CHAPTER 3

THEORY OF TURBOMACHINES
Centrifugal and axial flow machines are two of the most frequently used types of fluid
machines in the CPI, commonly known as turbomachines. The theory of turbomachines
relates the geometry of centrifugal and axial flow machines (pumps, fans and
compressors) to their performance. Hence it helps the engineer to rationally and
analytically decide on issues related to selection, installation, operation and
maintenance of these machines.

3.1. VELOCITY TRIANGLES

The calculation of specific work, capacity and other performance characteristics of a centrifugal
machine running at a given speed depends on the velocity of the flow medium inside the fluid
machine. The flow medium inside the impeller rotates with the impeller and also moves in radial
direction in centrifugal machines and in axial direction in axial flow machines guided by the blades.
Hence the absolute velocity of the flow medium at any point, k, inside the impeller is the vector
sum of the velocity of the moving frame (impeller) and the relative velocity of the fluid with the
impeller.

The velocity of a fluid element relative to a stationary frame (the casing) is called absolute velocity
(c). The velocity of the fluid element relative to the rotating impeller is known as the relative
velocity (w). The velocity of a given point on the impeller is called tangential velocity or peripheral
velocity(u). As stated earlier the absolute velocity of a fluid element is obtained by the vector
addition of the tangential velocity and the relative velocity of the fluid element.

c k  u k  wk (3.1)

1
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

The magnitude and direction of tangential velocity of the impeller at any point can be obtained if
the speed of rotation of the impeller and the distance of the point from the
center of the impeller is known. Figure 3.1 is used to illustrate this concept. Equation 3.2 gives the
magnitude of the tangential velocity.

k
uk

Figure 3.1 Tangential velocity at point k

u k  πD k n (3.2)
where Dk is the diameter of the circle passing through point k

If the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the flow medium relative to the rotating impeller is
known the absolute velocity will be obtained by vector addition of the two. The resulting triangle is
known as the velocity triangle of the flow medium at point k.

wk
ck
k k
uk

Figure 3.2 The velocity triangle at point k

In centrifugal impeller calculations the most important points at which we have to calculate the
velocities are just before the fluid enters the blade channel (point 0) and just after it leaves the blade
channel (point 3). The velocities and flow angles at the inlet and outlet of the blade channels are
assigned the subscript 0 and 3.

Dimensions related to the geometry of the blade and tangential velocities at the inlet and outlet are
given subscripts 1 and 2 respectively. Therefore the velocity triangle of the flow medium at the inlet
of the blade channel may be represented as shown in Figure 3.3.

2
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

w0

c0
 
u

Figure 3.3 The velocity triangle at the inlet of the blade channel

c0- The absolute velocity of the flow medium at the inlet of the blade channel
w0- The relative velocity of the flow medium at the inlet of the blade channel
u1- The tangential velocity of the impeller at the inlet of the blade channel
0- The angle between the tangential velocity and the relative velocity at the inlet of the
blade channel (also called flow angle at the inlet)
0- The angle between the absolute velocity and the tangential velocity at the inlet of the
blade
Similarly the velocity triangle of the flow medium at the exit of the blade channel may be
represented as in Figure 3.4.

w3
c3


u

Figure 3.4 The velocity triangle at the exit of the blade channel
Where
c3- The absolute velocity of the flow medium at the exit of the blade channel
w3- The relative velocity of the flow medium at the exit of the blade channel
u2- The tangential velocity of the impeller at the exit of the blade channel
3- The angle between relative velocity of the flow medium and tangential velocity at the
exit of the blade channel
3- The angle between the absolute velocity and the tangential velocity at the exit of the
blade
Various dimensions of the impeller are measured and represented as shown in Figure 3.5.
D1 and D2 – Diameters of circles passing through the edges of the blades at the inlet and
exit respectively.
b1 and b2 – Width of the blades at the inlet and exit.
1 and 2 – The blade angles measured at the inlet and exit (See Figure 3.5) respectively
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

b2

b1

D2
D1

Figure 3.5 Main dimensions of the blade

Note that the blade angle is measured by drawing two tangent lines: one tangent to the blade profile
and another tangent the circle at the tip of the blade. The line which is tangent to the circle should
be extended backwards and the angle is measured from this line in the direction of rotation.

