ABPK3203 Psychology of Learning

ABPK3203
PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING
Dr Choong Lean Keow
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Dr Rozeman Abu Hassan
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Dr Choong Lean Keow

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Moderator: Dr Ke Guek Nee

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, April 2010

Second Edition, August 2014 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2014, ABPK3203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ixăxiii
Topic 1 Introduction to Psychology of Learning 2

1.2 Types of Learning 4
1.3 Reflexes 9
1.4 Types of Reflexes 10
1.5 How Learning Differs from Reflexes 14
1.6 Historical Overview of Learning Theories 15
1.6.1 Behaviourism 16
1.6.2 Cognitivism 17
1.6.3 Constructivism 18
1.6.4 Social Cognitive Theory 18
Summary 19
Key Terms 20
References 20
Topic 2 Behavioural Psychology and Learning 21

2.1 Classical Conditioning: PavlovÊs Work 22
2.2 PavlovÊs Classic Experiment 23
2.3 The Basic Classical Conditioning Model 26
2.4 Classical Conditioning Of Emotional Responses 29
2.5 Additional Classical Conditioning Phenomena 34
2.6 Educational Implications Of Classical Conditioning 35
Summary 37
Key Terms 38
References 38
Topic 3 Operant Conditioning 40

3.1 ThorndikeÊs Experiments 41
3.2 SkinnerÊs Experiments 44
3.3 Outcomes of Operant Conditioning 46
3.4 Distinguishing Between Classical Conditioning and
Operant Conditioning 47
3.5 Conditions Essential for Operant Conditioning to Occur 48
3.6 Types of Reinforcers 49
3.6.1 The Premack Principle 51
3.6.2 Reinforcement and Punishment 51
3.7 Schedules of Reinforcement 52

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.8 The Nature and Effect of Punishment 55

3.9 Additional Operant Conditioning Phenomena 57
Summary 59
Key Terms 61
References 61
Topic 4 Recent Research in Behaviourism 63

4.1 Applications of Behavioural Learning Principles 64
4.1.1 Behaviour Management 64
4.1.2 Teaching New Behaviours 71
4.1.3 Maintaining Behaviour 73
4.1.4 Contributions of Behavioural Learning Principles
to Instruction 73
4.2 Recent Theoretical Development of Behaviourism 77
Summary 79
Key Terms 80
References 80
Topic 5 Social Cognitive Theory and Learning 82

5.1 Assumptions of the Social Cognitive Theory 83
5.2 Learning by Observation 85
5.2.1 Bandura and Observational Learning 86
5.2.2 Principles of Observational Learning 88
5.2.3 How Observational Learning Impacts Learning 88
5.3 Learning as an Internal Process 89
5.4 Influence of Cognitive Processes 91
5.4.1 Memory 91
5.4.2 Mental Representations 92
5.4.3 Language 93
5.5 Goal-directed Behaviour 94
Summary 96
Key Terms 97
References 97
Topic 6 The Social Cognitive View of Reinforcement and Punishment 98

6.1 Expectations 99
6.1.1 Implications in the Classroom 100
6.2 Vicarious Experiences 101
6.3 Cognitive Processing 102
6.4 Choice of Behaviour 103
6.5 Non-occurrence of Expected Consequences 104

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Summary 105
Key Terms 105
References 106
Topic 7 Modelling 107

7.1 The Theory of Observational Learning 108
7.2 How Modelling Affects Behaviour 109
7.3 Characteristics of Effective Models 113
7.4 Processes Involved in Learning from Models 115
Summary 118
Key Terms 119
References 119
Topic 8 Self-efficacy 120

8.1 Concept of Self-efficacy 121
8.1.1 Self-efficacy and Models 122
8.1.2 Self-efficacy and Instructional Efficacy 123
8.2 How Self-efficacy Affects Behaviour 124
8.2.1 Promoting Self-efficacy in the Classroom 125
8.2.2 Implications of Self-Efficacy in the Classroom 126
8.3 Factors in the Development of Self-efficacy 126
Summary 129
Key Terms 130
References 130
Topic 9 Cognitive Psychology and Learning 132

9.1 Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology 133
9.1.1 Sub-Domains of Cognitive Psychology 136
9.2 Basic Concepts of Cognitive Psychology 138
9.3 A Model of Human Memory 140
9.3.1 Sensory Memory 141
9.3.2 Short-term Memory 142
9.3.3 Long-term Memory 142
Summary 143
Key Terms 144
References 144
Topic 10 Memory 146

10.1 Short-term Memory (STM) 147
10.2 Storage of Information in Long-term Memory (LTM) 151
10.3 Retrieval of Information from Long-term Memory 154
10.3.1 Serial Position Test 157
10.4 Forgetting: The Loss of Memory 159

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 163
Key Terms 165
References 166
Topic 11 Information-processing Theory 167

11.1 Levels of Processing 168
11.2 Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) 171
11.3 The Neuroscience Approach 173
Summary 174
Key Terms 176
References 176
Topic 12 Complex Cognitive Processes 178

12.1 Concept Learning 179
12.1.1 Theories of Concept Learning 179
12.1.2 Misconceptions About Concept Learning 181
12.1.3 Application of Concept Learning in the Classroom 181
12.2 Transfer 183
12.2.1 Types of Transfer 183
12.2.2 Principles of Transfer 184
12.3 Problem-solving 186
12.3.1 Well-defined and Ill-defined Problems 186
12.3.2 Algorithms and Heuristics 187
12.3.3 A Problem-solving Model 188
12.3.4 Expert-novice Differences in Problem-solving
Ability 190
12.4 Metacognition and Study Strategies 191
12.4.1 Metacognition 191
12.4.2 Effective Study Strategies 192
Summary 193
Key Terms 195
References 195

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly about the course and how you can work your way through the course
material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to
complete the course successfully. Please keep referring to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
ABPK3203 Psychology of Learning is one of the courses offered by the Faculty of
Arts and Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth three credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Psychology with
Honours programme. This module aims to impart principles of learning drawn
from experimental and theoretical psychology. This module should be able to
form a strong foundation for subsequent psychology courses.
As an open and distance learner, you should be familiar with learning

independently and be able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm you have the
course material, understand the course requirements and know how the course is
conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours can be
accumulated.

x  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial

3
discussions
Study the module 60

Attend three to five tutorial sessions 10
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the principles of learning drawn from experimental and theoretical
psychology;
2. Examine the historical overview of the theories of learning;
3. Compare and contrast the various theories of learning from the
behavioural, social cognitive and cognitive perspective;
4. Apply the principles of the theories of learning in the classroom; and
5. Discuss the implications of the theories of learning in the educational
context.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 12 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 begins with a discussion of the definition and types of learning in the
context of psychology. A historical overview of the theories of learning is also
presented.
Topic 2 introduces the behavioural perspective of learning. Ivan PavlovÊs

classical conditioning will be examined in detail. The educational implications of
classical conditioning is considered and discussed.
COURSE GUIDE  xi
Topic 3 examines the various aspects of operant conditioning. A comparison

is made between classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Operant
conditioning phenomena in teaching and learning is also discussed.
Topic 4 discusses the application of behavioural principles in the classroom. It

also focuses on recent research in behaviourism.
Topic 5 examines the social cognitive theory with emphasis on the contributions
of Bandura in the area of observational learning.
Topic 6 describes the social cognitive view of reinforcement and punishment. It

focuses on the influence of five cognitive features on behaviour.
Topic 7 examines the theory of observational behaviour. The various aspects

related to modelling are discussed in detail.
Topic 8 describes the various aspects related to self-efficacy. The concept, effects
on behaviour and the factors involved in the development of self-efficacy are
examined.
Topic 9 presents the tenets of the cognitive perspective of learning. A model of

human memory is also considered and discussed.
Topic 10 deals with memory with emphasis on short-term and long-term

memory. The theory of forgetting is also discussed.
Topic 11 examines the information-processing theory. It focuses on the various

levels of information processing including the parallel distributed processing.
The neuroscience approach is also examined.
Topic 12 discusses several complex cognitive processes that include concept

learning, transfer of learning, problem-solving, metacognition and study
strategies.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you understand the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you organise your
study in a more objective and effective manner. Generally, the text arrangement
for each topic is as follows:

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these given learning outcomes. By doing this, you can
continuously gauge your progress of understanding the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is found at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after one sub-section or sometimes after a
few sub-sections. It usually comes in the form of a question that may require you
to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across this component,
try to reflect on what you have already gone through. When you attempt to
answer the question, you should be able to gauge whether you have understood
what you have read clearly, vaguely or whether you have not understood the
section at all. Most of the time, the answer to the question can be found directly
from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations

throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, the Activity can appear in the
form of questions, short case studies or you may be asked to conduct an
observation or research. You might also be asked to give your opinion or
evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to
expand on what you have learnt from the module and introduce it to real
situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might
be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall
and define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
assists you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you will be
able to gauge your retention level. If you find points in the summary that you do
not fully understand, you should go through the topic again.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component so as to remind yourself of important terms or jargons
used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end
of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer
to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no pre-requisite for this course.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
acunix.wheatonma.edu. (n.d.). Learning. Retrieved from http://acunix.
wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/Animal_Behavior_Class/learning.html
allpsych.com. (n.d.). Learning theory and behavioural psychology. Retrieved
from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/reinforcement.html
Answers.com. (n.d.). Levels of processing effect. In wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://www.answers.com/topic/levels-of-processing-effect
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York, NY: General Learning
Press
Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In annals of child development (Vol.
6, pp. 1ă60). Greenwich, CT: Jai Press
BBC. (n.d.). Nervous system ă Reflexes. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.
uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/reflexes/html„Psychology for the
Millions‰
Behaviour Change Theory and Models. Retrieved from
http://www.csupomona.edu/~jvgrizzell/best_practices/bctheory.html
Branaghan, R. J. (n.d.). WhatÊs so special about stories?, Arizona State University,
Retrieved from
http://www.cerici.org/documents/storytelling/Russell_Branaghan.ppt
Center for Positive Practices. (2005). Self-efficacy. Retrived from
http://www.positivepractices.com/Efficacy/SelfEfficacy.html#TheGeneral
Problem
Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is self-efficacy? Retrived from
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm
education.purduecal.edu. (n.d.). Negative side effects of punishment. Retrieved
from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/Vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy11
/edpsy11sideeffects.htm

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Free-ResearchPapers.com. (n.d.). Depth of processing model. Retrieved from

http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b6/pko92.shtml
Hall, R. H. Information-processing theory. Retrieved from
http://medialab.mst.edu/rhall/educational_psychology/2001/vl2a/info_
new. html
Purdue University Calumet. (n.d.). Long-term memory. Retrieved from
education.purduecal.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy6/edpsy6_long.htm
Prentice hall. (n.d.). Complex cognitive processes. Retrieved from
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_6/0,8057,885692-,00.html
Wilderdom.com. (2003). Social learning & social cognitive perspectives on
personality. Retrieved from http://wilderdom.com/personality/L9-3Social
LearningCognitive.html
Wolfgang, C. H. (2001). Solving discipline and classroom management problems:
Methods and models for todayÊs teachers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Woolfolk, A. (2005). Educational psychology (9th ed.). Massachusetts, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.
wps.ablongman.com. (n.d.). Behavioural theories of learning. Retrieved from
http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_slavin_edpsych_7/3/867/221981.cw/inde
x.html
www3.niu.edu. (n.d.). Ivan Pavlov. Retrieved from http://www3.niu.edu/acad/
psych/Millis/History/2003/con_Pavlov.htm
www.edu. (n.d.). Conditioning and learning. Retrieved from http://www.uwm.
edu/~jcm/psy514/Chapter03a.Respondent-behaviour-basic/def.cc.txt
The Gestalt Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples
/gestaltprinc.htm
The Cognitive System. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:
Valdosta State Huitt, W. (2006). University. Retrived from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/cogsys.html
users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human Memory: Atkinson-Shiffrin Model. Retrieved from
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/AtkinsonShifrin.html
users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human memory. Retrieved from
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/Ebbinghaus.html

COURSE GUIDE  xv
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Introduction
to Psychology
1 of Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what learning is;
2. Explain the different types of learning;
3. Describe what reflexes are;
4. Identify the different types of reflexes;
5. Distinguish between learning and reflexes; and
6. Provide a historical overview of various learning theories.
 INTRODUCTION
„I want to talk about learning... I am talking about the student who says,
„I am discovering, drawing in from the outside, and making that which is
drawn in a real part of me.‰ I am talking about any learning in which the
experience of the learner progresses along this line: „...Ah, here it is! Now
I'm grasping and comprehending what I need and what I want to know!‰
ă Carl Rogers 1983: 18ă19
Well, what do you think of Carl RogerÊs explanation of learning? Read the
excerpt above carefully and list down the key concepts associated with learning.
Yes, learning begins with our quest for knowledge. This quest involves making
discoveries and making meaning of what we obtain from our surroundings as
well as from within ourselves. A direct result of learning is a gain in our
experiences. Do you agree?

