to these 6 planetary winds over the
surface of the earth.
The well recognized Planetary winds are:
Trade winds blowing from the sub tropical high pressure belts to equatorial low pressure belts.
Prevailing Westerlies blowing from sub tropical high pressure belts to sub Polar low pressure belts.
Polar Easterlies blowing from polar high pressure belts to sub polar Low pressure belts.
2. Regional winds such as monsoon winds, winds in cyclones are examples of secondary circulation. These
are created by different mechanisms.
Monsoons are an outcome of multiple factors such as large scale land and sea breeze, ITCZ shifting in
summers and winters, role of Tibetan plateau as a heat source, Himalayas as a physical divide, low
pressure conditions in the North Western parts of the subcontinents Etc.
Temperate cyclones are due to the Airmasses and related movement and the associated front formation,
which brings in changes in pressure conditions along the baroclinic surface associated winds.
Tropical cyclones have high velocity winds as an outcome of very low pressure regions in the center and
the role of other factors such as ITCZ, coriolis force, eye wall created due low pressure and spiraling
winds and other related factors.
3. Local winds also called named winds blow in narrow areas affecting them by influencing the weather,
human health and their socio-economic activities. They are confined to the lower levels of the
troposphere. They are distinctive as a result of their characteristics of temperature and humidity.
They are in general developed as a result of local temperature, pressure and humidity variations.
The local winds could be grouped under the below mentioned types. They are types of Tertiary
atmospheric circulation.
1. Land and Sea breeze are rather diurnal in nature with sea breeze setting in with relatively warmer land
adjacent to sea, causing lower pressure and wind flowing coastward. In nights sea remains relatively
warmer as land looses its heat faster, hence reversing of winds as land breeze.
fig. 2 & 3 here
2. Mountain and Valley On mountain sides under a clear night sky the higher land radiates heat and is
cooled, in turn cooling the air in contact with it. This cool densed air flows down the mountain slopes as
mountain breeze sometimes also reffered as katabatic winds. These can produce temperature inversions
by morning where air in valley bottom are colder than hillside. On warm runny days, the heating of
mountain slopes may generate an upslope flow of air called a valley breeze also called as Anabatic winds.
3. Gravity (Drainage) wind:
They result from the drainage of cool air off high plateaus or ice fields. Critchfield calls Katabatic winds
also as gravity winds. Since they are flowing from mountain ranges into valleys, they show little relation
to the isobars. They occur, with variable strength in all mountainous regions, particularly where
mountains are close to the coasts. They may be classified as,
a) Depression winds:
Some important hot depression winds are. Brickfielder, Ginbli, Harmattan, Karaburn, Khamsin,
Leveche, Loo, Sirocio and Zonde.
Some depression cold winds are Blizzzard, Bora, Buran, mistral, Norther, Pampero, Purga, southerly
Burster.
b) Descending winds: Among the descending hot winds Berg, Fohn, Chinook Norwester, Semoon, Santa
Anna.
About drainage winds, it should be noted that in numerous instances these winds are associated
with particular storm or pressure conditions with some regularity and are characteristic of the
climate of a given locality. Some of them bring abrupt changes in temperature or moisture conditions
also.
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 4. Convection winds:
In some hot deserts these are violent convection currents caused by intense heating, and these produce
conviction, winds which give rise to dust and sand storms.
The dust devils in Sahara affecting parts of West Africa as also Simoon, also in Sahara are conviction
winds.
Impact of these winds on climate and weather could be discussed for the three groups of winds, depenidn on
their annual , seasonal and diurnal cycle.

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3.(c) Elaborate the major types of tides and the tidal formation process. Also bring forth the impact of tides.
Approach:
1. Explain the types on the basis of frequency, height of tides and also proximity to moon and sun.
2. Enumerate how it is useful.
Answer:
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from time to time. Tides may
be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one day or based on their height.
1.1.1.1 Tides based on frequency
1. Semi-diurnal tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day.
The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.
2. Diurnal tide: There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high or low
tides are approximately of the same height.

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 3. Mixed tide: Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally occur along
the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.