3.2. THE SPECIFIC WORK OF THE BLADE -Yblade

In turbomachines the active elements that transfer mechanical energy to the fluid are the blades.
They do so by transferring torque from the shaft to the fluid inside the blade channel. The net
torque transferred is the difference between the torques just before the fluid enters the blade channel
(Point 0) and just after it leaves the blade channel (Point 3). The total power transferred by the
blade can then be obtained by multiplying the total torque by the speed of rotation of the impeller,
. The specific work of the blade (Yblade) is obtained by dividing this power by the mass flow rate of
the flow medium.

Euler’s Equation of Turbomachines

i. Centrifugal Impellers

Figure 3.6 The velocity triangles at point 0 and point 3

Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

 Net Torque of the blade   Rate of change of   Rate of change of 

    l 2   l1
 on the flow medium   momentum at 3   Momentum at 0 
 d (m c3)   d ( m c 0) 
T blade    l2    l1 (3.3)
 dt   dt 
 dm   dm 
 c 3  l 2  c0 l1
 dt   dt 
Tblade  m (c3 l 2  c0 l1)
But l2= R2 cos 3 and l1= R1 cos 0 (3.4)

Using (3.4) in (3.3)

T blade  m (c3 R 2 cos α3  c0 R1 cos α3)
(3.5)
 m (c3U R 2  c0U R 2)
Where c0u and c3u are the tangential components of the absolute velocity at the inlet and exit
respectively. The power delivered by the blade to the flow medium is
N blade  Tblade  m Y blade (3.6)

In chapter 2 it was shown that the power delivered to a flow medium is the product of the specific
work and the mass flow rate. Hence,
m Y blade  m (c3U u 2  c0U u1)
Therefore
Y blade  u 2 c3u  u1 c0u (3.7)
or
u 2 c3u  u1 c0u
H blade  (3.8)
g
Equations 3.7 and 3.8 are known as the Fundamental Equation of Turbo-machinery or Euler's
Equation of Turbo-machinery. Euler’s equation is true for both axial and centrifugal machines. In
the following section the derivation for axial flow machines is shown.

ii. Axial Flow Impellers

In an axial flow impeller, fluid particles leave the impeller at the same radius at which they enter.
As the flow through the impellers is symmetrical to the axis, it is uniform on any random section of
a cylinder. Therefore it is more convenient to develop this cylinder on a plane in order to study the
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

action of the impeller. On such developments, vanes appear as a cascade equally spaced at distance
t= D/z referred to as pitch, where z is the number of blades and D is the diameter of the cylindrical
section.

s
t
a
t
o
r
(
v
a
n
e
s
)
V
B

r
o
t
o
r
(
b
l
a
d
e
s
)
Figure 3.7b Development of blades and guide
vanes .V- guide vanes , B-rotor blades.

Figure 3.7a Axial flow impeller

The various diameters relevant for design and analysis of axial flow impellers are the tip diameter
Do, the mean effective diameter Dm and the hub diameter Dh shown in Figure 3.8.
Do
Dm
Dh

Figure 3.8 Diameters of an axial flow impeller

The mean effective diameter divides the flow through the impeller into two equal parts. The head
and flow rate can be directly calculated using this diameter.

D m  D0
1  v 2
(3.9)
2
Where Dm = the mean effective diameter
D0 = the tip diameter
v=Hub diameter to tip diameter ratio
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

The velocity triangles at the inlet and exit of an axial flow impeller are different from the
corresponding velocity triangles of a centrifugal impeller. Since the flow area does not change
axially, the flow velocities com and c3m, of axial flow impellers is the same at the inlet and exit of
axial flow impellers (continuity equation), .i.e., cm1=cm2=cm. The same is true for the tangential
velocity. Therefore u1=u2=u.

w3 c3
cm
u

Rotation

u
cm
w0

Figure 3.9 Velocity triangles of an axial flow impeller

It is common to draw the velocity triangles at the inlet and exit together because it clearly shows the
fact that the tangential and flow velocities are equal at the inlet and exit of the machine. Figure 3.10
shows such a diagram for an axial inlet flow (no pre-rotation).

