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Introduction to Integrated Digital Electronics

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Shree Krishna Khadka

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Integrated Digital Electronics

1.1 Integrated Circuits (ICs)

 Digital circuits are invariably constructed with Integrated Circuits (ICs). An IC is a small silicon semiconductor
crystal called chip, containing electrical components such as transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors.
 These various components are interconnected inside the chip to form an electronic circuit. The chip is mounted
on a metal or plastic package, and the connections are welded to external pins to form the IC.
 Unlike other electronic circuits, the individual component in the IC cannot be separated or disconnected and the
circuit inside the package is accessible only through the external pins.
 ICs come in different types of packages as shown in figure below. The Dual-In-Line (DIP) package is the most
widely used type because of the low price and easy installation on circuit boards.

 The envelope of IC package is made of plastic or ceramic. Most packages have standard sizes, and the number
of pins ranges from 8 to 64.
 Each IC has a numeric designation printed on the surface of the package for identification. Each vendor publishes
a data book or catalog that provides the necessary information concerning the various products.
 The size of the IC packages is very small. For example, four AND gates are enclosed inside a 14-pin DIP package
with dimension of 20x8x3 millimeters. An entire microprocessor is enclosed within a 40-pin DIP package with
dimensions of 50x15x4 millimeters.

# Advantages of ICs over Electronic Circuits

 The cost of ICs is very low: which makes them economical to use.
 Reduced power consumption: which makes the digital system more economical to operated.
 High reliability against failure: so the digital system needs less repairs.
 High operating speed: which makes them suitable for high speed operations.
 Reduced number of external wiring connections: since many of the connections are internal to the package.

# Categories of IC

Integrated circuits are classified in two general categories:

(a) Linear ICs (Analog ICs): Which operates with continuous signals to provide electronic functions such as
amplifiers and voltage comparators

(b) Digital ICs: which operates with binary signals and are made up of interconnected digital gates such as adder,
subs tractor; encoder, decoder etc.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, MAMTS
# IC Technology

As the technology of ICs has improved, the number of gates that can be put on a single silicon chip has increased
considerably.
 SSI (Small Scale Integration): Several logic gates (1 – 10) in a single package.
 MSI (Medium Scale Integration): To qualify as a MSI device, the IC must perform a complete logic function
and have a complexity of 10 to 100 gates.
 LSI (Large Scale Integration): A LSI device performs a logic function with more than 100 gates.
 VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration): Contains thousands of gates in a single chip.
 ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration): 10 thousand ++ gates on a single chip.
 GSI (Giga Scale Integration): Up to 100 thousand gates on a single super chip.

1.2 Digital Logic Family

 Logic gates and memory devices are fabricated as integrated circuits (ICs). The digital ICs operate with binary
signals and are made up of interconnected digital gates.
 Digital IC gates are classified into various types on the basis of logic circuit family to which they belong. The
basic circuit in each IC digital logic family is either a NAND or a NOR gate.
 These basic circuits are the primary building block from which more complex functions are obtained.

Figure: Various Digital Logic Families available in the Market

Legend:
RTL – Resistor Transistor Logic
IIL – Integrated Injection Logic
HTL – High Threshold Logic
pMOS – p-type MOSFET Logic
CMOS – Complimentary MOS Logic
DCTL – Direct Coupled Transistor Logic
DTL – Diode Transistor Logic
STTL – Schottky TTL
nMOS – n-type MOSFET Logic

 The circuits in which transistors are driven into saturation are called saturated circuits. The circuits that avoids
saturations region during logical operation is non-saturated circuits; they only make use of active and cut-off
mode during logical operation.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, MAMTS
1.3 Characteristics of Digital Logic Families
Different logic function families are usually evaluated by comparing the characteristics of the basic gates in each
family. Some of these important characteristics are described below.

# Fan-In and Fan-Out

Fan-In is the number of inputs of a logic gate that it can handle without impairing its normal operation.
Propagation delay increases with number of inputs. Such as, a two input NAND gate is faster than four input
NAND gate.

Logical
Symbol

Fan-In 1 2 3

Fan-Out is the maximum number of digital inputs that the output of a single logic gate can feed where the gate
must be from same logic family. Each of the connected logic gate will be considered as a unit load. A unit load
determines how many connections we can make from the output from a single logic gate. In following figure,
the output of a driving NAND gate is fed to three-unit load (or load gates) during two states.

Figure: Current Sourcing in High State Figure: Current Sinking in Low State

⸫ High State Fan-Out = IOH(max)/IIH ⸫ Low State Fan-Out = IOL(max)/IIL

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, MAMTS
 # Propagation Delay

It is the time taken for the output of a gate to change after the input is applied. The output could be logic 0 or 1.
- If the output changes for logical 0 to logical 1 state, then the propagation delay = T pLH

- If the output changes for logical 1 to logical 0 state, then the propagation delay = T pHL (TpLH ≠ TpHL)

In timing diagram, propagation delay is calculated between a designated point on the input pulse and the
corresponding point on the output pulse. Usually the propagation delay times are indicated with 50% point on the
pulse edges used as reference. Since, the value of TpLH and TpHL is not equal, hence we calculate an average
propagation delay: Average Propagation Delay (Td) = (TpHL + TpLH)/2

# Power Dissipation & Speed Power Product

It is the power consumed by the gate when fully driven by all the inputs, which must be available from the power
supply. If the input keep changing frequently, then we will calculate an average power dissipation given by:

PAvg = VCC x ICC = VCC x (ICCH+ICCL)/2

Power Dissipation = VCC x ICCH Power Dissipation = VCC x ICCL

Speed-Power product is a common means of measuring and comparing the overall performance of IC family.
It is also known as figure of merit. It is the product of propagation delay (in Seconds) and power dissipation (in
Watts = Joules/Seconds). Since, we want a logic gate in which the propagation delay is minimum and consume
less power, so a low value of Speed-Power product is desirable.

⸫ Speed Power Product/Figure of Merit (J) = Propagation Delay (S) x Power Dissipation (J/S)

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, MAMTS
 # Noise Immunity and Noise Margin

- The logic circuits may encounter noise voltages from different part of the circuit. If the noise voltage exceeds
certain level or specific limit the logic circuit malfunctioned. This arises two terms Noise Immunity and Noise
Margin.
- Noise immunity is the circuit’s ability to tolerate noise at the input side. To measure the noise immunity of a
circuit we use a term Noise Margin. The amount of noise voltage for which the digital circuit will capable of to
tolerate that noise voltage is known as Noise Margin. It is a quantitative measure of noise immunity or the
amount of noise spike that the logic can withstand.

- Hence, two Noise Margins are specified for logic circuits, High Level Noise Margin (NMH) and Low Level
Noise Margin (NML), they are expressed as:

NMH = VOH(min) – VIH(min) and NML = VIL(max) – VOL(max)

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, MAMTS

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