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
In this topic, you will learn about the definition and types of learning in the
context of psychology. This will be helpful to you when you try to differentiate
between learning and reflexes. In addition, you will also briefly read about four
prevalent learning theories ă behaviourism, social cognitive theory, cognitivism,
and constructivism.
1.1 DEFINITION OF LEARNING

Look up the dictionary to find the meaning of „learning‰. Then compare the
meaning given with that found in encyclopaedias and psychology textbooks. Are
they similar or different? To illustrate, the American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language defines „learning‰ as „the act, process, or experience of gaining
knowledge or skill‰. In comparison, the Columbia Encyclopaedia explains that
„in psychology, (learning refers to) the process by which a relatively lasting
change in potential behaviour occurs as a result of practice or experience.‰ In
support of this definition, Hill (2002, cited in Woolfolk, 2005:190) elaborates that
„to qualify as learning, this change must be brought about by experience ă by the
interaction of a person with his environment.‰
Based on the dictionary definition, learning involves „a gain of knowledge or

skills.‰ However, if you think carefully, is this always the case? Not really.
Consider common maladaptive behaviours such as arrogance, procrastination,
and so on, and neurotic symptoms like anxiety reactions. They are learned, but
do we gain anything positive from them?
From the encyclopaedia and psychology textbook definitions given above, we

can draw two conclusions.
1 Learning is said to take place if learners have the ability and capability
of doing something that they were unable to before the learning
process. For example, you teach a six-year-old child how to ride a
bicycle. He learns how to sit and balance himself on the two-wheeler,
and then pedal away by steering the handle bars. After several
attempts, he is able to ride his bicycle for a reasonable distance without
falling off. This clearly shows that learning has taken place.
2 Secondly, learning must be produced by experience. Hence, you can

strike out changes that occur as a result of maturation, illness, drugs or
injury. Some examples include exhibiting fine motor skills such as
threading a needle or holding a pencil to draw; losing weight after a
bout of influenza, prolonged drug-taking or a bad accident.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING  3
In order to help you understand the concept of maturation and learning, read
CarmichaelÊs (1926) classic experiment on salamanders as follows.
Based on what you have read about CarmichaelÊs experiment on salamanders,

what can you conclude? Firstly, it is difficult to say that something is specifically
a product of learning or is purely genetic. Secondly, maturation can be seen as,

perhaps, helping to prepare an organism to learn a skill quickly. Take a simple

example of a two-year-old toddler who cannot open a cupboard door. However,
when he reaches the age of four, he is able to do so. This is because he has grown
physically taller to allow for this change of behaviour. Do you agree?
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. In your own words, define „learning‰.
2. Is learning dependent on maturation? Give reasons to support

your answer.
1.2 TYPES OF LEARNING

Now that you have studied what learning is, how many types of learning can
you name? In the context of psychology, learning occurs as result of classical
conditioning and operant learning. Besides these, human beings also exhibit
other types of learning such as chaining, acquisition of skills, discrimination
learning, concept formation, principle learning, and problem-solving. These are
just some examples of an inexhaustible list of human and animal activities which
psychologists refer to as learning. Now, let us discuss some diversified forms of
learning.
(a) Classical Conditioning

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849ă1936) as shown in Figure 1.1 performed
numerous experiments using stimuli as signals to elicit a response which he
called classical conditioning. In one of his well-known experiments, he
presented a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, to a dog just before an effective
stimulus, for example, food. He discovered that this elicited a response in
the dog, such as salivation, that originally was evoked by the food. In this
case, the dog is said to have been conditioned (refer to Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.1: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849ă1936)

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivan_Pavlov_(Nobel).png
Figure 1.2: PavlovÊs theory of classical conditioning

Source: http://missbakersbiologyclasswikiwikispaces.com/
Trimester+1+Cumulative+Exam+Study+Guide File:pavlovdog.jpg

Now, can you tell how this type of learning is applicable in our daily lives?
Let us look at an example.
When the recess bell rings each day, it is typical for learners to run
happily to the canteen to buy food. If this bell is replaced by the ringing
of the fire bell during recess time, you may find them running to the
school canteen instead of assembling in the school field as part of an
exercise fire drill. These learners have been conditioned by the recess bell
so much so that when the fire bell rings, they exhibit the same response!
(b) Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is also called instrumental learning where the
organism learns the relationship between its response and the consequence
of that behaviour. In other words, the organism is either rewarded or
punished if he shows an action that approaches a new desired behaviour.
This is best demonstrated by a classic experiment using the Skinner box
with a starving rat inside. When the rat succeeded in pressing the lever, it
was rewarded with a small pellet of food. In other experiments, rats or
pigeons also learned how to avoid or end aversive stimuli such as an
electric shock.
Again, how is operant conditioning applied in our daily lives? Read the
following example.
During a classroom activity, a learner raises his hand and gives the
correct answer to a question asked by the teacher. The teacher then
acknowledges his answer and praises him in front of his classmates. The
teacherÊs praise will most likely encourage him to participate actively in
class if he wants to earn more praises.
(c) Chaining
As the name suggests, the subject under study is required to make a
number of responses which follow a specific order known as chaining. In a
laboratory experiment, a rat is required to master a sequence of correct
turns in a maze to enable it to get out successfully at the other end. A
classroom example will be the case of students engaged in a mathematical
puzzle. They will have to provide a series of responses in a certain order to
arrive at the correct solution.

(d) Skills Acquisition

In laboratory experiments, rats, pigeons or cats are taught to control the
force that they exercise on a lever. This means that they have acquired a
particular skill that is required. The quantity of food, which is the reward, is
dependent upon the force executed. Let us look at an example.
Footballers playing in various positions learn how to control the football

they manoeuvre around the football field. The prize, in the form of a
trophy, is dependent upon the expertise of the team members in
exercising their respective skills.
(e) Discrimination Learning

Laboratory studies reward animals that are able to respond to particular
aspects of a given stimulus, such as sound, light, colour and so on. In other
words, they are able to distinguish between the different stimuli presented.
As an example:
Young children learn to discriminate between the sound of an ice-cream

bell and the sound of the police siren. The ice-cream bell makes them
very happy as they can buy ice cream which they love. However, this
same feeling may not arise with the sound of the police siren. In some
cases, it may even instil fear in them if they have been told by grown-
ups that the police will come and take them away to the police station.
(f) Concept Formation

After training, organisms are said to have learnt a concept when they are
able to respond accurately to different objects in a similar fashion. A typical
example is that of eight-year-olds who can give correct responses to
concepts such as „circular‰ and „triangular‰ after being taught these shapes
in the classroom.
(g) Principle Learning

In a Mathematics lesson, learners are exposed to different combination sets
of shapes. For example, the first set is composed of two rectangles and one
square; the second comprises two triangles and one hexagon. When a
learner is able to identify the „odd‰ shape from each set, he is rewarded.
This shows the ability of the learner to apply the principle of similarity and
oddity.

(h) Problem-solving
Definition of problem-solving is a process that involves discovering the
correct sequence of alternatives leading to a goal or an ideal solution.
This type of learning is common in solving mathematical or scientific
concepts such as a geometry problem, solving the rubik cube and so on.
(Source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/print?eu=114758)
Now, we have learnt the types of learning. Let us summarise the different kinds
of learning. Take a look at Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Types of Learning
Types of Learning Description

Classical conditioning An automatic type of learning in which a stimulus
acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was
originally evoked by another stimulus.
Operant conditioning Learning the relationship between response and
consequence of a particular behaviour.
Chaining Making a number of responses which follow a
specific order.
Skills acquisition A type of learning that requires an individual to
perform a particular skill correctly.
Discrimination learning Responding to particular aspects of a given
stimulus, such as sound, light, colour, etc.
Concept formation Responding accurately to different objects by
applying a concept learned.
Principle learning Applying a principle to solve a problem.
Problem-solving A type of learning that requires the selection and
combination of multiple principles in order to
solve a problem.

ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Describe ONE example for each of the following types of learning in
the classroom:
(a) Concept formation
(b) Principle learning
(c) Problem-solving
2. Visit this website: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YFd_uCI-

XOY &feature=related and discuss the video with your course
mates. Get your tutor to comment as well.
1.3 REFLEXES
After you have learnt about the concept of „learning‰, can you explain how it is
different from „reflexes‰? Before you attempt to do so, try to briefly describe
what a reflex is.
Perhaps you can consider this example. Upon contact with a hot kettle, you
immediately withdraw your hand. What is this response called? It is an
automatic or involuntary response that happens even before your brain sends the
message that tells you, „The kettle is hot! Take your hand away.‰ Withdrawing
your hand from the hot kettle is an innate reflex action. This action happens very
quickly and you have no control over it.
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a reflex is „an automatic and

often inborn response to a stimulus. This response involves a nerve impulse
passing inward from a receptor to a nerve centre and thence outward to an
effecter (such as a muscle or gland) without reaching the level of consciousness‰.
In physiology, a reflex is „a response to a perturbing stimulus that acts to return
the body to homeostasis‰. It is said that a reflex response may have one of the
three characteristics as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Characteristics of Reflex Response
Characteristic Example
Subconscious The regulation of blood sugar by insulin, a pancreatic
hormone
Fairly noticeable Perspiring in response to a rise in body temperature

Obvious Turning your head away to avoid being hit by a flying
object that is coming towards you
Have you asked yourself what happens in a reflex action? What are the processes
which are likely to be involved? It is interesting to note that unlike other body
processes which involve the brain to receive and send messages, a reflex action
involves a reflex arc which is a very simple nervous pathway. First of all, the
receptors are stimulated. They then send signals along a sensory neuron to your
spinal cord. There the signals are transmitted to a motor neuron, thus stimulating
one of your muscles or glands.
1.4 TYPES OF REFLEXES

Are you aware that we possess different types of reflexes? Why are reflexes
important? Firstly, to protect us from things in our surroundings that may harm
us. A typical example is the eye blink reflex. Secondly, to help in the normal
functioning of our bodily processes to maintain homeostasis, for example, the
blood sugar level in our bodies. Do you know there are five types of reflexes that
normal human beings possess? Refer to Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Types of reflexes

Let us discuss the reflexes in detail.
(a) Neonatal Reflexes

Neonatal reflexes or primitive reflexes are present at birth. These reflexes
are believed to be inborn. More accurately, they are described as
unconditioned reflexes which are not learned or developed through
experience. Some examples include the moro or startle reflex, walking or
stepping, tonic neck reflex and the palmar and plantar grasp. Figure 1.4
shows palmar grasp reflex, an example of neonatal reflexes.
Figure 1.4: An example of neonatal reflex ă palmar grasp refelx

Source: http://www.bookrags.com/research/neonatal-reflexes-geca/
To get more information about neonatal reflexes, please visit this website:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11HDGu5ufVY&feature=related
(b) Infant Reflexes

Newborn human infants show various types of stretch reflexes that are
mainly used for controlling posture and head movements. Eventually, they
develop vestibular reflexes and sensory reflexes. This is then followed by
important reflexes for the control of locomotion. Gradually, as the infant
grows, these reflex movements are replaced by controlled voluntary
movements. Figure 1.5 shows examples of infant reflexes.

Figure 1.5: Example of infant reflexes

Source: http://www.bookrags.com/tandf/infant-reflexes-tf/
(c) Autonomic Reflexes

Autonomic reflexes are reflexes that do not involve a visible and sudden
movement.
Some examples include:
(i) Vomiting, which is the result of a reflex arc involving receptors in the
region of the pharynx.
(ii) Swallowing, which is triggered by tactile stimulation of the mucosa of
the palate, pharynx and epiglottis.
(iii) Temperature regulation, which involves hypothalamic activation.
(d) Flexion or Withdrawal Reflexes

These reflexes occur when you touch a hot object or step on a sharp object.
Instantly, you withdraw your hand or foot. These reflexes help to protect us
from physical injury by quickly removing the part of the body from being
near the harmful object.
(e) Somatosomatic or Stretch Reflexes

These reflexes protect the muscle from increasing in length thus tearing or
damaging muscle fibres. A typical example of such a reflex is the patellar
reflex or the knee-jerk reflex. This involves a sudden kicking movement of

your lower leg after someone taps the tendon just below your kneecap.
Figure 1.6 shows an example of stretch reflexes.
Figure 1.6: Example of stretch reflexes

Source: http://ifcsun1.ifisiol.unam.mx/Brain/reflex.htm
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Visit this website:

http://www.answers.com/topic/reflex-instinctive-reflex-innate-
reflex-inborn-reflex-unconditioned-reflex-physiological-reaction
2. Categorise the reflexes listed on this website into the following

categories:
(a) Neonatal reflexes;
(b) Autonomic reflexes;
(c) Somatosomatic reflexes; and
(d) Flexion reflexes.