w3 cm w 0
c3 cm
3
0
u
Figure 3.10 Inlet and exit velocity triangles drawn together

To obtain the Euler’s equation for axial flow impellers consider the velocity triangles of an axial
flow impeller given by Figure 3.10. Since the flow velocities at the inlet and exit are the same, the
force exerted by the rotating blades on the fluid imparts only tangential velocity to the fluid.
Therefore, the force of the blade can be calculated from the rate of change of momentum of the
flow medium, considering only the change in the tangential component of the absolute velocity.
Fblade  m (c3u  c0u ) (3.10)

The power transferred by the blade to the flow medium, therefore is

Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

N blade  Tblde  m (c3u  c0u )  r  

N blade  m (c3u  c0u )u (3.11)

It is obtained in chapter three that

N blade  m Yblade (3.12)

From (3.11) and (3.12)

Yblade  u (c3u  c0u ) (3.13a)

u (c3u  c0u )
H blade  (3.13b)
g
Equations 3.13a and 3.13b are The Euler’s equations for axial flow impellers. The Euler’s equation
enables to calculate the specific energy (head) of an impeller if the velocity triangles at the inlet and
exit of the blade channel can be determined.

3.3. THE CAPACITY –Q’

The capacity of an impeller can be calculated from the product of the flow area and the meridian
component of the absolute velocity, which is the velocity normal to the flow area.

For Centrifugal Impellers

For any given point k in the blade channel the volume flow rate can be calculated by the formula:
Q'   Dk bk ckm (3.14)
Hence at the entrance of the blade channels (just outside the channels)
Q'   D1 b1 c0 m (3.15)

At the exist of the blade channels (just outside the channel)

Q '   D 3 b3 c 3 m (3.16)
Axial Flow Impellers

Q'  D 2
0  D 2h c m (3.17)
4


D0 1  v c m
2 2
Q'  (3.18)
4
Where
v= Hub diameter to tip diameter ratio
D0= Tip diameter
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

3.4. THE VANE CONGRUENT FLOW

In the previous section we developed equations for calculating the head (specific energy) and
capacity of centrifugal and axial flow impellers. However, these equations cannot be used directly
to calculate the mentioned quantities because the velocities involved c0m, c3m, c0U, c3U cannot be
determined easily. It is known that the absolute velocity is the vector sum of the tangential velocity
and the relative velocity. The tangential velocity can be easily determined at any point if the speed
of rotation of the impeller and the diameter of the circle passing through the point is known.
However, neither the direction nor the magnitude of the relative velocity of the flow medium can be
determined easily.

This problem can be solved by first assuming that the blades perfectly guide the fluid so that the
direction of the relative velocity is the same as the direction of the blades and then considering the
deviation from this assumed flow separately. This ideal flow, which assumes perfect guiding of the
fluid by the blades, is known as vane congruent flow. According to this assumption:
1. The relative path of a fluid element of the flow medium is congruent to the blade course.
2. The impeller passages are completely filled with actively flowing fluid at all times (no dead
zone).
3. The velocities of the fluid elements at similar points along the flow lines are the same.
By assuming vane congruent flow we analyze the velocity only inside the vane channel, since the
blades will guide the fluid only if it is inside the channel. Therefore we replace the velocities just
outside the blade channel ( 0 and 3) by the velocities just inside the blade channel (1 and 2) in vane
congruent flow. Figure 3.11 shows these points of interest.

2
1
0

Figure 3.11 Entrance and Exit of Blade Channels

Nomenclature
0: Point just outside, at the inlet of the blade channel
1: Point just inside, at the inlet of the blade channel
2: Point just inside, at the exit of the blade cannel
3: Point just outside, at the exit of the blade channel
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

With vane congruent flow assumption the velocity triangle at the inlet is constructed with the flow
angle the same as the inlet blade angle 1 as shown in Figure 3.12.

w
c1


U
Figure 3.12 Velocity triangle at the inlet of the vane channel (Vane congruent flow)

Figure 3.13 shows the velocity triangle at the exit of the blade channel with vane congruent flow
assumption. Note that the subscript 3 is replaced with 2 to indicate that the velocity triangle is
drawn with vane congruent flow assumption. The flow angles in vane congruent flow 1 and 2 are
the same as the blade angles due to the assumption of perfect guidance of the flow stream by the
blades.

