Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Biodeterioration of Wood
Carol A. Clausen, Supervisory Research Microbiologist
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General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
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Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
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General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
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Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
Table 14–1. Grouping of some domestic and imported woods according to average
heartwood decay resistancea
Very Moderately Slightly
resistant Resistant resistant or nonresistant
Domestic
Black locust Baldcypress, old growth Baldcypress, young growth Alder, red
Mulberry, red Catalpa Cherry, black Ashes
Osage-orange Cedar Douglas-fir Aspens
Yew, Pacific Atlantic white Honey locust Beech
Eastern redcedar Larch, western Birches
Incense Pine, eastern white, old growth Buckeye
Northern white Pine, longleaf, old growth Butternut
Port-Orford Pine, slash, old growth Cottonwood
Western redcedar Redwood, young growth Elms
Yellow Tamarack Basswood
Chestnut Firs, true
Cypress, Arizona Hackberry
Junipers Hemlocks
Mesquite Hickories
Oaks, whiteb Magnolia
Redwood, old growth Maples
Sassafras Pines (other than those listed)b
Walnut, black Spruces
Sweetgum
Sycamore
Tanoak
Willows
Yellow-poplar
Imported
Angelique Aftotmosia (Kokrodua) Andiroba Balsa
Azobe Apamate (Roble) Avodire Banak
Balata Balaub Benge Cativo
Goncalo alves Courbaril Bubinga Ceiba
Greenheart Determa Ehie Hura
Ipe (lapacho) Iroko Ekop Jelutong
Jarrah Kapur Keruingb Limba
Lignumvitae Karri Mahogany, African Meranti, light redb
Purpleheart Kempas Meranti, dark redb Meranti, yellowb
Teak, old growth Mahogany, American Mersawab Meranti, whiteb
Manni Sapele Obeche
Spanish-cedar Teak, young growth Okoume
Sucupira Tornillo Parana pine
Wallaba Ramin
Sande
Sepitir
Seraya, white
a
Decay resistance may be less for members placed in contact with the ground and/or used in warm, humid climates.
Substantial variability in decay resistance is encountered with most species, and limited durability data were available for
some species listed. Use caution when using naturally durable woods in structurally critical or ground-contact applications.
b
More than one species included, some of which may vary in resistance from that indicated.
extent of variations in decay resistance of individual trees generally give satisfactory performance in contact with the
or wood samples of a particular species is much greater for ground. Heartwood of species in the other two categories
most of the more resistant species than for the slightly or will usually require some form of preservative treatment.
nonresistant species. For mild decay conditions, a simple preservative treat-
ment—such as a short soak in preservative after all cutting
Natural resistance of wood to fungi is important only where
and boring operations are complete—may be adequate for
conditions conducive to decay exist or may develop. Where
wood low in decay resistance. For more severe decay haz-
decay hazard exists, heartwood of a species in the resistant
ards, pressure treatment is often required. Even the very de-
category generally gives satisfactory service for wood used
cay-resistant species may require preservative treatment for
above-ground, while those in the very resistant category
important structural uses or other uses where failure would
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General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
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Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
quality-reducing features. Surface treatment for protection In buildings without basements but with crawl spaces, wet-
at the drying yard is only temporarily effective. Except for ting of the floor framing and sheathing by condensation
temporary structures, lumber to be used under conditions may result in serious decay damage. The primary source of
conducive to decay should be all heartwood of a naturally condensation is soil moisture. Isolating the crawl space from
durable wood species or should be adequately treated with soil moisture can be achieved by laying a barrier such as
a wood preservative (Chap. 15). polyethylene on the soil. To facilitate inspection of the crawl
space, a minimum 460-mm (18-in.) clearance should be left
Buildings
under wood joists.