1.5 HOW LEARNING DIFFERS FROM REFLEXES

Now that you have understood the meaning of learning and reflexes, how would
you differentiate these two terms?
Firstly, learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skills whereas reflexes are
physiological responses that are inborn. This means that when we learn, we
increase our knowledge and skills. In the case of reflexes, we are born with them
to protect us from harm as well as help us function in a normal and healthy
manner.
Secondly, learning is generally a voluntary process compared to reflexes which

are mostly involuntary in nature. This means that we are often in control of what
and how we learn, whereas we almost do not have any control over our reflexes.
Thirdly, learning can be enhanced through time and effort. This may not be the
case when we refer to reflexes. This means quantitative changes can take place in
our learning, but we cannot increase the number of reflexes that we have.
Nevertheless, the quality of our learning and reflexes may deteriorate with time.
As we grow older, we may not be able to remember the things we have learnt,
our reflexes too may not be as sharp as they were when we were younger. Do
you agree?
Table 1.3 summarises the differences between learning and reflexes.
Table 1.3: Summary of Differences between Learning and Reflexes
Aspect Learning Reflexes

Concept Acquisition of knowledge and Physiological inborn responses
skills
Nature Voluntary Involuntary
Types of change Quantitative ă can be Qualitative ă may deteriorate
enhanced through time and with time
effort
SELF-CHECK 1.2
What is the fundamental difference between learning and reflexes?

Provide one example for your answer.

1.6 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF LEARNING

THEORIES
What are some of the learning theories that you have read? What do you
understand by the term learning theory? According to Driscoll (2004), „a learning
theory comprises a set of constructs linking observed changes in performance
which is thought to bring about those changes‰. To understand what this
statement means, let us take a simple construct like motivation. Individuals who
are intrinsically motivated are observed to exhibit the same performance
consistently. They show excellent performance because they are self-motivated;
not because they have received any reward from other people. Based on this
finding, psychologists have invented the concept of motivation to explain one of
the reasons for excellent performance.
In order to build a learning theory, Driscoll (2004:9) identified three components

as the basic requirements. You can see that in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Three components of learning theory
The first psychological laboratory was set up in Leipzeig, Germany in 1879 by

Wilhelm Wundt. Since its establishment, researchers have been carrying out
extensive research in an endeavour to seek answers to the above three questions.
We can consider the evolution of learning theories as a progression from broad-
based theories explaining how learning takes place to more specific theories
explaining the learning process from a particular perspective.
Generally, learning theories can be classified into three main categories, that are
Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Additionally, the Social
Cognitive Theory focuses on the social aspects of learning. What are the basic
tenets of each of these perspectives? From the behavioural perspective, learning
occurs through stimulus-response associations. On the other hand, the cognitive
perspective proposes the role of active mental activity for understanding the
learning process. The constructive perspective emphasises the active role of the

learner to construct his own understanding and knowledge. The social cognitive
learning perspective, on the other hand, views learning from the social context.
1.6.1 Behaviourism
Behaviourism evolved from the work of behaviourists who emphasised the role
of experience in determining human activity. This school of thought moved away
from early thinking which stressed the importance of instinct in human
behaviour. Figure 1.8 briefly summarises the origins of behaviourism.
Figure 1.8: Origins of behaviourism
One of the earliest influences to the behaviouristic view of learning was

AristotleÊs concept of the association of ideas between two similar or opposite
events. This approach to learning was further developed by Edward Thorndike
who proposed his idea of connectionism. Following numerous studies using his
puzzle boxes, Thorndike proposed that changes in animal behaviour was a result
of an association between a sensation and an impulse. He argued that learning
occurred as a consequence of rewards given. This then led to Ivan PavlovÊs
extensive investigation of the conditioning process which he called classical
conditioning. Later, the contribution of B. F. SkinnerÊs operant or instrumental
conditioning marked yet another milestone for behaviourism. Skinner proposed
that behaviours are learnt as a consequence of a schedule of reinforcement or
punishment.

However, it was J. B. Watson also known as the „Father of Behaviourism‰ who

showed us the importance of the learning process to human behaviour (Klein,
2002:11). WatsonÊs famous experiment with Little Albert demonstrated some of
the most important principles of behaviourism, such as stimulus generalisation
and discrimination, extinction and counter-conditioning. Notably, counter
conditioning or systematic desensitisation, which was further developed by
Wolpe, is now very useful in the treatment of phobias.
Generally, we can see that the ideas and works of Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner
and Watson influenced the theoretical perspectives of educational psychology
from the 1920s to the 1960s. These behaviourists believed that learning occurred
when there was a change in behaviour; internal mental states were not important
factors in the study of learning. In the following topics, the behavioural learning
theory will be discussed in greater detail.
1.6.2 Cognitivism
In the 1960s, a group of psychologists became concerned about the influence of
internal mental processes such as thinking and remembering on behaviour.
These cognitivists, as they were called, argued that learning can take place
without the presence of overt behaviour. They believed that the human mind is
an active processor of information that can undertake the task of modifying new
experiences, relating them to past experiences and organising the information
obtained for storage and retrieval.
Edward Tolman was a cognitivist psychologist who investigated the role of

cognitive elements in rats, which had to run through a maze as their learning
task. Other eminent cognitivists who contributed to human cognition included
Bartlett (1932), Atkinson and Shriffin (1968), and Gestalt theorists such as Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka. We will discuss these in Topic 9:
Cognitive Psychology and Learning, Topic 10: Memory, and Topic 11: The
Information-Processing Theory.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
How do behaviourists and cognitivists view the learning process?
Discuss.

1.6.3 Constructivism
Constructivism is the 20th century approach to learning which evolved as a
reaction to behaviourism. As we have learnt, behaviourists regard the learner as
passive and merely acquiring knowledge in the learning process. In contrast,
constructivists view the learner as actively constructing knowledge based on
personal experiences and interaction with the environment. Constructivism is
said to have been initially influenced by RousseauÊs ideas that the underlying
basis for constructing understanding was the learnerÊs interaction with the
environment. His emphasis on experiential learning or learning by doing, was
later developed by John Dewey and Jerome Bruner. Other proponents of the
constructivist approach to learning include Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.
1.6.4 Social Cognitive Theory

As the name suggests, the social cognitive theory describes learning in the social
context. Social cognitive theorists proposed that both humans and animals learn
through imitation, modelling and observation. The works of Dollard and Miller
formed the basis of further research conducted by Albert Bandura in the 1970s.
BanduraÊs famous experiment using the bobo doll demonstrated the acquisition
of aggressive behaviour through modelling. Social cognitive theorists maintained
the behaviourist principles of reinforcement and response contingencies.
However, they also included important elements of cognitive processes such as
attention, retention and reproduction. The social learning theory will be dealt
with in greater detail in Topic 7: Modelling and Topic 8: Self-efficacy.
In conclusion, it can be said that although the above perspectives differ in their
view of how learning can be studied, the proponents of these schools of thought
agree on the following major assumptions of learning theories, which are:
(a) Experience largely influences behaviour;
(b) Learning is adaptive both for the individual, whether human or animal and
the species; and
(c) Learning is a process that can be tested and studied.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. How is the behaviourist approach to learning different from the
constructivist approach?
2. According to the social cognitive theory, how do humans learn?

 Learning is a relatively lasting change in behaviour that occurs as a result of

practice or experience; not as a result of maturation, illness, drugs or injury.
 In the context of psychology, there are various types of learning such as

classical conditioning, operant learning, chaining, acquisition of skills,
discrimination learning, concept formation, principle learning and problem-
solving.
 A reflex is a response to a perturbing stimulus that acts to return the body to

homeostasis.
 A reflex response may be subconscious, fairly noticeable, or obvious.
 A reflex action involves a reflex arc.
 Reflexes protect us from things in our surroundings that may harm us, and
also to help in the normal functioning of our bodily processes to maintain
homeostasis.
 Reflexes can be classified as neonatal reflexes, infant reflexes, autonomic

reflexes, flexion or withdrawal reflexes, and somatosomatic or stretch
reflexes.
 Learning differs from reflexes in three ways which are concept, nature and
type of change.
 A learning theory comprises of a set of constructs linking observed changes

in performance which is thought to bring about those changes.
 Learning theories can be classified into three main categories: behaviourism,

cognitivism and constructivism. A fourth perspective to learning is the social
cognitive theory.
 The behavioural view of learning operates on the premise that all behaviour
is caused by external stimuli.
 Early influences of behavioural learning include associationism,

connectionism, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning.
 Social cognitive theorists propose that both humans and animals learn
through imitation, modelling and observation.

Learning Maturation
Reflexes Reflex arc
Learning theories Behaviourism
Cognitivism Constructivism
Social cognitive theory
acunix.wheatonma.edu. (n.d.). Learning. Retrieved from http://acunix.

BBC. (n.d.). Nervous system ă Reflexes. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.
uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/reflexes/html„Psychology for the
Millions‰.
Brewer, W. F. (n.d.). Learning theory: Historical overview. Retrieved from
http://www.answers. com/topic/learning-theory-historical-overview
csmbio.csm.jmu.edu. (n.d.). Reflexes. Retrieved from http://csm.jmu.edu/
biology/danie2jc/reflex.htm
Driscoll, M. P. (2004). Psychology of learning for instruction. Massachusetts, MA:
Allyn and Bacon.
Klein, S. B. (2002). Learning: Principles and applications (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
McGraw Hill.
Learning-Theories.com. (n.d.). Summaries of learning theories and models.
Retrieved from http://www.learning-theories.com/
Mann, M. D. (2011). Reflexes. Retrieved from http://www.unmc.edu/
physiology/Mann/mann15.html
Merriam-Webster On-line Dictionary. (n.d.). Learning. Retrieved from http://
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/learning
Smith, M. K. (2003). ÂLearning theoryÊ the encyclopaedia of informal education.
Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm
and Bacon.

Topic  Behavioural
2 Psychology
and Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain PavlovÊs contribution to psychology;
2. Describe PavlovÊs classic laboratory experiment;
3. Discuss the classical conditioning model;
4. Explain the conditioning of emotional responses;
5. Identify four classical conditioning phenomena; and
 6.
INTRODUCTION
Examine the educational implications of classical conditioning in
the classroom.
 INTRODUCTION
„Science demands from a man all his life. If you had two lives that
would not be enough for you. Be passionate in your work and in your
searching.‰
ă Ivan Pavlov
The behavioural approaches of learning focus on the importance of making

connections or associations between experiences and behaviour. Two such
approaches are:
(a) Classical Conditioning; and
(b) Operant Conditioning.

22  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING
In this topic, we will examine the first behavioural approach, that is, classical
conditioning.
The following sections in this topic will examine in greater detail PavlovÊs work
on classical conditioning. We are going to learn about:
(a) Ivan PavlovÊs life and his classic experiment in the laboratory with his dogs;
(b) The basic classical conditioning model and the three steps involved in the
classical conditioning process;
(c) The conditioning of emotional responses such as phobias focussing
on systematic desensitisation or counter conditioning, and aversive
conditioning; and
(d) Four phenomena associated with classical conditioning, such as
spontaneous recovery, generalisation, discrimination, and higher-order
conditioning.
The educational implications of classical conditioning in the classroom.
2.1 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV’S

WORK
Is the name Ivan Pavlov familiar? Most of us would have heard about this
Russian physiologist who trained his dogs to respond by salivating to the sound
of bells that signalled the delivery of food. This concept later became known as
classical conditioning.
Before you examine PavlovÊs work on classical conditioning, it is important for

you to read some background information about his life.
Ivan Pavlov (1849ă1936)

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov as shown in Figure 2.1 was born on 14 September 1849 in
Ryazan, Russia. He first furthered his studies in religion but later abandoned it
for the natural sciences in 1870. Later, his interest turned to physiology where he
spent much of his time doing extensive research. Amongst some of his noted
contributions include the physiology of the pancreatic nerves, and the trophic
function of the nervous system. He is especially remembered for his work on the
physiology of digestion for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1904.
During the course of his work to determine the laws governing digestion, he
``accidentallyÊÊ discovered the science of conditioned reflexes. This accidental but
important discovery proved to be a milestone for behaviourism.