c2 w2
c2m
2 2
c2u

U2
Figure3.13 Velocity triangle at the exit of the vane channel (Vane Congruent)

3.4.1. Yblade, and Q’ when the Geometry and Speed of the Impeller are Given

a. Centrifugal Impellers
The specific work of the blade and the capacity calculated for a centrifugal impeller when it runs at
a given speed assuming vane congruent flow are represented by.
Yblade, = The specific energy of the blades for vane congruent flow assumption.
Q’= The flow rate for vane congruent flow assumption.

The tangential velocity at the inlet of the blade channel,

u1  D1 n
In most common cases the fluid is assumed to enter the blade channel without pre-rotation, hence
c0u=c1u=0. However, it should be noted that as the fluid approaches the blade channel it comes in
contact with the shaft and this tends to rotate the fluid with the wheel a little. Therefore the above
assumption is not exactly true, but makes the calculation far much simpler without much loss in
accuracy. In some special designs, a device is placed before the blade channel to give the flow
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

medium a certain pre-rotation before it enters the blade channel. The reason will be discussed in
coming sections.

When a certain pre-rotation is assumed it is given in a form known as pre-rotation factor r, defined
by Equation 3.19.
c0u
 r  1 (3.19)
u1
In such cases
cou  (1   r ) u1

For vane congruent flow

c1u  (1   r ) u1 (3.20)

c1 w1
c1m

 
c1u
u1

Figure 3.14 Velocity triangle at the inlet of the blade channel (Vane Congruent)
From the velocity triangle in Figure 3.14

c1m  (u1  c1u ) tan 1 (3.21)

From (3.20) and (3.21)

c1m   r u1 tan 1 (3.22)

Note that when there is no pre rotation r=1

Once c1m is obtained Equation 3.23 can be used to calculate Q’ with vane congruent flow
assumption.
Q'  D1 b1 c1m (3.23)

D1, b1,  1 are obtained from the geometry of the impeller.

Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

Exit of Blade Channel

u 2  D2 n
Q'
c2m 
D2 b2

c2 w2
c2m
2 
c2u
u2

Figure 3.15 Velocity triangle at the exit of the blade channel (Vane Congruent)

From figure 3.15

c 2u  u 2  c 2 m cot  2

Y blade,  u 2 c 2u  u1c1u (3.24)

Example 3.1 Centrifugal Impellers

The dimensions of the impellers of a centrifugal pump rotating at 1450 rpm are given in Figure 3.16
determine the volume flow rate and head of the impeller for vane congruent flow.
i) Assuming radial inlet flow (i.e.) no pre-rotation
ii) With a pre-rotation of r=0.8

Figure 3.16 Geometry of impeller

Solution

1450
U 1  D1 n =   0.172  =13.1 m/s
60
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

i) For no-pre rotation/ radial inlet flow

0
c1m  u1 tan 1  13.1 tan(19 )  4.50 m/s

Q'  D1 b1 c1m    0.172  0.032  4.5  0.077m3 / s  280 m3 /hr

At the exit
1450
u2  D2 n    0.328   24.9 m/s
60
Q' 0.0777
c2 m    3.77 m/s
D2b2   0.328  20
c2u  u2  c2 m cot  2  24.9  3.77  cot(230 )  16.01 m/s

u 2 c 2u  u1c1u 24.9  16.0  13.1  0

H blade ,    40.6 m
g 9.81

ii) For a pre-rotation factor of 0.8

1450
u1  D1n =   0.172  =13.1 m/s
60
0
c1m  u1 r tan 1  13.1  0.8  tan(19 )  3.60 m/s

Q'  D1 b1 c1m    0.172  0.032  3.6  0.062m3 / s  224 m3 /hr

c1u  (1   r ) u1  (1  0.8)  13.1  2.61m/s

At the exit

1450
u2  D2 n    0.328   24.9 m/s
60
Q' 0.0622
c2m    3.0m / s
D2 b2   0.328  20
c2u  u2  c2 m cot  2  24.9  3.0  cot(230 )  17.8 m/s
u2c2u  u1c1u 24.9  17.79  13.1  2.61
H blade ,     41.7 m
g 9.81
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

Example 3.2
The tip diameter of an axial flow fan is 0.3m and the hub to tip diameter ratio is 0.4. The blade
angles at the inlet and outlet are 180 and 250 respectively. If the impeller rotates at 1450 rpm what
will be the flow rate and head for vane congruent flow and axial inlet flow (no pre-rotation)
assumption.