The lasting qualities of properly constructed wood buildings
are apparent in all parts of the country. Serious decay prob- Wood and wood-based building components should also be
lems are almost always a sign of faulty design or construc- protected from rain during construction. Continuous protec-
tion, lack of reasonable care in the handling the wood, or tion from rainwater or condensation in walls and roofs will
improper maintenance of the structure. prevent the development of decay. Thus, design, work qual-
ity, and maintenance of wall and roofing systems are critical,
Construction principles that ensure long service and avoid particularly at roof edges and points where roofs interface
decay in buildings include (a) building with dry lumber, free with walls. A fairly wide roof overhang (0.6 m (2 ft))
of incipient decay and not exceeding the amounts of mold with gutters and downspouts that are kept free of debris
and blue stain permitted by standard grading rules; (b) us- is desirable.
ing construction details and building designs that will keep
exterior wood and wood-based building components dry and The use of sound, dry lumber is equally important for the
that will promote their drying if they become wet; (c) using interior of buildings. Primary sources for interior moisture
wood treated with a preservative or heartwood of a decay- are humidity and plumbing leaks. Interior humidity control
resistant species for parts exposed to aboveground decay is discussed in Chapter 17. Plumbing leaks can result in seri-
hazards; and (d) using pressure-treated wood for the high ous decay problems within buildings, particularly if they are
hazard situation associated with ground contact. undetected for long periods.
A building site that is dry or for which drainage is provided Where service conditions in a building are such that the
will reduce the possibility of decay. Grading around the wood cannot be kept dry, the use of preservative-treated
building is an important consideration, as is adequate plan- wood (Chap. 15) or heartwood of a durable species is ad-
ning for management of roof runoff (Chap. 17). Stumps, vised. Examples include porches, exterior steps, and decking
wood debris, stakes, or wood concrete forms are frequently platforms and such places as textile mills, pulp and paper
subject to decay if left under or near a building and may be- mills, and cold storage plants.
come a source for decay infestation for the building. In making repairs necessitated by decay, every effort should
Wet or infected wood should not be enclosed until it is thor- be made to correct the moisture condition that led to the
oughly dried. Wet wood includes green (unseasoned) lum- damage. If the condition cannot be corrected, all infected
ber, lumber that has been inadequately dried, or dried lum- parts should be replaced with preservative-treated wood or
ber that has been rewetted as a result of careless storage and with all-heartwood lumber of a naturally decay-resistant
handling. Wood can become infected because of improper wood species. If the sources of moisture that caused the
handling at the sawmill or retail yard or after delivery to the decay are entirely eliminated, it is necessary only to replace
job site. the weakened wood with dry lumber.
Untreated wood parts of substructures should not be permit- Other Structures and Products
ted to contact the soil. Minimums of 200 mm (8 in.) clear- In general, the principles underlying the prevention of mold,
ance between soil and framing and 150 mm (6 in.) between stain, or decay damage to veneer, plywood containers,
soil and siding are recommended. Where frequent hard rains boats, and other wood products and structures are similar
occur, a foundation height above grade of 300 to 460 mm to those described for buildings—dry the wood rapidly and
(12 to 18 in.) is advocated. An exception may be made for keep it dry, or treat it with approved protective and preser-
certain temporary constructions. If contact with soil is un- vative solutions. Interior grades of plywood should not be
avoidable, the wood should be pressure treated (Chap. 15). used where the plywood will be exposed to moisture; the
adhesives, as well as the wood, may be damaged by fungi
Sill plates and other wood resting on a concrete slab founda-
and bacteria and degraded by moisture. With exterior-type
tion generally should be pressure treated and protected by
panels, joint construction should be carefully designed to
installing a moisture-resistant membrane, such as polyethyl-
prevent the entrance and entrapment of rainwater.
ene, beneath the slab. Girder and joist openings in masonry
walls should be big enough to ensure an air space around In treated bridge or wharf timbers, checking may occur and
the ends of these wood members. If the members are below may expose untreated wood to fungal attack. Annual in-
the outside soil level, moisture proofing the outer face of the place treatment of these checks will provide protection from
wall is essential.