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING  23
Figure 2.1: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849ă1936)

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivan_Pavlov
Today, much of PavlovÊs work is cited in the writings of behaviourists and used
by researchers in the study of conditioning as a form of learning. Throughout his
professional life, he devoted his time to producing world class physiological
institutions and distinguished physiologists to carry on his work in this field.
Pavlov helped found the Department of Physiology at the Institute of
Experimental Medicine where he worked for 45 years. Pavlov died in Leningrad
on 27 February 1936.
2.2 PAVLOV’S CLASSIC EXPERIMENT

In his classic experiment of the conditioning process, Pavlov first implanted a
tube, known as a fistula, into a dogÊs salivary glands. This tube enabled him to
collect saliva secreted by the dog. The dog, which had been deprived of food,
was kept in the apparatus shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: PavlovÊs salivary-conditioning apparatus

Source: (Klein, 2002)

It was harnessed to prevent it from moving around. When Pavlov presented the
dog with meat powder, it immediately salivated. As you know, this is a dogÊs
inborn response to food; it does not need to learn to salivate at the sight of food.
Next, he made a sound using a metronome and then placed some meat powder
into the hungry dogÊs mouth. Likewise, the dog salivated. He repeated the
pairings of the metronome sound with the meat powder a number of times. Each
time the dog salivated. Later, he discovered that the metronome sound alone was
able to elicit salivation in the dog. From these observation findings, Pavlov began
to ask himself this question: Why was a reflexive response such as salivation to
food being exhibited to the ticking of a metronome, that by itself would not
normally produce that response? He concluded that salivation to this stimulus
had been a learned response or a conditioned reflex and not just a reflexive
response. The dog had learned to associate the metronome sound with the food
that had initially triggered the response.
Diagrammatically, an unconditioned reflex and a conditioned reflex is

represented in Figure 2.3:
Figure 2.3: Diagrammatic representation of unconditioned reflex

and conditioned reflex

In his other experiments, Pavlov paired various neutral stimuli with the
placement of food in the dogÊs mouth. These stimuli included the ringing of a
bell, the food dish, the individual who brought food into the room and the sound
of the door closing when the food arrived. After several repeated pairings, these
sounds and sights alone caused salivation in the dog. This process of classical
conditioning is typically known as excitation. It explains how learning occurs
through an organismÊs ability to form associations and in the presence of reflexes.
Interestingly, when Pavlov stopped the pairing of the sounds or sights with the
food, he discovered that the salivation response eventually stopped. He called
this extinction.
Figure 2.4 shows the amount of saliva produced in response to the conditioned
stimulus (CS) for the two different phases, which are:
(a) Acquisition [Figure 2.4 (a)]
(b) Extinction [Figure 2.4 (b)]
Figure 2.4: Comparison of the production of salivation during acquisition

and extinction trials
Source: http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ph_wade_psychology_2/46/11888/3043572.cw/
content/index.html
From the graphs presented in Figure 2.4, you can see that with repeated pairings
of the CS with unconditioned stimulus (US) during acquisition trials, salivation
increased from 10 to 14 drops, with slight fluctuations. In comparison, when the
CS is presented alone during extinction trials, there was a marked decrease in
salivation from 11 drops to almost no production at all.

ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Visit this website: http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/

medicine/pavlov/about.html
2. Follow the instructions on how to play this educational game

about Pavlovian conditioning.
(a) Were you successful at training PavlovÊs dog to respond to
a signal that was associated with it being fed? Why? Why
not?
(b) What have you learnt about a conditioned reflex?
2.3 THE BASIC CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

MODEL
The classical conditioning model is derived from the findings of PavlovÊs
experiments. In the previous section, you have learnt that classical conditioning
is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect, or associate stimuli.
Figure 2.5 will help you understand PavlovÊs classical conditioning model.
Briefly, you must be able to distinguish between two types of stimuli and two
types of responses: namely, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

Figure 2.5: Types of stimuli and responses
Based on Figure 2.5, you can infer that both the unconditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned response are two components of an unlearned, inborn reflex: the
trigger, and its result. The conditioned stimulus, on the other hand, is a stimulus
that is neutral with respect to the unconditioned response. In other words, on its
own, it does not trigger that particular response. However, at the same time, a
conditioned stimulus is not really a neutral stimulus. Rather, it is a novel
stimulus as it often causes an orienting response on the animalÊs part. This is
because organisms tend to pay attention to new things.
Basically, the classical conditioning model explains the process in three steps as
shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Three steps in classical conditioning model

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Define and give examples of each of the following:
(a) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS);
(b) Unconditioned response (UCR);
(c) Conditioned stimulus (CS); and
(d) Conditioned response (CR).
2.4 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OF

EMOTIONAL RESPONSES
Figure 2.7: John B. Watson

Source: usu.edu/psycho101/lec...tory.htm
In 1920, John B. Watson (Refer to Figure 2.7) took PavlovÊs work on classical
conditioning one step further. He wanted to show that emotional responses
could be conditioned, or learned. Together with his assistant, Rosalie Rayner,
they carried out the „Little Albert‰ experiment that became a landmark study for
psychology. At that time, psychologists were still not used to the idea that
emotional responses could be conditioned. The findings of this study paved the
way for further research by other psychologists interested in this field.
In their experimental study, Watson and Rayner endeavoured to find answers to

three questions. Let us see what the questions are.
(a) Can an infant be conditioned to fear an animal that appeared at the same
time as a loud, fear-provoking sound?
(b) Can such a fear be transferred to other animals or inanimate objects?
(c) How long would such fears sustain?

The subject under study was a healthy nine-month-old infant named Albert B.
who underwent a number of tests to prove that he was not fearful of a number of
live animals, such as a rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey, as well as various
inanimate objects, that included cotton, human masks, and a burning newspaper.
However, Watson and Rayner observed that Albert showed some signs of fear
whenever a long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer just
behind his back as shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: AlbertÊs Reaction

Source: pbs-kkbi.blogspot.com
Two months later, they started to condition Little Albert to fear a white rat.
Under RaynerÊs supervision, little Albert played with the rat. In the meantime,
Watson stood behind him with his hammer and steel bar. Every time Little
Albert reached for the rat, Watson smacked the bar with the hammer. After seven
pairings of the rat and noise in two sessions held one week apart, Albert started
crying and reacted with avoidance even when the rat was presented without the
loud noise as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Albert and the rat

Source: flavinscorner.com

Table 2.1 outlines the process before and after conditioning based on the
principles of the classical conditioning model.
Table 2.1: Before and After Conditioning
Conditioning phase Process

Before conditioning  The white rat is a neutral stimulus (NS);
 The loud noise is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS); and
 AlbertÊs fear is the unconditioned response (UCR).
After conditioning  The white rat becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS); and
 AlbertÊs fear becomes a conditioned reflex (CR).
Figure 2.10: Albert and Santa Claus mask

Source: waronyou.com
Next, Watson attempted to test if Albert showed generalisation of his fear

response. Five days later, the following live animals and other inanimate objects
were laid in front of him: the rat, a set of familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a
short—haired dog, a sealskin coat, a package of white cotton, the heads of Watson
and two assistants (inverted so that Albert could touch their hair), and a bearded
Santa Claus mask. It was observed that Albert seemed to show a strong fear
response to the rat, the rabbit, the dog, and the sealskin coat; a „negative‰
response to the mask and WatsonÊs hair; and a mild response to the cotton. In
addition, Albert also played freely with the wooden blocks and the hair of
WatsonÊs assistants.
In order to discover the sustainability of conditioned emotional responses over

time, Watson and Rayner conducted a final series of tests on Albert after 31 days
of neither conditioning nor extinction trials. They observed that Albert showed
fear when touching the Santa Claus mask, the sealskin coat, the rat, the rabbit,
and the dog. At the same time, however, he initiated contact with the coat and
the rabbit. Soon after, AlbertÊs mother removed him from the hospital where the
experiment had been conducted.

[Please visit this website to watch a video clip about „little Albert‰]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYElUVByBGc
Based on the „little Albert‰ experiment, we can conclude that:
(a) Human beings can learn to fear seemingly unimportant stimuli when these
stimuli are associated with unpleasant experiences.
In other words, classical conditioning can cause us to develop phobias that
are irrational or excessive fears of specific objects or situations. In addition,
classical conditioning can also explain many emotional responses ă such as
anxiety, grief, sadness, anger, and happiness ă that humans have to
associate specific stimuli to. For example:
(i) A five-year-old child who has experienced excitement sitting on a
roller coaster may even feel excited just by looking at a picture of a
roller coaster in a tourist magazine.
(ii) A daughter who is married and living overseas feels pangs of
homesickness when she reads an email from her mother; in fact, the
mere sight of her motherÊs name which appears in the Inbox may
already have elicited such feelings.
(b) Besides the treatment of phobias, classical conditioning procedures are also
used to treat unwanted behaviours, such as alcoholism and drug
addictions. As an example:
(i) In a treatment for alcoholism, patients were first given an alcoholic
beverage to drink. They were then given a drug to take that produces
nausea. After repeated pairings of alcohol and the drug, they felt
nauseated even at the sight or smell of the alcohol and made a
decision to stop drinking it altogether.
Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the aversive conditioning technique,
as it is called, varies depending on the individualÊs needs and his
decision to stop the problem behaviour.
Another notable study using the principles of classical conditioning to treat

phobias was conducted by Jones (in Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2007). He
attempted to eliminate fear of white rabbits in a young boy, called Peter. In this
study, Peter was first of all asked to sit on a high chair and served his favourite
food. As he was eating, a white rabbit was brought in a small cage as near to him
as was possible, without distracting him. This process was repeated with the
white rabbit (CS) always presented at the same time that Peter was eating his
favourite food (US) until PeterÊs fear response (CR) decreased.

Wolpe (in Schunk, 2000) used systematic desensitisation to treat individuals

especially adults with debilitating fears or phobias. This technique consists of
three phases as summarised in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Phases of Systematic Desensitisation
Phase Example
Phase 1: The Test-anxiety:
therapist and client Low-anxiety situations ă hearing a test announcement in class,
prepare an anxiety collecting study materials such as reference books, notes, and
hierarchy of so on.
situations from
Moderate anxiety situations ă studying and doing revision the
least to most
night before, walking to the examination hall on the day of the
anxiety-provoking
examination.
for the client
High-anxiety situations ă reading the test questions in the
examination hall and mind going blank for a short while.
Phase 2: The client Imagery ă The client is asked to imagine pleasant scenes such
is taught to relax as walking through a field of beautiful flowers, reading a book
using imagery and by the beach, fishing by the countryside, and so on.
cues Cues ă The client learns to use cues to initiate relaxation, for
example by saying „relax‰, „donÊt panic‰, „just take a deep
breath‰, and so on.
Phase 3: The client In a relaxed state, the client is asked to imagine the least
working on the anxious scene in the hierarchy. After several repetitions, the
task client moves on to the next scene. The process is repeated until
the client can imagine the most anxiety-provoking scene
without feeling anxious. If anxiety is reported for a particular
scene, then the client reverses back down the hierarchy to a
scene that makes him feel calm and comfortable.
Generally, the individual is trained to produce antagonistic responses to the

anxiety-provoking situations, typically known as progressive relaxation. Next he
is required to imagine these situations while feeling relaxed. In some cases, real-
life exposures are presented for optimal desensitisation.
Applying the principles of Pavlovian conditioning, desensitisation involves

counter-conditioning. The relaxing scenes (UCS) that the individual imagines
produce relaxation (UCR). Anxiety-producing cues (CS) are then paired with the
relaxing scenes. However, relaxation and anxiety are two antagonistic feelings.
Therefore, it is important that a weak anxiety cue is first paired with relaxation,
slowly progressing up the hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations until all
these situations eventually elicit relaxation (CR).

It has been found that although systematic desensitisation has been rather
effective in the management of adult phobias, the same cannot be applied to the
treatment of childhood phobias. One of the reasons could be due to the fact that
relaxation training can be fairly demanding and tedious for children.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. In your opinion, would „Little Albert‰ have grown up scared of

white furry objects as a result of the experiment conducted by
Watson and Rayner? Explain your view.
2. Using one phobia as an example, describe how you would use

systematic desensitisation to treat the phobia.
2.5 ADDITIONAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

PHENOMENA
In this section you will learn about four additional classical conditioning
phenomena such as spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation, stimulus
discrimination, and higher-order conditioning. Table 2.3 gives a brief description
of how each of these four phenomena occurs.
Table 2.3: Classical Conditioning Phenomena
Phenomenon Occurrence
Spontaneous When the CS is not presented after a rest period or a period of
recovery lessened response, the CR apparently disappears. Nevertheless,
subsequent presentation of the CS will bring about the CR. The
CR is said to have spontaneously recovered from extinction.
However, a recovered CR will not sustain unless the CS is
presented again. Repeated pairings of the CS with the UCS will
then restore the CR to its full strength.
Stimulus The tendency for the CR to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
generalisation For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate in
response to a metronome ticking at 80 beats per minute, it will
also very likely salivate to a metronome ticking faster or slower.
The same response may also be evoked with other equipment
which produces a ticking sound such as ticking clocks or timers.
Generalisation, however, will not occur if the new stimulus is
different from the CS. For example, if a police siren is used.