1.1.1.2 Tides based on height

The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of sun and moon
with respect to the earth:
1. Spring tides: On full moon and new moon days, the Sun, the Moon and the Earth are almost in the same
line. On these days, the Sun and the Moon exert their combined gravitational force on the Earth. Thus on
these two days the high tides are the highest and are known as spring tides. The height of a spring tide is
about 20 per cent more than the normal high tide. They occur twice every month.
2. Neap tides: On half Moon days (i.e. first and last quarter phases of the Moon), the Sun and the Moon are
at right angles to the centre of the Earth. The tide producing forces of the Moon and the Sun, work in
opposite directions and they partly cancel each other's force. In such cases, the high tide is lower than
the normal and low tide is higher than the normal. The difference is about 20 per cent. This is known as
the neap tide.

Tides based on proximity of Moon and Sun

 Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides
occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal. Two weeks later, when the moon is
farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitation force is limited and the tidal ranges are less than
their average heights.
 When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also
much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides. When the earth is farthest from the sun
(aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much less than average.
Importance of tides
1. Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation. Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours
near rivers and within estuaries having shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats
from entering into the harbour. Large ships enter the harbour of a shallow sea during high tide and they
go back also at the time of high tide. London and I have become important ports due to the tidal nature
of the mouths of the Thames and Hugli rivers respectively.
2. The river mouths and estuaries are kept clean of sedimentation due to the action of tidal currents. The
force of the outgoing tide and the river current carries the silt away to the open sea. This helps in
navigation.
3. The tidal force can also be used as a source for generating electricity. A 3 MW tidal power project at
Durgaduani in Sunderbans of West Bengal is under way.
4. The inflow of the salty tidal water, especially along the coast of cold countries, retards the process of
freezing and prevents the harbours from becoming ice-bound.

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 5. The fishing industry is helped by the rhythm of high and low tides. The fishermen mostly sail out to the
open sea during low tides and return to the coast at high tides.
4.(a) Bringing out the difference between precipitation processes and types , differentiate between Ice
crystal and Collision and coalescence Processes.
Approach:
1. Differentiate processes such as orographic , convectional, cyclonic from types such as hail, sleet, rain,
snow, drizzle etc.
2. Discuss Ice crystal theory of colder regions from Collision and coalescence theory of the warmer regions.
Answer:
Precipitation can be classified in two ways:
(a) According to the physical state ( Types) of the falling water.
(b) On the basis of the process which leads to its formation.
According to Physical state, the following types are commonly known:
i) Rain falls from clouds formed in rising air when temperature, at least at lower levels, is above 0 C.
ii) Snowfall is precipitation that begin to fall as snow crystals and they grow in size or remain the same size
during their descending motion and reach the ground as snow.
iii) Sleet is rain drops that freeze as it passes from warm air through a cold layer of air near the ground
surface to form ice pallets.
iv) Drizzle consists of numerous uniformly minute droplets of water that sum to float in response to the
slightest movement of air. It may fall continuously from low stratus – type clouds, never from connective
clouds, and often accompanies fog and poor visibility. It is also some times called mist.
v) Hail is formed when strong, rising convective currents, as in a cumulonimbus cloud, carry the raindrops
formed by intense condensation and coalescences of water droplets to higher levels where they freeze.
These frozen drops fall again and take on a coat of ice. Repeated ascent and descent results in concentric
layers of alternately clear and crystalline ice. Hailstones weighing more than a kilogram have been
recorded.
Hail rarely falls at high latitudes, in the tropics it is most common in highlands but occasionally occur
even at sea level.
vi) Freesing rain, also known as glaze or ice storm is formed if rain while falling though subfreezing air,
supercools and freezes as it strikes cold surface. Rime and haze are some other forms of precipitation.
According to the process, that leads to its formation, precipitation could be divided into following types:
i) Convectional or convective precipitation occurs when a parcel of moist air is heated, it becomes lighter
and moves up. As condensation acts in, leading to release of latent heat, the moving air is forced up.
Precipitation from such process is convectional. It causes formation of vertical clouds.
Fig. 1
ii) Orographic Precipitation occurs when a mass of air is forced upward over a mountain range. If the air is
moist enough and the mountain range is high enough, then precipitation will occur, which is called
orographic precipitation.
Fig. 2
iii) Cyclonic Precipitation occurs when air is forced upward through the movement of air masses. Air masses,
while moving west to east in mid-latitudes, over take one another. When this happens, one of them,
usually the warm air mass is forced aloft. This causes cyclonic conditions along the front, hence, causing
cyclonic precipitation, also called frontal precipitation or convergence precipitation.
Fig. 3