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General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
Table 14–2. Types of damage caused by wood-attacking insects
Type of Damage
damage Description Causal agent Begins Ends
Pin holes 0.25 to 6.4 mm (1/100 to 1/4 in.) in diameter,
usually circular
Tunnels open:
Holes 0.5 to 3 mm (1/50 to 1/8 in.) in diameter, Ambrosia beetles In living trees and During seasoning
usually centered in dark streak or ring in unseasoned logs and
surrounding wood lumber
Holes variable sizes; surrounding wood rarely Timber worms In living trees and Before seasoning
dark stained; tunnels lined with wood-colored unseasoned logs and
substance lumber
Tunnels usually packed with fine sawdust:
Exit holes 0.8 to 1.6 mm (1/32 to 1/16 in.) in Lyctid powder-post During or after Reinfestation continues
diameter; in sapwood of large-pored hardwoods; beetles seasoning until sapwood destroyed
loose floury sawdust in tunnels
Exit holes 1.6 to 3 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.) in Anobiid powder-post Usually after wood in Reinfestation continues;
diameter; primarily in sapwood, rarely in beetles use (in buildings) progress of damage very
heartwood; tunnels loosely packed with fine slow
sawdust and elongate pellets
Exit holes 2.5 to 7 mm (3/32 to 9/32 in.) in Bostrichid powder- Before seasoning or if During seasoning or
diameter; primarily sapwood of hardwoods, post beetles wood is rewetted redrying
minor in softwoods; sawdust in tunnels fine to
coarse and tightly packed
Exit holes 1.6 to 2 mm (1/16 to 1/12 in.) in Wood-boring weevils In slightly damp wood Reinfestation continues
diameter; in slightly damp or decayed wood; in use while wood is damp
very fine sawdust or pellets tightly packed in
tunnels
Grub holes 3 to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter, circular or
oval
Exit holes 3 to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter; Roundheaded borers In living trees and When adults emerge
circular; mostly in sapwood; tunnels with coarse to (beetles) unseasoned logs and from seasoned wood or
fibrous sawdust or it may be absent lumber when wood is dried
Exit holes 3 to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter; Flatheaded borers In living trees and When adults emerge
mostly oval; in sapwood and heartwood; sawdust (beetles) unseasoned logs and from seasoned wood or
tightly packed in tunnels lumber when wood is dried
Exit holes ~6 mm (~1/4 in.) in diameter; circular; Old house borers During or after Reinfestation continues
in sapwood of softwoods, primarily pine; tunnels (a roundheaded seasoning in seasoned wood in use
packed with very fine sawdust borer)
Exit holes perfectly circular, 4 to 6 mm (1/6 to 1/4 Woodwasps In dying trees or fresh When adults emerge
in.) in diameter; primarily in softwoods; tunnels logs from seasoned wood,
tightly packed with coarse sawdust, often in decay usually in use, or when
softened wood kiln-dried
Nest entry hole and tunnel perfectly circular ~13 Carpenter bees In structural timbers, Nesting reoccurs
mm (~1/2 in.) in diameter; in soft softwoods in siding annually in spring at
structures same and nearby
locations
Network of Systems of interconnected tunnels and chambers Social insects with
galleries colonies
Walls look polished; spaces completely clean of Carpenter ants Usually in damp partly Colony persists unless
debris decayed, or soft- prolonged drying of
textured wood in use wood occurs
Walls usually speckled with mud spots; some Subterranean termites In wood structures Colony persists
chambers may be filled with “clay”
Chambers contain pellets; areas may be walled off Dry-wood termites In wood structures Colony persists
by dark membrane (occasionally damp
wood termites)
Pitch pocket Openings between growth rings containing pitch Various insects In living trees In tree
Black check Small packets in outer layer of wood Grubs of various In living trees In tree
insects
Pith fleck Narrow, brownish streaks Fly maggots or adult In living trees In tree
weevils
Gum spot Small patches or streaks of gum-like substances Grubs of various In living trees In tree
insects
Ring Double growth rings or incomplete annual layers Larvae of defoliating In living trees In tree
distortion of growth insects or flatheaded
cambium borers
Stained area more than 25.4 mm (1 in.) long Staining fungi With insect wounds With seasoning
introduced by insects in trees or recently felled
logs
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Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
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General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
can cause considerable damage to wood in rustic structures tion under conditions that ensure the center of the wood
and some manufactured products. Certain beetles may com- will be held at 56 °C (133 °F) for 30 min will effectively
plete development and emerge several years after the wood kill insects in infested lumber. Those conditions vary with
is dry, often raising a question as to the origin of the moisture content, size, and dimension of wood—see Chap-
infestation. ter 20 for further information on heat sterilization. A 3-min
soaking in a petroleum oil solution containing an insecticide
Proper cutting practices, rapid debarking, storing under
is also effective for checking infestation or preventing at-
water, and spraying with an approved chemical solution, as
tack on lumber up to standard 19 mm (nominal 1 in.) thick.