Stimulus The dog responds to only one particular CS, and not to other
discrimination similar stimuli. For example, the dog salivates only to the sound
of an ice-cream bell, but not to the sound of an alarm clock, a
buzzer or an electric bell. The dog is able to tell the difference
between all these different bell tones.
Higher order A CS functions as an UCS. For example, a dog has been
conditioning conditioned to salivate to a metronome ticking at 80 beats per
minute. A new neutral stimulus, such as a buzzer is first
sounded for a few seconds followed by the ticking metronome.
If, after a few attempts, the dog salivates to the sound of the
buzzer, the buzzer has become a second-order CS.
In order to help you understand better the concept of stimulus generalisation and
stimulus discrimination, let us consider a classroom situation.
May gets a harsh scolding from her father for her poor performance in a recent
Physics test. When she is preparing for her Chemistry test, she becomes very
tense and anxious as these two subjects are both Science subjects. In other words,
MayÊs anxiety generalises from taking a test in one subject to taking a test in
another. However, when May is preparing for her History test, she does not
become so anxious as History is a very different subject area. This means May is
able to discriminate between the Science and the Arts subjects.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. Identify factors that can affect the strength of a classically

conditioned response.
2. Give examples of spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation,

stimulus discrimination, and higher order conditioning in
2.6 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
In everyday life, it is common to see examples of classical conditioning in
animals. For example, your cat may come running to you when she sees you
holding her food dish, or your dog may start wagging his tail when he sees you
approaching the kennel door. In humans, examples of classical conditioning is
also evident in child-rearing practices. Take the example of a parent who gives

his child a cold, icy stare just to quieten his tantrum-throwing in public. Children
sometimes use classical conditioning on their parents. For example, when they
complain that they feel sick, they receive special attention.
What are some of the educational implications of classical conditioning in the

classroom?
(a) Learners must be given educational opportunities to practise and master a
task effectively before embarking on another one. In other words, a learner
needs to be able to respond to a particular stimulus (academic information)
before he can associate himself to new information. The traditional practise
of drill and mathematical concepts such as multiplication tables;
(b) Teachers should be aware of the importance of motivating their learners
to learn. They are encouraged to possess a repertoire of strategies and
techniques that can stimulate learnersÊ thinking as well as enhance active
participation in teaching and learning activities in the classroom; and
(c) Teachers should make an effort to pair stimulus in the classroom with
a positive response. For example, learners should be provided with the
necessary resources in the form of study materials to create good feelings
about learning. However, teachers sometimes use classical conditioning
unintentionally in the classroom. They often subject learners to negative
feedback and humiliation through constant correction of their mistakes,
such as in a reading class. This will most likely result in them losing their
self-confidence and subsequently withdrawing from participating in
classroom activities. Rather, learners should be given the opportunity to
involve themselves in academic tasks that create and encourage pleasant
emotions, such as enthusiasm, excitement and achievement.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
In your own words, explain a positive classroom application using
the principle of classical conditioning.

 The behavioural approaches to learning, namely, classical conditioning and

operant conditioning focus on the importance of making connections or
associations between experiences and behaviour.
 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was an eminent proponent of

 Classical conditioning explains how learning occurs through an organismÊs

ability to form associations and in the presence of reflexes.
 PavlovÊs classical conditioning model emphasises two types of stimuli and

two types of responses, namely, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned
response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
 An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that, unconditionally, will

produce a predictable response.
 An unconditioned response (UCR) is a response that, unconditionally, is

produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
 A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that will produce a predictable

response because of its previous pairing with a previously occurring reflex.
 A conditioned response (CR) is a predictable response to a stimulus that has

influence because of its previous pairing with a previously occurring reflex.
 Watson demonstrated the power of conditioning emotional responses as well

as stimulus generalisation in the famous „little Albert‰ experiment.
 Systematic desensitisation is a common technique used in the treatment of

phobia in adults.
 Extinction: a response gradually disappears when the stimulus is not

presented over a certain period of time.
 Spontaneous recovery: a response to a previous stimulus after a lapse of time.
 Stimulus generalisation: response evoked to stimuli that are similar or

related.

 Stimulus discrimination: response elicited to only one particular stimulus and

not to other similar stimuli.
 Higher-order conditioning: A conditioned stimulus functions as an

unconditioned stimulus.
 Classical conditioning provides educational implications in the classroom.
Behaviourism Phobias
Classical conditioning Spontaneous recovery
Conditioned response Stimulus discrimination
Conditioned stimulus Stimulus generalisation
Excitation Systematic desensitisation
Extinction Unconditioned response
Higher-order conditioning Unconditioned stimulus
acunix.wheatonma.edu. (n.d.). Learning. Retrived from http://acunix.

Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology
forlearning and teaching. (2nd ed). Victoria: Nelson Australia Pty Limited.
Mahto, R. A. (n.d.). Classical conditioning and operant conditioning: Potential
tools for classroom management. Retrieved from http://mrdwab.com/
works/2006-03-25-classical-conditioning.html
Nobelprize.org. (2014). Ivan Pavlov-Biographical. Retrieved from http://
nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlov-bio.html
Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.
Shareeducation.com. (2004). Early behaviourism & classical conditioning.
Retrieved from http://www.shareeducation.com.ar/compendium/news6.
htm

University of Louisiana. (1998). The basic findings in classical conditioning.

Retrieved from http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~cgc2646/LRN/Chap2.html
Van Wagner, K. (nd). Ivan Pavlov biography (1849ă1936). Retrieved from:
http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/pavlov.htm
Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditional Emotional Reactions (Electronic
Version). Journal of experimental psychology, 3(1), 1ă14.
www3.niu.edu. (n.d.). Ivan Pavlov. Retrieved from http://www3.niu.edu/acad/
psych/Millis/History/2003/con_Pavlov.htm

Topic  Operant
3 Conditioning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain operant conditioning;
2. Distinguish between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning;
3. Describe the conditions essential for operant conditioning to occur;
4. Explain different types of reinforcers;
5. Differentiate between reinforcement and punishment;
6. Explain different reinforcement schedules;
7. Discuss the nature and effect of punishment; and
INTRODUCTION
8. Identify operant conditioning phenomena in teaching and learning.
 INTRODUCTION
„The consequences of behaviour determine the probability that the
behaviour will occur again‰
ă B. F. Skinner
In this topic, we shall examine another form of learning proposed by

behaviourists, that is, operant conditioning. If you recall, classical conditioning
illustrates S-R (Stimulus-Response) learning. Operant conditioning, however, is
seen as R-S (Response-Stimulus) learning. This is because it is the consequence
that determines whether a particular response is likely or unlikely to occur again.
In other words, learning is the result of consequences where learners begin to
connect certain responses with certain stimuli. This connection causes the
probability of the response to change.

TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING  41
Before we go any further with this topic, let us study the work and contributions
of two leading proponents of operant conditioning through their experiments; the
Thorndike Experiments and the Skinner Experiments. The two psychologists
responsible for these experiments are Edward L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner.
From there we can get an idea of what operant conditioning is and how the
experiments contribute to operant conditioning. After that, we can compare it
with classical conditioning from the previous topic and attempt to analyse the
types of reinforcers and its phenomena.
3.1 THORNDIKE’S EXPERIMENTS

Who is Edward Lee Thorndike?
Figure 3.1: Edward Lee Thorndike

Source: http://digitalgallery.nypl.org
Thorndike was a psychologist (refer to Figure 3.1) who liked to do experiments

on animals for behavioural study. In this section, we will learn about one of his
experiments, which involved cats.
Thorndike conducted a series of experiments with cats using a modified form of

WatsonÊs puzzle box as illustrated in Figure 3.2.

42  TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING
Figure 3.2: ThorndikeÊs puzzle box

Source: http://www.csus.edu
He substituted the latch with a foot pedal so that if the cat stepped on it, the door
of the cage opened. Thorndike was interested to find out how quickly it learned
to perform this response in order to get free. This type of learning is commonly
known as escape learning.
Initially, he observed that the cat made a number of ineffective responses, such as
clawing, biting at the bars and pushing its paw through the openings. After some
attempts, it accidentally stepped on the treadle, which immediately thrust open
the door bolt. When he put the cat into the box again, it repeated the same
random movements until it succeeded in stepping on the treadle. As the
experiment proceeded, Thorndike observed that the cat made fewer and fewer
random movements until it quickly clawed on the treadle upon being put into the
puzzle box.
From these experiments, Thorndike concluded that learning occurred through

trial and error. Although the cat initially made many wrong and ineffective
responses, it eventually learned to repeat those that produced desirable results.
Based on these conclusions, he proposed three theories of learning as outlined in

Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: ThorndikeÊs Theories of Learning
Theory of Learning Elaboration Example

Law of Readiness An organism will act A two-year-old child is not ready
when it is ready to do so. to attend pre-school. Forcing him
to do so will be stressful for both
him and his parents.
Law of Exercise The strength of a A learner who is weak in

connection between a Mathematics is likely to improve
stimulus and a response if he consistently does revision
depends on the questions.
frequency of the
connection. In other
words, the connection is
strengthened through
use (or practice) and
weakened through
disuse.
Law of Effect Behaviours followed by A learner is always in the habit of
positive outcomes are handing in his assignments late.
strengthened, whereas He completes his assignment on
behaviours followed by time, and the teacher praises him
negative outcomes are in front of his peers. The teacherÊs
weakened. response has produced a
desirable effect. In future, this
learner will very likely meet the
assignment deadline, perhaps he
might even beat his peers to it.
Based on his observations, Thorndike produced a learning curve showing the

number of seconds the animal took to escape on each trial (refer to Figure 3.3). He
discovered that it was similar to the acquisition curve for classical conditioning
that you have studied in Topic 2. Generally, the curve was a gentle S shape that
explained that, at first, the cat performed poorly. Its performance them improved
remarkably and quickly, until it reached peak performance when it then tailed
off.

Figure 3.3: ThorndikeÊs learning curve

Source: http://genetics.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de
3.2 SKINNER’S EXPERIMENTS

Skinner (Figure 3.4) renamed ThorndikeÊs instrumental learning as operant
where the organism is „operating‰ on the environment thus causing it to be
influenced by it.
Figure 3.4: B. F. Skinner

Source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca
In his experiments, he used a box known as The Skinner Box (see Figure 3.5). This
is a special cage with a lever on one wall which, when pressed, releases a food
pellet into the cage. When Skinner placed a rat in the cage, it moved around
freely exploring its surroundings. At some point, it accidentally pressed the lever
and a food pellet dropped from the food dispenser into the cage. The hungry rat

quickly ate the pellet and then continuously pressed the lever to obtain more food
pellets.
Figure 3.5: The SkinnerÊs Box
According to Skinner, the operant is the behaviour just prior to the reinforcer,
(food pellet). Thus, if a behaviour is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, it
increases the probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.
Next, Skinner turned off the food dispenser so that no more food pellets dropped
from it despite the ratÊs repeated pressings of the lever. He observed that after
several futile attempts, the rat stopped his lever-pressing behaviour. In other
words, extinction of the operant behaviour had occurred. Skinner concluded that
if a behaviour is no longer reinforced by a reinforcing stimulus, it decreases the
probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.
Then, Skinner turned on the food dispenser once again, so that pressing the lever
produced pellets for the rat. The ratÊs lever-pressing behaviour resumed. In fact,
Skinner noted that it took a shorter time to learn the behaviour the second time
compared with the first time. This meant that the rat had learned that if it pressed
the lever, it would be provided with food pellets.
Skinner also added variations to his experiments. He linked the release of food
pellets with light. When the rat pressed the lever with the light switch on, food
pellets dropped from the food dispenser. This did not happen when the light
switch was turned off. Skinner discovered that the rat exhibited the lever-
pressing behaviour in the presence of the light, but not otherwise. This
demonstrated that the rat was able to recognise the light as a discriminative

stimulus. It was able to distinguish between pressing the lever with the light on
and off.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Explain the contributions of Thorndike and Skinner to operant
conditioning.
3.3 OUTCOMES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

The outcomes of operant conditioning depend on the following three factors:
(a) Its purpose, that is, to increase or decrease the probability that a specific
behaviour will occur in the future;
(b) The type of stimuli used, that is, positive/pleasant or negative/aversive;
and
(c) The type of action taken, that is, adding or removing the stimulus.
Table 3.2 shows the four outcomes of conditioning, namely (a) positive
reinforcement; (b) negative reinforcement; (c) response cost; and (d) punishment.
Table 3.2: Outcomes of Conditioning
Increase Behaviour Decrease Behaviour

Positive Stimulus Positive Reinforcement Response Cost
(add stimulus) (remove stimulus)
Negative Stimulus Negative Reinforcement Punishment
(remove stimulus) (add stimulus)
From the table, you can conclude that when you want to increase the probability
of a certain behaviour occurring, you either add a positive stimulus (positive
reinforcement), or remove the negative stimulus (negative reinforcement).
Similarly, when you wish to decrease the probability of a certain behaviour

occurring, you can either remove the positive stimulus (response
cost/extinction), or add a negative stimulus (punishment). The three terms,
which are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment will
be dealt with in greater detail later in this topic.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Based on what you have learnt about the different outcomes of operant
conditioning, give examples of positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, response cost and punishment in the classroom.
3.4 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN CLASSICAL

CONDITIONING AND OPERANT
CONDITIONING
In the previous section, you studied about operant conditioning. How does it
differ from classical conditioning? If you remember, classical conditioning was
developed in Russia, whereas operant conditioning had its beginnings in
America. Classical conditioning, also known as respondent conditioning, is
associated with PavlovÊs dog. In comparison, operant conditioning which is also
known as instrumental conditioning, is typically associated with SkinnerÊs Box.
Table 3.3 summarises the differences between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning based on the following aspects.
Table 3.3: Differences between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
Aspect Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Key Concept  The organism learns an  The organism learns an
association between two association between the
stimuli ă the conditioned behaviour and its
stimulus (CS) and the consequences.
unconditioned stimulus  Behaviour changes because of
(UCS) that occurs before the events that occur after it.
behaviour.
Biological Basis  Likely to involve the  Likely to involve the
autonomic nervous system peripheral nervous system
and smooth muscles. and skeletal muscles.
 Works with involuntary  Works with voluntary
behaviour. behaviour.
Occurrence  Involves anticipatory  Involves an operant where a

biological responses behaviour is reinforced or
triggered by a signal. punished.
 The response is elicited or  The response is said to be
drawn out of the organism. emitted.