Solution
D0=0.3m , v=0.4 ,1=180, 2=250, n=1450 rpm
Assumption no pre-rotation
The mean effective diameter
2 2 2
D m  0.3 (1  0.4 ) / 2  0.0522
Dm  0.0522  0.228 m
The tangential velocity, u, at the mean effective diameter
1450
u    0.228   17.35 m/s
60
The velocity triangle at inlet

cm
180
U=17.35 m/s

c m  17.35 tan(18 0 )  5.64 m/s

The capacity of the pump is
  
Q  5.64 0.32 1  0.42 / 4  0.3347 m3 /s  1205 m3 /hr

The velocity triangle at the exit is

cm=5.64
250
U=17.35 m/s

c 2u  17.35  5.64 cot(25)  5.26 m/s

u (c 2u  c1u )
H blade , 
g
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

Since there is no pre-rotation c1u=0. Therefore,

uc 2u 17.35  5.26
H blade ,    9.3 m
g 9.81
Therefore the vane congruent capacity and head of the impeller are 1205m3/hr and 9.3m
respectively.
Remark
The radial flow impeller in Example 3.1 and Example 3.2 have similar dimensions and the same
speed of rotation but the capacity of the axial flow impeller (1206m3/hr) is far much greater than the
capacity of the radial flow impeller (280m3/hr). On the other hand the axial flow impeller produces
much less head (9.3m ) than the head (40.6m) of the radial flow impeller (40.6 m). In general axial
flow pumps are used for high flow rate and low head application while centrifugal impellers are
used for low flow rate and high head applications.

Example 3.3
An axial flow compressors is used to compress air at 101.3 kPa and 288 K. The air enters an axial-
flow compressor stage with a velocity of 170.0 m/s. There are no inlet guide vanes. The rotor stage
has a tip diameter of 66.0 cm, a hub diameter of 45.7 cm and rotates at 8000 rpm. The air enters the
rotor and leaves the stator in the axial direction with no change in velocity or radius. The air is
turned through 15.00 as it passes through the rotor. Assuming constant specific heats with k=1.40
and vane congruent flow.
(a) Draw the velocity diagrams
(b) Determine the shape of the rotor and stator
(c) Calculate the mass flow rate
(d) Calculate the ideal the pressure ratio , assuming Yblade=Yad

Solution
P1=101.3 kPa T1=288K M=28.9 kg/kmol
cm=170 m/s D0=66.0cm
Dh=45.7 m/s 2-1=150

(a) Velocity Diagrams

The hub diameter to tip diameter ratio
45.7
v  0.692
60
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

The effective mean diameter is

D m  D0
1  v   0.66
2
(1  0.692 2 )
 0.567m
2 2
The tangential velocity at the mean effective diameter
u  Dm n   (0.567)(8000 / 60)  237.9 m/s

w1
cm
1
u

 170 
 1  tan 1    35.6
0

 237.9 
At the exit
 2  1  15 0  35.6  10  50.6 0
cm 170
c2u  u   237.9   98.0 m/s
tan  2 tan(50.60 )

c2 w2
cm

2
c2U

u
Therefore the velocity diagrams drawn together

c1=cm w2
c2

2
1
Figure 3.28

b) Direction of rotor and stator

Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

direction of
rotation

c) Mass flow rate

 
Q  cm
4
 
D02 1  v 2  170
4
 
(0.66 2 ) 1  0.692 2  30.3 m 3 /s

PM (101.3  103 )(28.9)

   1.22 kg/m 3
RT (8314.3)(288)
Therefore
m  Q  1.23(30.3)  37.01 kg/s

c) Compression ratio
Yblade  u (c 2u  c0u )
assuming axial inlet flow
Yblade  u (c2u  c0u )  uc2u  237.8(98.0)  23,291.0 J/kg