recommended for bark beetles, will control these insects.
Small dimension stock also can be protected by brushing or
Damage by ambrosia beetles can be prevented in freshly
spraying with approved chemicals. For infested furniture or
sawn lumber by dipping the product in a chemical solution.
finished woodwork in a building, the same insecticides may
The addition of one of the sap-stain preventives approved
be used, but they should be dissolved in refined petroleum
for controlling molds, stains, and decay will keep the lum-
oil, such as mineral spirits. Because Lyctus beetles lay their
ber bright. Powder-post beetles attack both hardwoods and
eggs in the open pores of wood, infestation can be prevented
softwoods and both freshly cut and seasoned lumber and
by covering the entire surface of each piece of wood with a
timber. Powder-post damage is indicated by holes made in
suitable finish.
the surface of the wood by the winged adults as they emerge
and by the fine powder that may fall from the wood. The Powder-post beetles in the family Anobiidae, depending
powder-post beetles that cause most of the damage to dry on the species, infest hardwoods and softwoods. Their life
hardwood lumber belong to the genus Lyctus. They attack cycle takes 2 to 3 years, and they require wood moisture
the sapwood of ash, hickory, oak, and other large-pored content around 15% or greater for viable infestation. There-
hardwoods as it begins to season. Eggs are laid in pores of fore, in most modern buildings, the wood moisture content
the wood, and the larvae burrow through the wood, mak- is generally too low for anobiids. When ventilation is inad-
ing tunnels from 1.5 to 2 mm (1/16 to 1/12 in.) in diameter, equate or in more humid regions of the United States, wood
which they leave packed with a fine powder. Species of ano- components of a building can reach the favorable moisture
biid beetles colonize coniferous materials. conditions for anobiids. This is especially a problem in air-
conditioned buildings where water condenses on cooled
Susceptible hardwood lumber used for manufacturing
exterior surfaces. Susceptibility to anobiid infestation can be
purposes should be protected from powder-post beetle at-
alleviated by lowering the moisture content of wood through
tack as soon as it is sawn and when it arrives at the plant.
improved ventilation and the judicious use of insulation and
An approved insecticide applied in water emulsion to the
vapor barriers. Insecticides registered for use against these
green lumber will provide protection. Such treatment may
beetles are generally restricted for exterior applications to
be effective even after the lumber is kiln dried, until it is
avoid potential safety hazards indoors. Wood being reused
surfaced. Heat sterilization is another way to kill insects in
or recycled from older structures often has lyctid or anobiid
green lumber. To effectively kill insects in lumber or tim-
larvae in it. Such wood should be fumigated or kiln dried
bers, heat sterilization requires that the center of the wood
before use in another structure.
be held at 56 °C (133 °F) for 30 min. The time required to
reach that temperature is highly variable and depends on Beetles in the family Bostrichidae and weevils in the family
thickness of boards, dimension of timbers, and moisture Curculionidae are associated with wood moisture contents
content of the wood (Chap. 20). For example, heating time favorable for wood-infesting fungi because they may benefit
increases with increasing board thickness or increasing nutritionally from the fungi. Thus, protection against these
cross-sectional dimension. insects consists of the same procedures as for protection
against wood-decay fungi.