Nature of  The response does not have  The response has a

Response a consequence. consequence where it
 The contingency is between produces the reinforcer.
the CS and the US.  The contingency is between
 The response need not be the response and the
made for the US to be reinforcer.
presented.  The response needs to be
made for the reinforcer to be
presented.
Role of Learner  Learner is passive.  Learner is active.
Incentive for  No provision for incentives  Reinforcers act as incentives
Learning for learning
In most instances, both classical conditioning and operant conditioning cannot

always be conceptually distinct as these two processes occur simultaneously
within the organism. To illustrate further, each successful reinforcement that
occurs in operant conditioning (for example, food pellet for the rat) also triggers a
reflex, such as salivation in the hungry cat when it sees the food.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Explain how classical conditioning differs from operant conditioning.
3.5 CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL FOR OPERANT

CONDITIONING TO OCCUR
Having learnt about operant conditioning at the beginning of this topic, can you
explain under what conditions it will happen? Behaviourists propose the
following three conditions:
(a) The Organism has to Make a Response

In other words, the organism has to be actively involved in the process. In
the classroom context, this implies that the active learners are more likely
to learn better compared to the passive ones who make no attempt to
respond to the teacherÊs questions. Behaviourists argue that learnersÊ
accomplishments are also minimal when they just sit and listen passively to
the teacher.

(b) A Reinforcer Must Follow the Response Immediately

In fact, the reinforcer should, preferably, be given immediately after the
response is exhibited. According to behaviourists, the closer the reinforcer
occurs to the response, the more effective it will be. In the context of the
classroom, a teacher should immediately give praise to learners who
demonstrate a desired behaviour, such as raising their hands to give a
correct answer.
(c) The Reinforcer Must be Appropriate with and Linked to the Response
Behaviourists also emphasise that the reinforcer should not be given when
the desired response is not emitted. In the classroom context, a teacher
allows learners who have completed their deskwork to go to the reading
corner. Those who have not done so, however, are not allowed access as
they are not deserving of that privilege.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. Explain the conditions essential for operant conditioning to occur.
2. For each of the above conditions, give one example in the

classroom context.
3.6 TYPES OF REINFORCERS

A reinforcer is any consequence that maintains a desired behaviour or increases
the rate and probability that a particular behaviour will occur in the future.
Generally, reinforcers that are usually used to reward a positive behaviour fall
into two categories: primary and secondary as shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Types of reinforcers

(a) Primary Reinforcer

A primary reinforcer is a naturally occurring, unlearned, or unconditioned
stimulus that is innately rewarding for the organism. It also has some
biological importance, such as survival. Sometimes, it is known as an
unconditioned reinforcer as it is a stimulus that does not need pairing to
function. Examples of primary reinforcers are food, air, water, sleep, shelter,
warmth and sensory stimulation. Typically, primary reinforcers are used
with young children as they can be very effective in forming new
behaviours quickly.
(b) Secondary Reinforcer

In comparison, a secondary reinforcer is not naturally occurring as it is a
learned reward and does not have any biological importance. It is known as
a conditioned reinforcer as it is a previously neutral stimulus that has been
associated with another reinforcer. This association thus makes it
reinforcing to the organism.
Secondary reinforcers can be divided into four categories. They are:

(i) Concrete/Material
A tangible item is given for displaying a target behaviour. For
example, snacks, stickers, tokens, release from homework passes, ice-
cream coupons, gift vouchers, prizes, and so on.
(ii) Social
An intangible item is given for displaying a target behaviour. It is
usually in the form of a gesture that communicates positive regard
from peers and other significant adults. For example, attention, verbal
praises, compliments, approval, appreciation, a pleasing smile, and so
on that is given by peers and other significant adults.
(iii) Activity
An opportunity that is given to engage in a favourite activity. For
example, learners who have completed their deskwork are allowed to
watch an educational video, go to the reading corner, play
educational games on the computer, and so on.
(iv) Intrinsic
Good feelings are generated internally as a result of giving a certain
response. For example, a learner who has finally completed a difficult
assignment, finished a challenging project, and so on feels a sense of
satisfaction.
In conclusion, it is important to note that both primary and secondary reinforcers

are usually given together the first time a positive behaviour occurs. For example,

a teacher praises a learner for showing an exemplary behaviour. She says, „Good
boy‰ (secondary reinforcer), and at the same time gives him a packet of M&Ms
Chocolate Beans (primary reinforcer). However, over time, the M&Ms can
gradually be phased out, and words of praise alone will then become an effective
reinforcer.
3.6.1 The Premack Principle

Many young children will probably be familiar with ÂGrandmaÊs ruleÊ, which
says: „First you have to eat up all your vegetables and then you can have your
ice-cream „(Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2007:138). What Grandma means is
that, „If you do what I want, then you can do what you want‰. Conceptually, it
means that things or activities that an individual likes and often does can be used
as positive reinforcers for the things or activities that do not occur frequently or
are less enjoyable. In simple terms, a high frequency activity can be used to
reinforce a low frequency behaviour.
In the classroom context, the teacher can determine the kind of high frequency
behaviour to use as a reinforcer using the guidelines below:
(a) Asking students what they prefer to do;
(b) Observing students during their free time; or
(c) Determine what might be expected behaviour for a specific age group.
3.6.2 Reinforcement and Punishment

The term „reinforcement‰ indicates a process that strengthens a positive
behaviour, whereas „punishment‰ is a process that aims to weaken a negative
behaviour.
There are two types of reinforcements, namely:

(a) Positive Reinforcement which involves two aspects: Firstly, a positive or
pleasant stimulus is used, and secondly, the reinforcer is added (i.e.,
„positive‰ as in + sign for addition). In other words, a positive reinforcer is
added after a response, thus increasing the frequency of the response.
(b) Negative Reinforcement which also involves two aspects: Firstly, a negative
or an aversive stimulus is used, and secondly, the reinforcer is subtracted
(i.e., „negative‰ as in a „ă„ sign for subtraction). In other words, after the
response, the negative reinforcer is removed thus increasing the frequency
of the response.

Compared to reinforcement, a negative stimulus is added to punishment. This

means that after a response, a negative or aversive stimulus is added which is
aimed at weakening the frequency of the response.
There are two types of punishment, which are:

(a) Presentation punishment which involves adding an aversive or unpleasant
stimulus as a consequence of an undesired response. As a result, the
response is weakened. It is also known as positive punishment.
(b) Removal punishment which involves removing a pleasant stimulus as a
consequence of an undesired response. The result is that the response is
weakened. It is also known as negative punishment.
Table 3.4 outlines the differences between the different types of reinforcement
and punishment.
Table 3.4: Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive Reinforcement Presentation Punishment

Adding a desired stimulus (+) Adding an aversive stimulus
Example: „Correct answer. Good, Mat.‰ Example: „Mat, stop talking!‰
Negative Reinforcement Removal Punishment
Withdrawing an aversive stimulus ( ă ) Withdrawing a desired stimulus
Example: „Mat, since you have been Example: „Mat, since you have not
standing in the corner quietly for the last completed your homework, you will stay
20 minutes, you may return to your seat back during the recess break today.‰
and follow the lesson.‰
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?
2. Distinguish between the different types of reinforcements and

punishment. Give some examples of situations where they occur.
3.7 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

Generally, there are two basic categories of stimuli that are presented in the
environment according to a schedule, that is, (a) continuous, and (b) intermittent

as shown in Figure 3.7. Continuous reinforcement means presenting the

consequence each and every time the target behaviour is exhibited. Whereas, in
intermittent schedules, the consequence is given either based on a time duration
(interval schedules) or the number of correct responses emitted (ratio schedules).
The consequence can be delivered based on the same amount of time lapse, or the
same number of correct responses (fixed). Alternatively, it can be given based on
a slightly different amount of time or number of correct responses that vary
around a particular number (variable). Figure 3.7 summarises the different
categories and sub-categories of reinforcement schedules.
Figure 3.7: Reinforcement schedules
Continuous reinforcement is found to be effective when teaching learners a new

behaviour. This is because they are able to establish an association between the
target behaviour and the reinforcement. However, it does not produce long-term
changes in behaviour. Once it is withdrawn, the desired behaviour will also stop
being exhibited. Therefore, in the classroom context, if teachers only depend on
continuous reinforcement, some learners may learn to manipulate the classroom
situation by exhibiting the target behaviour for the desired reinforcement.
For this reason, it is important that teachers use one of the four types of
intermittent schedules as shown in Table 3.5 once learners have successfully
established an association of the target behaviour with the consequence.

Table 3.5: Four Types of Intermittent Schedules
Intermittent Schedules Description Example

Fixed ratio A reinforcer is given after a Giving a nod of approval
specific number of correct for every third correct
responses of behaviours. This answer.
type of schedule is appropriate
when students are learning a new
behaviour.
Fixed interval A reinforcer is given for the first Giving a nod of approval
correct answer after a set period for a correct answer given
of time has lapsed. In this case, after every ten minutes.
the time period is constant or
always the same.
Variable ratio At first, a reinforcer is given after Giving a nod of approval
a set number of correct responses. every second correct
After this, the number of correct answer, every fourth
responses necessary to obtain correct answer, and so
the reinforcement changes. This on.
schedule is suitable for
maintaining the target behaviour.
Variable interval Initially, a reinforcer is given after Giving a nod of approval
a set period of time has lapsed. for a studentÊs correct
After that, a new time duration answer after five minutes,
(either shorter or longer) is set. after three minutes, after
10 minutes and so on.
Figure 3.8 shows a chart for the different response rate of each of the four
schedules of reinforcement discussed above. Take note that each hatch mark
denotes a reinforcer that is given for the occurrence of a target behaviour.
Figure 3.8: Graphical representation of the four schedules of reinforcement

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement

SELF-CHECK 3.5
What are the different types of reinforcement schedules? Give suitable
examples for each.
3.8 THE NATURE AND EFFECT OF