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 The two precipitation theories
Once condensation has been initiated, the droplets produced by condensation are very small in size.
Hence, the growth of these droplets into sizes required for precipitation to occur have been explained
with the help of 2 theories related to precipitation.
1. Ice–Crystal theory, given by T. Bergeron, explains that in colder clouds, ice crystals form and grow in a
cloud that contains a mixture of both ice crystals and water droplets. Here, the ice crystals take up water
vapour and grow by deposition and the super cooled water already existing in the cold cloud, loose
water vapour by evaporation and shrink.
The ice crystals hence, grow into snow particles, which can become heavy enough to fall from the clouds.
If they fall through cold air. They may reach the ground as snowflakes; if they pass through warmer air,
they melt to fall as raindrops. It applies well to mid & high latitude precipitations.
Importantly, this theory does not explain tropical precipitation from clouds having temperatures above
freezing point throughout, nor can it explain the drizzle that falls from relatively thin warm stratus.
Hence, we have the second theory explaining these.
2. Collision – coalescences theory, by E.G. Bonen, where he states that in warm clouds, fine water droplets
condense, collide and coalesce into larger and larger droplets that can fall as rain.
This process occurs when saturated air rises rapidly, and cooling forces additional condensation. Cloud
droplets grow by added condensation and attain some size. In collisions with one another, the droplets
grow in diameter, to size of droplets in a drizzle. Further, collisions and coalescence increase drop size
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 and yield rain. This type of precipitation formation occurs in warm clouds typical of the equatorial and
tropical zones.
Here it should be noted that the fall of raindrops through a cold air layer, results in the freezing of rain
and produces pallets of ice, commonly referred to as sleet in North America. (British refers sleet as
mixture of snow and rain).
4.(b) Elaborate how the seabed region is different from ‘underwater continental regions’ of the global
ocean.
Approach:
1. Give the difference in terms of part of oceanic and continental part.
2. Give the major and minor landforms and general topographical features with diag.s .
3. Also could mention the difference in resources of the two regions.
Answer:
Briefly said, the ‘underwater continental region’ comprises of the continental shelf, slope and rise. It
might have smaller features like, submarine canyons, etc. Seabed region comprises of the deep ocean
floors and the associated features like abyssal plains, Oceanic rise, Mid oceanic ridges, trenches and the
associated smaller features like Ridges, guyots, etc.
Modern study of the topography of the ocean basins was greatly advanced through the work of Bruce C.
Heszen. He gave a system of submarine (i.e. of the oceans) landform classification.
According to him, the topographic features of the ocean basin fall into three major divisions (like the 2nd
order relief of Salisbury)
i) Continental margins 

ii) Ocean basin floors. 

iii) Mid – oceanic ridges. 

i) Continental margins are also further divided (Put fig.1 here ):
a) Continental shelf:
with depths upto 200 m, and width ranging from almost non existent ( as off the
coast of Chile) to upto 1280 km (off north of Siberia) have average depth of 75 m and cover 7.6% area of
ocean basins.

b) Continental Slope:
At the edge of continental shelf, the seaward slope becomes considerably steep.
This steep slope, which descends to a depth of about 3600 m. from the mean sea level is known as
continental slope. The continental blocks are supposed to end at the site of the continental slope, i.e.
end of continental crust. They occupy 8.5% of ocean basins.

c) Continental rise:
This makes the gentle transition from the outer edge of the continental slope to the
abyssal plain. They are usually associated with passive margins.
ii) Ocean basin floors (Abyssal plains):
They are flat, cold sediment covered ocean floors between the continental rise and the oceanic ridge at a
depth of 3700 to 5500 m. They are extremely flat and featureless plains.
iii) Mid–oceanic ridges (submarine ridges)
They are mountain ranges in the ocean basin, a few hundred km’s in width and thousands of kms in
length. These ridges of high relief form the longest mountain system on the earth. The total length is
more than 64,000 km as per Strahler & Strahler. There summits might rise about sea level to form
islands.
Another major topographic feature in the ocean basin are
iv) Trenches:
A trench is an arc shaped depression in the deep–ocean floor. These flat bottomed trenches in the ocean
floor occur where a converging oceanic plate is subducted. The distribution of major trenches is along
plate margins.
Some lower order of topographic features of the ocean basin are submarine canyons, sea knoll, Guyot or
table mount, trough, bank, shoal etc.
Could briefly discuss the resources of the two regions being different, as shown in the figure below