Good plant sanitation is extremely important in alleviating
the problem of infestation. Proper sanitation measures can A roundheaded beetle, commonly known as the old house
often eliminate the necessity for other preventative steps. borer, causes damage to seasoned, coniferous building mate-
Damage to manufactured items frequently is traceable to rials. The larvae reduce the sapwood to a powdery or granu-
infestation that occurred before the products were placed on lar consistency and make a ticking sound while at work.
the market, particularly if a finish is not applied to the sur- When mature, the beetles make an oval hole approximately
face of the items until they are sold. Once wood is infested, 6.5 mm (1/4 in.) in diameter in the surface of the wood and
the larvae will continue to develop, even though the surface emerge. Anobiid powder-post beetles, which make holes
is subsequently painted, oiled, waxed, or varnished. 1.6 to 3.2 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.) in diameter, also cause dam-
age to pine joists. Infested wood should be drenched with a
When selecting hardwood lumber for building or manufac-
solution of one of the currently recommended insecticides in
turing purposes, any evidence of powder-post infestation
a highly penetrating solvent. Beetles nesting in wood behind
should not be overlooked, because the beetles may continue
plastered or paneled walls can be eliminated through fumi-
to be active long after the wood is put to use. Heat steriliza-
gation of the building by a licensed operator.
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Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
Termites
Termites superficially resemble ants in size, general appear-
ance, and habit of living in colonies. About 56 species are
known in the United States. From the standpoint of their
methods of attack on wood, termites can be grouped into
two main classes: (a) ground-inhabiting or subterranean
termites and (b) wood-inhabiting or nonsubterranean
termites.
Subterranean Termites
Subterranean termites are responsible for most of the termite
damage to wood structures in the United States. This dam-
age can be prevented. Subterranean termites are more preva- Figure 14–10. A, winged termite; B, winged
lent in the southern than in the northern states, where low ant (both greatly enlarged). The wasp waist
of the ant and the long wings of the termite
temperatures do not favor their development (Fig. 14–9). are distinguishing characteristics.
The hazard of infestation is greatest (a) beneath buildings
without basements that were erected on a concrete slab enter from ground nests after the building has been con-
foundation or were built over a crawl space that is poorly structed. An introduced species, the Formosan termite, is
drained and lacks a moisture barrier (see Chap. 17) and (b) adept at initiating aboveground infestations and nests
in any substructure wood component close to the ground or in structures where wood remains wet for prolonged
an earth fill (for example, an earth-filled porch). periods, such as from roof leaks. Telltale signs of subterra-
Subterranean termites develop their colonies and maintain nean termite presence are the earthen tubes or runways built
their headquarters in the ground. They build their tunnels by these insects over the surfaces of the foundation or other
through earth and around obstructions to reach the wood exposed areas to reach the wood above. Another sign is the
they need for food. They also must have a constant source swarming of winged adults early in the spring or fall. In the
of moisture, whether from the wood on which they are feed- wood itself, the termites make galleries that generally fol-
ing or the soil where they nest. The worker members of the low the grain, leaving a shell of sound wood to conceal their
colony cause destruction of wood. At certain seasons of the activities. Because the galleries seldom show on the wood
year, usually spring, male and female winged forms swarm surfaces, probing with a pick or knife is advisable if the
from the colony, fly a short time, lose their wings, mate, and presence of termites is suspected.
if successful in locating a suitable home, start new colonies. The best protection for wood in areas where subterranean
The appearance of “flying ants” or their shed wings is an termites are prevalent is to prevent the termites from gaining
indication that a termite colony may be near and causing hidden access to a building. The foundations should be of
serious damage. Not all “flying ants” are termites; therefore, concrete, pressure-treated wood, or other material through
suspicious insects should be identified before investing in which the termites cannot penetrate. With brick, stone, or
eradication (Fig. 14–10). concrete block, cement mortar should be used because ter-
Subterranean termites normally do not establish themselves mites can work through some other kinds of mortar. Also,
in buildings by being carried there in lumber; they primarily
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General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
it is a good precaution to cap the foundation with 100 mm Key West, and to the islands of Hawaii. They also are a lo-
(4 in.) of reinforced concrete. Posts supporting floor girders calized problem in Arizona and New Mexico.
should, if they bear directly on the ground, be of concrete.