Yad  23,291.0 J/kg

k 1 / k
RTS k   PD   831.43(288) 1.4
Yad     1  ( (1.4 1) / 1.4  1)
M k  1   PS   28.9 1.4  1
 
23291.6
 0.286   1  1.0805
271162.8
  1.33

3.5. DEVIATION OF ACTUAL FLOW FROM VANE CONGRUENT FLOW

It was shown that the vane congruent flow assumption leads to velocity triangles with the flow
angles 0 and 3 at the inlet and exit equal to the blade angles 1 and 2 respectively. The actual flow
however deviates significantly from the vane congruent flow unless the fluid is perfectly guided in
the direction of the blade. Nevertheless, perfect guidance of the flow medium is only ideal since it
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

would require non-viscous flow with infinitely thin blades that are infinitely close to each other.
These, however, cannot be made practical since:
a. The strength of the material demands a certain thickness
b. If the vanes were infinitely close to each other, no flow would take place in the
vane channel.
c. Actual flows are never frictionless since an actual fluid will always have a certain
viscosity
The next section deals with the major effects of definite thickness of the blades, definite number of
blades and viscosity on the velocity triangle.

3.5.1. Influence of Definite Thickness of Blades

The blades guide the fluid only as far as the fluid is inside the blade channel. However in our
calculations we want velocities just before and just after the blade channels. The difference of the
two is that the flow area inside the channels (vane congruent) is smaller than the flow area outside
the channels (actual) due to the thickness of the blades, as shown in Figure 3.17. Accordingly the
flow velocity according to vane congruent is greater than the actual flow velocity.
3
2

1


0


Figure 3.17 Flow areas just outside blade channels

are larger than just inside

The flow area when the thickness of the blades is reduced is

A1= (D1- z1)
Applying the continuity equation for point 0 (outside) and 1 (inside) the channel,
Q’ = D1b1c0m= (D1- z1) c1m
Where Q’ is the total volume flow rate inside the blade channels
Therefore

D1
c1m  c0 m z 1
(3.25)
D1 

The width 1 is different from the thickness of the blade. The relationship between the blade
thickness and 1 is given below.
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

t1
1 1
1

Figure 3.18 Relationship between the blade thickness t and width 

t1
1  (3.26)
sin  1
In similar manner for the discharge side
D2
c 2 m  c3 m (3.27)
z 2
D2 

and
t2
2 (3.28)
sin  2

D
The factor is called vane contraction factor
z
D

D1
= 1.1 to 1.2 for radial flow impellers 1.04 to 1.06 axial flow impellers
z1
D1 

D2
= 1.01 to 1.03 for both axial and radial flow impellers.
z 2
D2 

3.5.2. Influence of Definite Number of Blades
a. Influence of pressure difference along the two sides of a blade
For pressure to be transmitted from the blade to the flow medium the pressure along the front side
of the vanes should be greater than the backside. Otherwise since for every action there is equal and
opposite reaction the net force transmitted would be zero. While this pressure difference at the two
sides of the vanes is inevitable, at the end of the blade an equalization of pressure takes place
deviating the flow as shown in Figure 3.19.
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

ent
gur
con
2*

+
+
+
+
+

Figure 3.19 Pressure difference along the two sides of the vanes

As the number of blades increases the pressure will be distributed between the blades and the
pressure difference will reduce. Therefore the effect of pressure difference will reduce with
increasing number of blades.

b. Effect of Relative Circulation

The relative velocity distribution through an impeller channel is affected by the relative circulation
of the fluid due to the inertia effect of frictionless fluid particle. Due to their inertia the particles
retain their orientation in space and fail to turn with the impeller. This results in circulation of the
fluid relative to the impeller in a direction opposite to the rotation of the impeller. The result is a
component in the tangential direction opposite to c2u at the discharge end and additive component in
the direction of c1u at the inlet.
Relative
Circulation

3.20 Relative circulation in a blade channel

Decrease in C2U due to
relative circulation

w2



 
C2U
U2

Figure 3.21 Effect of relative circulation on the velocity triangle at the exit
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

Since the outlet flow area D2b2 and the flow rate Q are not affected by relative circulation the
average meridian component of the absolute velocity cm is not also affected by it. The effect of
relative circulation is less for narrow (large number of vanes) and long vane channels as well as for
narrow impellers. Therefore the influence of relative circulation is normally considered negligible
at the inlet of the blade channel.