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4.(c) Explain what is meant by Channel Morphology and what are the ways in which its understanding could
be useful?
Approach:
1. Give a brief description as in the first paragraph below.
2. Discuss some major aspects and support it with some diag.s
3. Discuss how it can help in ensuring sustainable use of the river.
Answer:
Channel morphology refers to scientific study of the ‘Trough-Like’ form which contains a river, i.e., a
channel, in very general terms. So it describes, explains and analyses the origin, Evolution, form,
classification and distribution of river channels. These have been, further distributed under some broad
categories for proper understanding.
These could be loosely said to be,
1. Fluid Dynamics : deals with discharge and velocity, resistance of stream bed or bank to the flow of water,
2. Channel character : includes Hydraulic geometry, channel geometry, channel types and channel pattern etc.
3. Sediment load: is transported in 3 ways as given below:
(a) Suspension load which are fine particles of clay and silt. They make the stream brown.
(b) Dissolved/Solution load, such as acid in water dissolving soluble bedrock (e.g.: limestone).
 Bed load Saltation such as pebbles, sand and gravel.
 Traction such as cobbles and boulders.
4. Bed and Bank material influence channel morphology in two way mainly. If such material is resistant and
hard they restrict downward and lateral erosion, restricting the width or river channel. If such material is soft
and less resistant, the late of erosion will be greater and so will be the channel shape and width.

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 Usefulness of a better understanding of channel morphology could be in protecting, preserving and
conserving the river and associated resources, ensuring sustainable use of resources such as sand, gravel
etc., in better building of dams and reservoirs, run-of- the-river projects etc.
NOTE: Some of these diag.s can be encorporated

5.(a) Elucidate the constructive roles of volcanoes, specially in the formation of the atmosphere, since the
beginning. Also examine how it still impacts the weather and climate.
Approach:
1. Discuss how volcanoes are a part of a ongoing process of differential stratification, on planets.
2. How it lead to formation of crust, atmosphere and also oceans.
3. Explain further the formation of atmosphere.
4. Finally add how volcanoes still impact the climate and weather.
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Answer:
The volcanic activity on the earth, as in other celestial bodies, is a mechanism by which the planet erupts
gas, water vapour and other molten material from inside the earth, as part in in a larger process of
differential stratification. Hence gradually the lighter material are thrown outward and through other
processes (plate subduction) the denser material move towards the earth’s center. In the process, the
volcanic erupted material lead to formation of oceanic and continental crust and other major features
like volcanic mountains, islands, plateaus along with similar formations in the oceans. They also lead to
formation and addition of gases and to water vapour to the atmsosphere, in the process forming and
changing the atmosphere.
Volcanoes and Atmosphere
Most scientists believe that this early atmosphere, rich in Hydrogen and Helium, escaped into space from
Earth’s hot surface.
A second, more dense atmosphere, however, gradually enveloped Earth as gases from molten rock
within its hot interior escaped through volcanoes and steam vents. We assume that volcanoes spewed
out the same gases then as they do today: mostly water vapor (about 80 percent), carbon dioxide
(about 10 percent), and up to a few percent nitrogen. These gases (mostly water vapor and carbon
dioxide) probably created Earth’s second atmosphere.
As millions of years passed, the constant outpouring of gases from the hot interior—known as
outgassing—provided a rich supply of water vapor, which formed into clouds. Rain fell upon Earth for
many thousands of years, forming the rivers, lakes, and oceans of the world. During this time, large
amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) were dissolved in the oceans. This led to evolution of the atmosphere
to the present level.

Erupting volcanoes can send tons of particles into the atmosphere, along with vast amounts of water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
Volcanoes still impact the weather and climate by erupting more gases and water vapour along with
dust and suspended particles which play a role in affecting insolation and hence the related heat and
light and also terrestrial radiation. Suspended particles from large eruptions can stay in atmosphere for
long time having sustained effects, as in case of Krakatoa and Mt. St. Helens eruptions.