The nonsubterranean termites, especially the dry-wood type,
If there is a basement, it should be floored with concrete.
do not multiply as rapidly as the subterranean termites and
Untreated posts in such a basement should rest on concrete
have a somewhat different colony life and habits. The total
piers extending a few inches above the basement floor.
amount of destruction they cause in the United States is
However, pressure-treated posts can rest directly on the
much less than that caused by the subterranean termites. The
basement floor. With the crawl-space type of foundation,
ability of dry-wood termites to live in dry wood without out-
wood floor joists should be kept at least 460 mm (18 in.) and
side moisture or contact with the ground, however, makes
girders 300 mm (12 in.) from the earth with a polyethylene
them a definite menace in the regions where they occur.
vapor barrier covering exposed soil and extending partially
Their destruction is not rapid, but they can thoroughly riddle
up the foundation wall. Moisture condensation on the floor
timbers with their tunneling if allowed to work undisturbed
joists and subflooring, which may cause conditions favor-
for many years. Nonsubterranean termites are often moved
able to decay and contribute to infestation by termites, can
from structure to structure in infested items such as
be avoided by covering the soil below with a moisture barri-
furniture.
er and assuming proper drainage of rainwater away from all
sides of a structure by managing rain and roof runoff with In constructing a building in localities where the dry-wood
gutters, downspouts, and proper grading around the founda- type of nonsubterranean termite is prevalent, it is good
tion. All concrete forms, stakes, stumps, and wastewood practice to inspect the lumber carefully to see that it was not
should be removed from the building site because they are infested before arrival at the building site. If the building is
possible sources of infestation. Generally, the precautions constructed during the swarming season, the lumber should
effective against subterranean termites are also helpful be watched during the course of construction, because in-
against decay. festation by colonizing pairs can easily take place. Because
paint is a good protection against the entrance of dry-wood
The principal method of protecting buildings in high ter-
termites, exposed wood (except that which is preserva-
mite areas is to thoroughly treat the soil adjacent to the
tive treated) should be kept covered with a paint film. Fine
foundation walls and piers beneath the building with a soil
screen should be placed over any openings to the interior
insecticide. When concrete slab floors are laid directly on
unpainted parts of the building. As in the case of ground-
the ground, all soil under the slab should be treated with an
nesting termites, dead trees, old stumps, posts, or wood
approved insecticide before the concrete is poured. Further-
debris of any kind that could serve as sources of infestation
more, insulation containing cellulose that is used as a filler
should be removed from the premises.
in expansion joints should be impregnated with an approved
chemical toxic to termites. Sealing the top 13 mm (1/2 in.) If a building is infested with dry-wood termites, badly dam-
of the expansion joint with roofing-grade coal-tar pitch also aged wood should be replaced. If the wood is only slightly
provides effective protection from ground-nesting termites. damaged or is difficult to replace, further termite activity
Several soil treatments and insecticidal bait control meth- can be arrested by injecting a small amount of an approved
ods are currently available. Information on current control pesticidal dust or liquid formulation into each nest. Current
methods is available from national pest control operator as- recommendations for such formulations can be found from
sociations. These organizations should be consulted to take state pest control associations. Buildings heavily infested
advantage of the latest technology in termite control. with nonsubterranean termites can be successfully fumigat-
ed. This method is quicker than the use of poisonous liquids
To control termites already in a building, contact between
and dusts and does not require finding all of the colonies.
the termite colony in the soil and the woodwork must be
However, it does not prevent the termites from returning
broken. This can be done by blocking the runways from soil
because no poisonous residue is left in the tunnels. Fumiga-
to wood, treating the soil, repairing leaks that keep wood
tion is very dangerous and should be conducted only by li-
within the structure wet (for example, plumbing leaks), or
censed professional fumigators. Infested pieces of furniture,
some combination of these techniques. Possible reinfesta-
picture frames, and other small pieces can be individually
tion can be guarded against by frequent inspections for
fumigated, heated, or placed in a freezer for a short time.
signs of termites.