PUNISHMENT
If you recall, punishment is the presentation of an aversive stimulus contingent
upon a response, that reduces the rate of that response. Theoretically,
punishment should suppress undesirable behaviour totally, but in reality, this is
not the case (Driscoll, 2004:35). Mild forms of punishment, such as the use of
verbal reprimands, fines, or occasional removals from class are believed to
typically control student behaviour. However, punishment is said to have
negative side effects, which include the following:
(a) Punishment does not teach the correct behaviour. In fact, it merely
suppresses the incorrect or bad behaviour. For example, a learner who is
sent to detention class for not handing in homework may still repeat this
behaviour in the future;
(b) The punisher or person administering the punishment may become a
discriminative stimulus for punishment. For example, misbehaved learners
see the school discipline teacher as the only person, besides the principal,
who metes out punishment to learners who have committed a serious
offence in school;
(c) Punishment elicits a strong emotional response, such as anger, hatred
dissatisfaction, and vengeance against the punisher;
(d) Punishment can promote aggression, especially amongst learners who are
characteristically aggressive (Azrin, in Driscoll, 2004). These learners will
then engage in revengeful acts such as causing damage to the punisherÊs
property, becoming physical, hurling verbal abuses, and so on;
(e) Punishment may serve as a model for aggression. Those who observed
others being aggressive were found to be more aggressive themselves
(Steinmetz, in Driscoll, 2004). For example, parents who are abusive were
themselves abused as children;
(f) Punishment does not have a lasting effect. The negative behaviour may stop
immediately after the punishment is meted. However, this does not
necessarily mean that it has been forgotten. For example, a learner who
talks incessantly in class may stop talking when reprimanded by the

teacher, only to do it again in the same class or in another class at another

time;
(g) Punishment that inflicts physical pain may result in undesirable emotional
responses being conditioned. For example, a child who is caned for poor
grades may resort to skipping class or running away from home to escape
future punishment;
(h) Prolonged punishment may result in physical or psychological harm. One
such phenomenon is learned helplessness, where the individual passively
accepts events which are beyond his control. Repeated failures in
examinations or constant undermining of oneÊs abilities can cause a student
to say, „I wonÊt be able to pass this monthly test again‰; and
(i) Punishment may sometimes lead to an increase in the punished behaviour.
This happens with students who feel ÂproudÊ with the attention they get
when being punished, and repeatedly engage in the undesired behaviour.
When not overused, however, punishment can have some positive side effects.
Firstly, it can sometimes lead to an increase in social behaviour, especially after
the administration of a negative punishment such as „time out‰. Secondly, it can
sometimes also lead to an unexpected improvement in behaviour. For instance,
students who come to their senses and repent of their misbehaviour after having
been punished for it.
As we can see from the benefits of punishment, the guidelines below should be
followed for effective use of punishment:
(a) Punish a behaviour, not a person. Punishment should never be
administered as a personal attack;
(b) Specify the behaviour that is being punished. Provide an explanation, but
not a sermon for the reasons why the wrongdoing deems a punishment;
(c) Administer punishment immediately after the misbehaviour. Delayed
punishment is not so effective, as the recipient might have forgotten the
undesired behaviour shown;
(d) The form of punishment must be consistently applied for the same
undesired consequence, irrespective of gender, academic ability, and so on;
(e) Whenever possible, negative punishment instead of positive punishment
should be administered;
(f) Match the severity of the punishment to the severity of the wrongdoing. If
the punishment is too severe, the recipient is likely to retaliate, engage in
avoidance or suppression behaviours, and so on; and

(g) Punishment should be combined with positive reinforcement. This is to

emphasise and strengthen the corrected behaviour.
ACTIVITY 3.2
If punishment does not remove undesirable or negative behaviours,

what alternative measures can a teacher take in the classroom with
students who misbehave?
3.9 ADDITIONAL OPERANT CONDITIONING

PHENOMENA
In this section, we will examine several operant conditioning phenomena,
such as stimulus control, stimulus generalisation, discriminative stimulus, and
discrimination learning as shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9: Operant conditioning phenomena
Now, let us read further to get a better understanding of each one.
(a) Stimulus Control

Stimulus control occurs when an organism learns to give an appropriate
response after receiving a stimulus. In the classroom situation, learners
leave class and go to the canteen when the bell rings for break time at a
specified time. Otherwise, they stay in class and wait for the next subject
teacher. This indicates that they have learnt to show different desired
responses at different times.

In order to improve stimulus control, teachers can use two strategies,

namely, cueing, and setting events.
(i) Cueing
Teachers provide non-verbal cues so that learners know the
appropriate response expected or required of them. For example,
learners know that when a teacher raises her hand, they are expected
to keep quiet.
(ii) Setting Events
The teacher exercises control over the environment in order to control
learner behaviour. For example, court games like volleyball,
basketball, and so on help to promote teamwork amongst team
members.
(b) Stimulus Generalisation

When an operant response that has been learnt in one particular
environment is also emitted in a similar environment, stimulus
generalisation has taken place. For example, learners who line up in a single
file to go the science laboratory also do the same when they go for school
assembly, or to the Music room and school field, and so on.
Stimulus generalisation can result in two types of transfer, that is, positive
transfer and negative transfer.
(i) Positive Transfer
The skills demonstrated in a certain activity results in enhanced
performance in other activities. For example, a learner who is a good
football player will learn to play futsal in a shorter time compared to
one who has never played football before.
(ii) Negative Transfer
When generalised responses are inappropriate to a new learning
situation and put the learner at a disadvantage, negative transfer has
taken place. For example, a learner from a rich family who does not do
household chores at home refuses to do his share of duties in the
classroom.
(c) Discriminative Stimulus

When any situation or stimulus sets the opportunity for operant
responding, that is a discriminative stimulus. For example, learners stand
up and greet each subject teacher who enters and leaves the class.

(d) Discrimination Learning

Discrimination learning takes place when organisms have learnt to
distinguish between various characteristics of their stimulus environment,
and to give the appropriate response required. For example, in some
classes, we see learners who yell out their answers to the teacherÊs
questioning because he tolerates this practice. They do not do this for the
other teachers who require them to raise their hands and wait for their
names to be called first. In other words, discrimination learning is the
opposite of stimulus generalisation.
SELF-CHECK 3.6
What are some operant conditioning phenomena? Give a classroom

example for each.
Ć Operant conditioning is seen as R-S learning where the consequence

determines whether a particular response will or will not likely occur in the
future.
Ć Two leading proponents of operant conditioning are Edward L. Thorndike

and B. F. Skinner.
Ć Thorndike proposed three theories of learning: Law of Readiness, Law of

Exercise, and Law of Effect.
Ć Skinner postulated that if a behaviour is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, it

increases the probability of that behaviour occurring in the future, and vice
versa.
Ć The four outcomes of conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative

reinforcement, response cost, and punishment.
Ć The outcomes of operant conditioning depend on its purpose, type of stimuli

used, and type of action taken.
Ć Operant conditioning can be distinguished from classical conditioning from

several aspects.

Ć Behaviourists emphasise that three conditions must be present for operant

conditioning to occur.
Ć Reinforcers can be divided into primary reinforcers, and secondary

reinforcers.
Ć A primary reinforcer is a naturally occurring, unlearned, or unconditioned

stimulus, whereas a secondary reinforcer is not naturally occurring as it is a
reward given for learned behaviour.
Ć The Premack principle proposes that a high frequency activity can be used to
reinforce a low frequency behaviour.
Ć Reinforcement is a process that strengthens a positive behaviour.
Ć Reinforcements consist of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Ć Punishment is a process that aims to weaken a negative behaviour.
Ć Punishment can be divided into presentation punishment and removal

punishment.
Ć Stimuli are presented in the environment according to two schedules:

continuous, and intermittent.
Ć Continuous reinforcement means presenting the consequence every time the

target behaviour is exhibited. In intermittent schedules, the consequence is
given either based on a ratio or an interval schedule.
Ć Ratio and interval schedules can be delivered on a fixed or variable basis.
Ć The negative side-effects of punishment can be overcome if certain guidelines

are followed.
Ć Operant phenomena include stimulus control, stimulus generalisation,

discrimination stimulus and discrimination learning.

Continuous reinforcement Operant conditioning

Discrimination learning Positive reinforcement
Discriminative stimulus Primary reinforcer
Extinction Punishment
Fixed interval Reinforcement schedules
Fixed ratio Response cost
Intermittent schedules Secondary reinforcer
Law of effect Stimulus control
Law of exercise Stimulus generalisation
Law of readiness Variable interval
Negative reinforcement Variable ratio
allpsych.com. (n.d.). Learning theory and behavioural psychology. Retrieved

from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/reinforcement.html
Boeree, C. G. (2006). Personality theories: B. F. Skinner. Retrieved from
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html
Chance, P. (1999). ThorndikeÊs puzzle boxes and the origins of the experimental
analysis of behaviour. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour.
72, (3) 433ă440.
Clayton.edu.my. (n.d.). Reinforcement and punishment. Retrieved from http://a-
s.clayton.edu/mccarty/chapter%209%20-%20
Allyn and Bacon.
education.purduecal.edu. (n.d.). Negative side effects of punishment. Retrieved
from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/Vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy11
/edpsy11sideeffects.htm

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental)

conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta
State University.
Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology for
learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Victoria: Nelson Australia Pty Limited.
Lynda, A. (2003). Behaviourism. Retrieved from http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/
~lynda_abbot/Behaviourism.html
Medcof, J., & Roth, J. (Eds.). (1979). Approaches to psychology. Canada: Methuen
Publications.
Radford.edu. (n.d.). Schedules of reinforcement. Retrieved from http://www.
radford.edu/~jmontuor/XPsyc%20333/333PPSchedules.ppt
Santrock, J. W. (2008). Educational psychology (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw
Hill.
Wolfgang, C. H. (2001). Solving discipline and classroom management problems:
Methods and models for todayÊs teachers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
www.edu. (n.d.). Conditioning and learning. Retrieved from http://www.uwm.
edu/~jcm/psy514/Chapter03a.Respondent-behaviour-basic/def.cc.txt

Topic  Recent
4 Research in
Behaviourism
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how behavioural principles are applied in the classroom; and
2. Discuss recent research in behaviourism.
 INTRODUCTION
„Behaviourism is the art of pulling habits out of rats‰.
ă Anonymous
In the previous three topics, you have learnt how learning takes place from the
behavioural perspective. Early behaviourists like Ivan Pavlov postulated that
learning is a result of classical conditioning. This process involves an association
between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimuli that triggers a reflex.
Subsequently, Edward Thorndike studied the relationship between behaviour
and consequences which he called instrumental conditioning. B. F. Skinner who
developed on ThorndikeÊs works named it operant conditioning and emphasised
the role of reinforcers and punishers in managing behaviour.
Briefly, behaviourism operates on four learning principles:

(a) Focus on Explicit and Observable Behaviour
In the learning process, learners must be active respondents to learning. For
this purpose, they must be given the opportunity to show the target
behaviour. In order to ascertain this, an assessment based on the
observation of new behaviour must be carried out.

64  TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM
(b) Blank-slate (Tabula Rasa) Nature of Organisms

This is in accordance with John LockeÊs idea that humans are born without
built-in mental content. Hence, their knowledge is acquired from
experiences in the environment and perception.
(c) Use of practice and drills to reinforce and improve the acquisition of new
skills.
(d) Breaking habits through new responses to the same stimuli.
Generally, behavioural learning theories serve as useful guidelines for teachers in

areas such as classroom management, student discipline, motivation, and
instructional models.
4.1 APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOURAL

LEARNING PRINCIPLES
In this section, you will read how the various behavioural learning principles are
applied to different aspects of behaviour. They are, behaviour management,
teaching new behaviours and maintaining behaviour.
4.1.1 Behaviour Management

One primary area of concern for teachers, especially new teachers, is effective
classroom management. Despite having undergone field experiences and
practical teaching during their teacher education courses, most of them still feel
inadequate managing the broad spectra of classroom situations and learner
behaviour that occur daily. Effective classroom management encompasses not
only sound pedagogical skills but, invariably, a knowledge and understanding of
the psychological needs and developmental levels of the learners in the
classrooms.
Before we go any further, let us look at Figure 4.1 which briefly shows behaviour
management and its aspects.

TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM  65
Figure 4.1: Behaviour management and its aspects
Now, let us explore each one in detail.
Behaviour management in the classroom can be discussed from two perspectives:

encouraging behaviours and coping with undesirable behaviours.
(a) Encouraging Behaviours

From the behavioural perspective, there are several methods which can be
used by teachers to encourage desired behaviours in their classrooms.
Among them are praise, the Premack principle, and positive practice.
(i) Praise
In a typical classroom, the teacherÊs primary task is to maintain a
positive climate that will enhance learning. One way he can do this is
through the use of reinforcement when he wants to increase the
frequency of a particular behaviour (refer to Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2: Praise creates a happy and conducive environment
As you have learnt, reinforcement can be primary or secondary,

positive or negative. Examples of intrinsic reinforcers are rewards
inherent in the behaviour itself, whilst extrinsic reinforcers include
praise or material rewards.
Praise is one type of positive reinforcement which can be used in

combination with ignoring misconduct and mistakes. This praise-and-
ignore approach can prove to be useful in managing classrooms,
although it is not an absolute solution for all problems that occur
daily.
Figure 4.3 outlines how you can use praise effectively in your
classroom in five simple steps.

Figure 4.3: Five simple steps to use praise effectively in the classroom
(ii) The Premack Principle

If you remember, the Premack principle or GrandmaÊs rule states that
a way to increase less-enjoyed activities is to link them to more-
enjoyed activities. Some examples of more-enjoyed activities for some
learners in the classroom include talking, moving around the room,
sitting near a friend, being exempted from extra class, reading
magazines, and playing computer games.