5.(b) Examine the evolution of the Laws of the seas and briefly elaborate their current status. 15
Approach:
1. Give some background from the middle centuries.
2. Enlist the developments of the last century and the UNCLOS evolution.
3. Conclude with the present status of UNCLOS III.
Answer:
‘Freedom of the Seas’ concept dating from the 17th century.- national rights were limited to a specified
belt of water extending from a nations coast lines, usually three nautical miles, according to the ‘Cannon

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 shot’ rule developed by Dutch Jurist C.V. Bynkershock. All waters beyond national boundaries were
considered international waters’ – free to all nations, but belonging to none of them.
Effort to regulate the use of the oceans in a single set of laws finally culminated with the adoption of the
1982 U.N. convention on the Law of the Sea, which has gained nearly universal acceptance since its entry
into force in 1994.
Background of UNCLOS:
 1956, U.N. held the UNCLOS – I at Geneva, Switzerland resulting in 4 treaties, and concluded in 1958.
 1960, U.N. held the UNCLOS – II, however, it did not result in any new agreement.
 The issue of varying claims of territorial waters was raised in U.N. in 1967.
 1973 the UNCLOS – III, was convened in New York. With more than 160 nations participating the
conference lasted until 1982, with signing of the convention at Montego Bay, Jamaica.
 It came into force in 1994.
The current status is that the UNCLOS – III is the law in effect.
UNCLOS –III: It replaces the older and weaker ‘freedom of the sea’ concept. For the first time, it provides, a
universal legal frame work for the
 Rational management of marine resources &
 Their conservation for future generations.
These U.N.C. Law of the Sea defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world’s
oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of the marine natural
resources. 158 countries and the European community have joined in the convention.

5.(c) What leads to the geomagnetism and what are its effects? 10
Approach:
1. Explain how rotation and internal energy of the source of magnetism of various planets.
2. Discuss how the different layers of earth add up the net magnetic field, with the core producing the
initial field.
3. Enlist some of the effects of the field.
Answer:
All planets of the solar system have magnetism due to the rotational effect and the internal energy of
the planets.
The Earth’s magnetic field is both expansive and complicated. It is generated by electric currents (moving
charged particles) that are deep within the Earth and high above the surface. All of these currents
contribute to the total geomagnetic field. It would be a daunting task to try to summarize every single
aspect of the subject of geomagnetism.
In the outer core the main part of the geomagnetic field is sustained by a naturally occurring dynamo,
also called the geo-dynamo. It is said to be a self sustaining dynamo, as discussed later.
In the mantle currents can be induced by time-depended variations in the ambient magnetic field. Simply
said, as the mantle molten material moves in the existing magnetic field of the core, current can be
induced in mantle, which can cause its own magnetic field.
In the crust the field has both induced ( due to mantle and core magnetic field) and permanent ( due to
existing magnetic material) components.
In the ionosphere and magnetosphere electric currents are sustained through a complicated interaction
with the Sun, the heliomagnetic (solar magnetic) field, and the solar wind of charged particles.
So the magnetic field at any place on the earth is a sum of the fields created by all these factors.
Paleomagnetic measurements of rocks indicate that the Earth has processed a magnetic field for at least
3.5 billion years.
Without some sort of regenerative process the geomagnetic field would vanish in about 15,000 years.
Therefore, the dynamo in the core must be regenerative, and it is generally thought that this
regenerative process relies on the principles of magnetic induction. In effect, the core is naturally
occurring electric generator, where convection kinetic energy, driven by chemical differentiation and the
heat of internal radioactivity, is converted into electrical-magnetic energy.

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 The Dynamo Theory is widely used to explain how the Earth’s magnetic field is sustained. As per this
theory
1. When conducting fluids flows across an existing magnetic field, electric currents are induced, which in
turn creates another magnetic field.
2. When this magnetic field reinforces the original magnetic field, a dynamo is created which sustains itself.
Effects of earth’s magnetic field
1. The Magnetosphere, hence created, acts as the first line of defense, of the earth from solar charged
particles.
2. It is used by some birds and animals for navigation during migration, also called as biomagnetism.
3. Used by human beings for a long time for navigation, specially in the oceans.
4. Lead to creation of the spectacular phenomenon of Aurora ( Borealis and Australis) due to interaction of
solar charged winds and earth’s magentoshere.

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