3.5.3. Effect of Viscosity

Due to the viscous nature of fluids a boundary layer is formed along the walls of the channel. At the
convex side of the vane near the outlet, the pressure gradient in the boundary layer grows so high
that separation of the flow takes place, causing dead zones.
nes
d zo
Dea

+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+

Figure 3.22 Dead zones

In areas of the dead zone, the free cross-section of the blade channel is reduced; therefore the flow
velocity inside the channel is increased. However, since there is no dead zone outside the channel,
the flow velocity returns to the case of no dead zone, as shown in Figure 3.23, just outside the vane
channel (at Point3).
Increase due
of e
to dead zone n du
c tio le ne
g
du an zo
Re ow ad
fl de
Flow velocity to
at 3(no dead 
zone)

U2
Figure 3.23 Effect of dead zone on the velocity triangle at the exit

3.5.4. The Velocity Triangles for the Actual Flow

The velocity triangle of the actual flow at the inlet can be determined using vane congruent flow
assumption and later considering the effect of definite thickness of blades using Equation 3.25. The
effect of definite number of blades on the velocity triangle at the inlet is negligible. The actual and
vane congruent velocity triangles at the inlet, hence, differ only in the flow velocities, i.e. c1m  c0m.
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

The difference between the actual tangential component of the absolute velocity (c1u) and tangential
component of the absolute velocity according to vane congruent flow (c0u) is negligible.

The velocity triangle of the actual flow at the exit is determined by considering the effect of definite
thickness of blades, definite number of blades and viscosity. The effect of definite thickness of blades
is taken care of by Equation 3.27. However, the effect of definite number of blades and viscosity is
discussed only qualitatively and it was established that the flow angle 3 is smaller than the blade
angle 2. However the actual value can be determined only by empirical formula. There are two
commonly used empirical formulas: Pfleiderer's Formula (common in Europe) and Stodal’s formula
commonly used in North America.

3.6. EFFICIENCY IN CENTRIFUGAL MACHINES

In chapter 2 it was mentioned that not all the energy transferred from a fluid machine to the flow
medium appears as useful. Some part of the transferred energy appears as loss. For design,
operation and maintenance of fluid machines it is necessary to understand the source of the losses
and determine their values.
We need to understand losses because then we know which factors affect the losses or efficiency of
the machines and take precaution. We also need to estimate the loss because the drive of the fluid
machine should supply sufficient energy to cover both the useful energy and the losses. During
maintenance, it is necessary to check for the efficiency of the fluid machines regularly and if the
efficiency drops in unexpected way the engineer has to know the reason for the drop to make
appropriate decision. Knowledge of the losses also helps us during operation because we then know
how to run the machine efficiently so that the cost of running the machine will be as small as
possible.

3.7. Losses in Turbomachines Machines

The losses in centrifugal machines are classified into internal and external losses.
I. Internal losses: - Losses which occur in the inner passage of the machine and are
directly connected to the impeller and the flow medium. The internal losses add
heat to the flow medium. The internal losses include:
a) Hydraulic loss /Zh
b) Disc friction loss /Zr
c) Return flow loss / Za
d) Leakage loss / Q
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

II. External Losses: - External Losses are loses which appear outside the inner passage
of the machine. The external losses include losses due to friction in the bearings,
sealing and due to fluid friction over outside rotating surfaces (coupling disc
surface) of the machine. Unlike internal losses external losses do not add heat to
the flow medium.