In localities where dry-wood termites do serious damage
Nonsubterranean Termites to posts and poles, the best protection for these and similar
In the United States, nonsubterranean termites have been forms of outdoor timbers is full-length pressure treatment
found only in a narrow strip of territory extending from cen- with a preservative.
tral California around the southern edge of the continental Naturally Termite-Resistant Woods
United States to Virginia (Fig. 14–9) and in the West Indies
Only a limited number of woods grown in the United States
and Hawaii. Their principal damage is confined to an area
offer any marked degree of natural resistance to termite
in southern California, to parts of southern Florida, notably
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Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
attack. The close-grained heartwood of California redwood A favorite nesting site is in unfinished exterior wood not
has some resistance, especially when used above ground. directly exposed to sunlight (for example, the undersides of
Very resinous heartwood of Southern Pine is practically im- porch roofs, and grape arbors).
mune to attack, but it is not available in large quantities and
Control is aimed at discouraging the use of nesting sites
is seldom used.
in and near buildings. The tunnel may be injected with an
Carpenter Ants insecticide labeled for bee control and plugged with caulk.
Carpenter ants are black or brown. They usually occur in Treating the surface around the entry hole will discourage
stumps, trees, or logs but sometimes damage poles, struc- reuse of the tunnel during the spring nesting period. A good
tural timbers, or buildings. One form is easily recognized by paint film or pressure preservative treatment protects exte-
its giant size relative to other ants. Carpenter ants use wood rior wood surfaces from nesting damage. Bare interior wood
for shelter rather than for food, usually preferring wood that surfaces, such as in garages, can be protected by screens and
is naturally soft or has been made soft by decay. They may tight-fitting doors.
enter a building directly by crawling or may be carried there
in firewood. If left undisturbed, they can, in a few years, Marine Borer Damage and Control
enlarge their tunnels to the point where replacement or ex- Damage by marine-boring organisms to wood structures in
tensive repairs are necessary. The parts of dwellings they salt or brackish waters is practically a worldwide problem.
frequent most often are porch columns, porch roofs, window Evidence of attack is sometimes found in rivers even above
sills, and sometimes the wood plates in foundation walls. the region of brackishness. The rapidity of attack depends
They often nest in hollow-core doors. The logs of rustic cab- upon local conditions and the kinds of borers present. Along
ins are also attacked. the Pacific, Gulf, and South Atlantic Coasts of the United
States, attack is rapid, and untreated pilings may be com-
Precautions that prevent attack by decay and termites are
pletely destroyed in a year or less. Along the coast of the
usually effective against carpenter ants. Decaying or in-
New England States, the rate of attack is slower because
fested wood, such as logs, stumps, or retaining walls, should
of cold water temperatures but is still sufficiently rapid to
be removed from the premises, and crevices present in the
require protection of wood where long life is desired. The
foundation or woodwork of the building should be sealed.
principal marine borers from the standpoint of wood dam-
Particularly, leaks in porch roofs should be repaired because
age in the United States are described in this section. Con-
the decay that may result makes the wood more desirable to
trol measures discussed in this section are those in use at
the ants.
the time this handbook was revised. Regulations should be
When carpenter ants are found in a structure, any badly reviewed at the time control treatments are being considered
damaged timbers should be replaced. Because the carpenter so that approved practices will be followed.
ant needs high humidity in its immature stages, alterations in
the construction may also be required to eliminate moisture Shipworms
from rain or condensation. In wood not sufficiently damaged Shipworms are the most destructive of the marine borers.
to require replacement, the ants can be killed by injection of They are mollusks of various species that superficially are
approved insecticide into the nest galleries. Carpenter ant worm-like in form. The group includes several species of
nests are relatively easy to find because they keep their in- Teredo and several species of Bankia, which are especially
ternal nest sites very clean and free of debris. As particles of damaging. These mollusks are readily distinguishable on
wood are removed to create galleries or as pieces of insects close observation but are all very similar in several respects.