I. Internal Losses
a. Hydraulic Loss Zh J/kg 
The hydraulic loss is a specific energy loss that the flow medium encounters due to fluid friction,
separation, etc. while passing through the main flow passage from inlet to discharge flange of the
machine. The blade has to transfer a specific energy Zh, in addition to the useful specific energy Y.
The total energy transferred from the blade to the flow medium taking the hydraulic loss in to
account can be written as:
Yblade = Y + Zh (3.29)
b. Disc friction loss Zr
The surfaces of the impeller that do not form the main flow passage (outer surface of front and
back shroud) are also surrounded by the flow medium. While the impeller rotates, friction is
generated between the outer surfaces of the shrouds and the surrounding fluid. The power needed
to overcome this friction can be written as:
Nr = QZr (3.30)
Zr Specific energy loss due to disk friction related to the total flow rate Q.
c. Return flow loss Za
A return flow of already energy-loaded medium may be noted in axial flow. This type of loss is
especially significant when axial flow machines are operated at a much lower capacity than the
design capacity.
Thus the power loss can be written as
Na = QZa (3.31)
Za : Specific energy loss due to return flow, related to the total flow Q
There is no suitable method to estimate the return flow loss. However, it can be assumed negligible
for all practical applications except for axial flow machines operating at much lower flow rate than
the design flow rate.
d. Leakage loss Q  m3 /s  or (loss of volume or mass flow)
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

Due to leakage through the clearance between the casing and the impeller, the volume Q passing
the pressure flange of the machine differs from the volume passing through the impeller vane
channels.

Q Q

Q' Q' Flow through vane

casing
Channel
Q Flow through discharge
end
Q Leakage

Figure 3.24 Relationship between leakage, discharge

and flow in the blade channel
Q' = Q+Q (3.32)
Q: Total leakage
Q': The volume flow through the vane channel is
Q: the flow at the discharge flange
Internal Power
Ni = (Q +Q) Y blade + Nr + Na =  QYi (3.33)

Where Yi : the internal specific work

N i  1  Q 
Yi  Y Zr Za (3.34)
Q  Q  blade
II. External Losses
External Losses are loses which appear outside the inner passage of the machine. Unlike internal
losses external losses do not add heat to the flow medium.
All external losses due to friction in the bearings, sealing and due to fluid friction at outside rotating
surfaces (coupling disc surface) of the machine can be counted together as external power loss.
Zm  J/kg 
The power needed by auxiliary equipment which are required for the functioning of the fluid
machine (i.e., oil pump for bearing lubrication, speed regulator, etc.,) which are mostly driven
directly by the shaft of the fluid machine may also be included in the external losses. The coupling
power (brake power), which considers all internal and external losses, is given by the equation:

Nb.p = Ni + Nm = (Q + Q) . Yblade + Nr + Na + Nm (3.35)

Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

The following diagram shows the change of the specific energy as it is transferred from the shaft
(coupling) to the flow medium.
External
-Disc friction loss loss
-Return flow loss
-Hydraulic
loss
Yi Y coup
Y Y blade

Figure 3.25 Relationship between losses and transferred energy at different levels

3.7.1. Efficiency
Definition
energy output
Efficiency    (3.36)
energy input
Different types of efficiencies considering the different types of losses discussed earlier.

a) Hydraulic Efficiency
The hydraulic efficiency considers all hydraulic losses Zh. It depends very much upon the design
and production quality of the flow passage.

Y Y
h   (3.37)
Y blade Y  Zh
For pumps of above average performance the hydraulic efficiency can be approximated by

0.071
h  1  0.25
(3.38)
Q
[Q]= m3/s
b) Volumetric Efficiency
The volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the flow at the discharge end of the machine to
the total flow in the blade channel (the sum of leakage and flow at the discharge end).
Q
V  (3.39)
Q  Q
To calculate the leakage flow, Q the details of the individual pump design must be known. An
approximate prediction of v at the design point can be obtained from a graph.
Chapter 3 Theory of Turbomachines

c) Internal efficiency
The internal efficiency considers all internal losses including the hydraulic loss.

N QY
i   (3.40)
Ni Ni
In compression process where Yvel and Ygeo can be neglected the internal efficiency can be
calculated by the following formula:

 T ad T 'D  T S  H ad H 'D  H S
i     (3.41)
T TD TS H HD HS

d) Mechanical Efficiency:
The mechanical efficiency considers all the external losses.

Ni Yi (3.42)
m  
N coup Yi  Zm
e) Overall efficiency
The overall efficiency includes all internal and external losses. This efficiency is related to the fluid
machine and does not consider the loss in the driving mechanism, motor.

QY QY Ni
    i m (3.43)
N coup Ni N coup

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