that have been fed upon accumulate, the debris is removed In the early stages of their life, they are minute, free-swim-
from the nest and then accumulates below the nest opening. ming organisms. Upon finding suitable lodgment on wood,
they quickly develop into a new form and bury themselves
Carpenter Bees in the wood. A pair of boring shells on the head grows rap-
Carpenter bees resemble large bumblebees, but the top of idly in size as the boring progresses, while the tail part or
their abdomen is hairless, causing their abdomens to shine, siphon remains at the original entrance. Thus, the animal
unlike bumblebees. The females make large (13-mm- (1/2- grows in length and diameter within the wood but remains
in.-) diameter) tunnels into unfinished soft wood for nests. a prisoner in its burrow, which it lines with a shell-like
They partition the hole into cells; each cell is provided with deposit. It lives on the wood borings and the organic mat-
pollen and nectar for a single egg. Because carpenter bees ter extracted from the sea water that is continuously being
reuse nesting sites for many years, a nesting tunnel into a pumped through its system. The entrance holes never grow
structural timber may be extended several feet and have large, and the interior of wood may be completely hon-
multiple branches. In thin wood, such as siding, the holes eycombed and ruined while the surface shows only slight
may extend the full thickness of the wood. They nest in perforations. When present in great numbers, shipworms
wood that has been finished with a stain or thin paint film, grow only a few centimeters before the wood is so com-
or light preservative salt treatments, as well as in bare wood. pletely occupied that growth is stopped. However, when not
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General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
14–14
Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
thorough, the penetration as deep as possible, and the re- Creosote adds considerably to the weight of the boat hull,
tention high to give satisfactory results in heavily infested and its odor is objectionable to boat crews. In addition, anti-
waters. It is best to treat such piles by the full-cell process to fouling paints are difficult to apply over creosoted wood.
refusal; that is, to force in all the preservative the piles can
Antifouling paints that contain copper protect boat hulls
hold without using treatments that cause serious damage to
against marine-borer attack, but the protection continues
the wood. For highest retentions, it is necessary to air- or
only while the coating remains unbroken. Because it is dif-
kiln-dry the piling before treatment. Details of treatments
ficult to maintain an unbroken coating of antifouling paint,
are discussed in Chapter 15.
the U.S. Navy has found it desirable to impregnate the hull
The life of treated piles is influenced by the thoroughness of planking of some wood boats with certain copper-containing
the treatment, the care and diligence used in avoiding dam- preservatives. Such preservatives, when applied with high
age to the treated shell during handling and installation, and retentions (40 kg m–3 (2.5 lb ft–3)), have some effectiveness
the severity of borer attack. Differences in exposure condi- against marine borers and should help to protect the hull of
tions, such as water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, a boat during intervals between renewals of the antifouling
water depth, and currents, tend to cause wide variations in coating. These copper preservatives do not provide protec-
the severity of borer attack even within limited areas. Ser- tion equivalent to that furnished by coal-tar creosote; their
vice records show average-life figures of 22 to 48 years on effectiveness in protecting boats is therefore best assured if
well-treated Douglas-fir piles in San Francisco Bay waters. the boats are dry docked at regular and frequent intervals
In South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters, creosoted and the antifouling coating maintained. The leach-resistant
piles are estimated to last 10 to 12 years and frequently wood preservatives containing copper arsenates have
much longer. On the North Atlantic Coast, where exposure shown superior performance (at a retention of 40 kg m–3
conditions are less severe, piles can last even longer than the (2.5 lb ft–3)) to creosote in tests conducted in areas of severe
22- to 48-year life recorded in the San Francisco Bay. borer hazard.
Metal armor and concrete or plastic jacketing have been Plywood as well as plank hulls can be protected against
used with various degrees of success for the protection of marine borers by preservative treatment. The plywood hull
marine piles. The metal armor may be in the form of sheets, presents a surface that can be covered successfully with a
wire, or nails. Sheathing of piles with copper or muntz metal protective membrane of reinforced plastic laminate. Such
has been only partially successful, owing to difficulty in coverings should not be attempted on wood that has been
maintaining a continuous armor. Theft, mechanical damage treated with a preservative carried in oil, because the bond
from driving, damage by storm or driftwood, and corrosion will be unsatisfactory.
of sheathing have sooner or later let in the borers, and in
only a few cases has long pile life been reported. Attempts References
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