For the Premack principle to be effective, two criteria must be met:

Ć Identify effective reinforcers which consist of activities that
learners enjoy in their free time.
Ć Ensure that the less-enjoyed activity takes place first. An
application of this principle in the classroom setting is when the
teacher gives extra time for educational computer games (a
preferred activity) to learners who have cleaned up a messy
workstation (a less-preferred activity).
(iii) Positive Practice

This strategy requires learners who have made academic errors to
correct them as soon as possible and then practice the correct
response. An alternative solution to punishing learners who break
classroom rules is to make them practice the correct alternative action.
(b) Coping with Undesirable Behaviour

Although teachers are encouraged to promote positive behaviours in the
classroom, they also have to cope with undesirable behaviours that occur.
Thus they need to be aware of several useful strategies such as negative
reinforcement, satiation, reprimands, punishment, response cost and social
isolation.
(i) Negative Reinforcement

While teachers generally use positive reinforcement, in some
situations the frequency of a target behaviour can be increased by the
removal or withdrawal of an aversive consequence. For example, „If
you complete all your deskwork by the end of this class, you need not
stay back for extra class.‰ Here, the individual is rewarded for
desirable behaviour by being allowed to „escape‰ from an unwanted
situation. This illustrates the use of negative reinforcement in the
classroom.
Another example is when the teacher says, „Those of you who have
finished your artwork on time need not clean up the mess you have
created‰.
(ii) Satiation
One way of eliminating unwanted behaviour in the classroom is to
demand that learners continue with that behaviour until they get tired
of doing it. This strategy, satiation or negative practice is aimed at
decreasing the probability that an undesirable behaviour will be
displayed. It works on the principle of overload of that initial
behaviour which at the onset, seemed to be so enjoyable.
Krumboltz and Krumboltz (in Woolfolk, 2005) described a classroom

example of a teacher who insisted that the whole class bounce an
imaginary ball after a group of four learners were caught doing this
mischievous act in the middle of a lesson. It was only after five
minutes and several exhausted sighs that the teacher finally allowed
the class to stop the ball-bouncing activity.
(iii) Reprimands
In order to decrease the frequency of negative behaviours, reprimands
can be a useful strategy to use in the classroom. In fact, soft, private
reprimands have been found to be more effective than loud, public
reprimands. Teachers who make loud reprimands find that the
frequency and intensity of the misbehaviour increases. The reason for
this may be that some disruptive learners seem to enjoy the attention
of their peers as a result of their being reprimanded by the teacher.
(iv) Punishment
Using punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being
repeated. However, caution needs to be exercised to ensure that the
form of punishment should not be reinforcing in some way; for
example, giving a „glamorous‰ label (such as Ming the Rebel) to that
particular learner who is always uncooperative during lessons or
group activities.
In the classroom, positive consequences such as intrinsic learner

satisfaction resulting from success, accomplishment, good grades,
social approval and recognition, promote positive behaviour, besides
enhancing behaviour management. In fact, frequent use of
punishment indicates poor class management and should generally be
avoided.
Figure 4.4: The punishment must be equal to the misbehaviour

However, if a teacher decides to use punishment, he must be aware of the

following:
Ć Learners need to be informed about the connection between behaviour
and consequences;
Ć Any negative consequence or punishment should be related to the
misbehaviour;
Ć Milder punishments are preferred over more intense forms. The reason
is because they do not give rise to negative reactions in the offender,
and can be just as effective; and
Ć Recurrence of misbehaviour is less likely if learners make a
commitment to engage in more desirable alternative behaviours.
As with reinforcement, punishment can take the form of giving something

unpleasant such as a reprimand, for any misconduct, like not handing in
homework. Alternatively, it can also involve taking away something
pleasant such as withdrawing the privilege of playing computer games
when there is free time in class.
(v) Response Cost

This is a form of mild punishment that involves the removal of a
pre-established reinforcement every time an unacceptable behaviour
is exhibited. An application of this strategy in the classroom setting is
when the teacher withdraws the opportunity to receive a token at the
end of the lesson as a result of the learner not adhering to a contract
made. For example, Heng does not get back to his seat within six
seconds after the teacher has requested him three times to do so. In
other words, response cost is related to a token economy (a reward
earned for good behaviour) and a contingency contract (learners sign
a written contract stipulating that they understand and agree with a
particular intervention).
De Martini, Bray and Kehle (in Krause, Bochner & Duchesne,

2007:139) cite an example of how an intervention using the above
three elements was successful in reducing the disruptive behaviour of
two 8-year-old girls in a normal classroom. The procedure involved
the signing of a contingency contract by the class. This contract
specified that conformity to new rules would be rewarded with a
token whilst non-compliance within five seconds to a repeated
request by the teacher would result in losing the opportunity to win a
token.

(vi) Social Isolation

This strategy is also commonly known as „time out from
reinforcement‰. It involves asking the misbehaved learner to leave the
classroom and go to an assigned place (for example, an empty room)
for a specified time of five to 10 minutes. This brief isolation from
other people is said to be effective in decreasing the occurrence or
frequency of the disruptive behaviour.
Time out is especially effective in classrooms where the disruptive

behaviour of some learners, such as laughter, jokes, comments, or
abusive language can reinforce undesirable behaviour in other
learners.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Give two other classroom examples for each of the behaviour
management principles discussed.
4.1.2 Teaching New Behaviours

When teaching new behaviours that require new and unfamiliar actions from
learners, teachers can make use of several techniques such as shaping, fading,
cueing, prompting, modelling and task analysis. See Figure 4.5 for an overall
view of this subtopic.
Figure 4.5: Teaching new hehaviour techniques
Now, let us look at how these techniques work for teaching new behaviours.
(a) Shaping and Fading

The process of reinforcing gradual successive approximations to the desired
behaviour is called shaping. Typically, learners need time to acquire these
desired behaviours that involve complex skills. For example, a teacher
wishes to make an active learner remain seated at his desk. First of all, he
will have to tell this learner that if he is able to sit at his place for three
minutes, he will be rewarded with a sticker. As his ability to do so improve,
the teacher will then lengthen the time to 10 minutes and gradually to the
entire 30-minute lesson. In this way, the teacher is said to be shaping the
„sitting-at-the-desk‰ behaviour by moving successively from three minutes
to the full 30-minute period using reinforcement for each successive
approximation, culminating to the final target behaviour.
Once the desired behaviour has been accomplished, the teacher can move
from reinforcing every positive response with reinforcing every third
positive response, for example. This process of successive approximations
is called fading. In fact, once the active learner has managed to sit quietly at
his desk, the teacher can opt to reinforce the seat behaviour on an
intermittent rather than a continuous schedule. Additionally, stickers can
also be replaced by other secondary reinforcers, such as a smile or a nod of
approval.
(b) Cueing, Prompting and Modelling

Cueing, prompting and modelling are several types of stimuli that increase
the probability of a desired response taking place. When a specific stimulus
is used as a „cue‰ to elicit the desired response, it is called cueing. For
example, when facing a class of noisy and restless learners, many teachers
will use a signal like raising a hand to get their attention. The hand-raise
serves as a cue to inform learners of an imminent activity (a reinforcement).
If, in the above example, the teacher had added a verbal reminder („What am I
waiting for?‰) with the non-verbal cue, he is said to have used a prompt. Thus,
prompting means providing a hint which serves as an additional stimulus to
ensure that the learner reacts appropriately to the cue.
Modelling refers to the type of prompting that involves demonstrating to

the learner the desired response for him to follow. Some examples include
showing and touching relevant pictures, models, manipulations and so on.
As the learning process progresses and the learner is capable of eliciting the
required response, the teacher gradually and slowly discontinues the use of
cues, prompts and modelling.
(c) Task Analysis

This process involves breaking a complex behaviour down into a sequence
of more manageable steps. For example, addition of two-digit numbers
involves a series of steps:
(i) Learning about one-digit, then, two-digit numbers.
(ii) Learning the addition of one-digit numbers.
(ii) Learning the addition of one-digit and two-digit numbers.

Task analysis is useful for identifying the extent to which learners have acquired
and mastered a new learning task. For example, early diagnosis of difficulties
experienced by slow learners through task analysis provides useful feedback for
teachers to break up new learning skills into a set of more manageable steps to
tailor to these learnersÊ needs.
4.1.3 Maintaining Behaviour

Behavioural maintenance is ensuring that newly acquired skills are continued
even when the instruction process has been terminated. It takes place when
behaviours are reinforced on a partial schedule of reinforcement. Failure to
reinforce desired behaviours ultimately leads to extinction. However, partial
reinforcement of undesirable behaviour is counterproductive because it will
result in maintenance. Hence, teachers must be cautious that they do not
unwittingly reinforce unacceptable behaviours through inconsistencies in their
classroom management.
(a) Schedules of Reinforcement

In order to increase the probability, frequency, or persistence of desired
behaviour, teachers should make use of schedules of reinforcement as
discussed in Topic 3. If you recall, these schedules may be based on ratios
or intervals and may be fixed or variable. In the initial stages of learning,
desired behaviours are reinforced on a continuous schedule of
reinforcement. Later, in order to maintain learned behaviours, it is more
effective to give reinforcement a partial schedule. One good example in the
classroom is giving a pop quiz (variable interval schedule) rather than a
scheduled quiz (fixed interval schedule) as this maintains learner
preparation better.
Another way to ensure that the skills learned are not forgotten through
disuse, behaviourists have also recommended that teachers include
intermittent ``maintenance checksÊÊ in their classrooms.
4.1.4 Contributions of Behavioural Learning Principles

to Instruction
The behavioural perspective of learning has made invaluable contributions to
instruction. In fact, the following three educational innovations can be attributed
either directly or indirectly to operant conditioning principles:
(a) Instructional objectives;

(b) Programmed instruction (and its offshoot, computer-assisted instruction);

and
(c) Applied behaviour analysis.
(a) Instructional Objectives

When preparing their lessons, teachers have to specify the instructional
objectives that they want their learners to achieve at the end of each lesson.
These objectives, better known as behavioural objectives are made up of
three components, namely:
(i) An observable and measurable outcome;
(ii) Description of conditions under which the behaviour should be
displayed; and
(iii) Criteria for evaluating the acceptable performance of the behaviour.
For example: At the end of the lesson, learners can give correct answers to
90% of the mathematical problems based on the addition of mixed
fractions.
As you can see, these objectives work on the premise of operant conditioning,
which states that the desired behaviour should be specified in precise, concise
and observable terms before the conditioning process begins.
(b) Programmed Instruction (and Computer-assisted Instruction)

Programmed instruction is a technique for instruction that originally
involved a „teaching machine‰. Recently, it has become known as
computer-programmed instruction or computer-assisted instruction. It uses
„frames,‰ or discrete segments containing a small piece of information and
a question about it. After the learner has responded to a question shown on
one frame, he turns to the next frame to get the answer and the next small
piece of information, and so on.
Programmed instruction and computer-assisted instruction are based on

several concepts and principles of operant conditioning, namely:
(i) Terminal Behaviour
This is specified clearly in the instructional goals and objectives at the
beginning of the learning unit;
(ii) Active Responding
The learner is required to give a response to a question posted in each
frame;

(iii) Shaping
The information at the start of an instruction unit is based on the prior
knowledge of the learner. New information is broken into small,
discrete units. The instruction progresses through a gradual
presentation of increasingly more difficult levels culminating in the
shaping of the terminal behaviour; and
(iv) Immediate Reinforcement
For each correct response given, the learner is immediately rewarded
with a positive response which serves as reinforcement to proceed
with the learning process.
(c) Applied Behaviour Analysis

The use of behavioural principles to modify behaviour in classrooms is
known as applied behaviour analysis. The main emphasis is on behaviour
that is observable and measurable in areas such as academic, social, motor,
and so on. The goal therefore is to change behaviour to that which is
socially acceptable.
Applied behaviour analysis has been found to be effective in learners with

behavioural problems, intellectual disability, and developmental disability
(Kerr, Mulhern, & McDowell in Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2007). On a
smaller scale, it has also helped learners with writing and/or reading
difficulties.
If you are interested to use applied behavioural analysis in the classroom, it

is important that you follow the six steps as shown in Figure 4.6. From the
figure, you can see that the implementation of a teaching programme based
on applied behavioural analysis demands a lot of time and effort from both
the teacher and the concerned learner. It involves instruction on a one-to-
one basis with continual monitoring of progress. Besides, existing resource
materials may need to be modified, or new ones prepared to accommodate
the specific needs of the learner at every point of the instructional sequence.

Figure 4.6: Applied behaviour analysis process

Source: Adapted from Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S., 2007:145
Applied behavioural analysis forms the basis of several teaching programmes

which include mastery learning, and direct instruction.
(a) Mastery Learning

This instructional approach requires a learner to acquire the necessary
knowledge and skills at one predetermined level in an instructional
sequence before he is allowed to progress to the learning task. Given
enough time and proper instruction, it is assumed that most learners can
master any instructional objective (Bloom, in Woolfolk, 2005). The term
„mastery‰ means obtaining a score of 80% to 90% on a test or other forms of
assessment.
Mastery learning consists of the following five components:

(i) Small, discrete units. Each unit contains a small amount of
information;
(ii) Logical sequence. The sub-units in one instructional unit are
sequenced in order of difficulty, that is, from simple to complex;
(iii) Mastery of content upon the completion of each unit. Learners are
given feedback and reinforcement that they have mastered the content
by taking and passing an assessment test;
(iv) Concrete, observable criteria for mastery of each unit. Concrete terms
are used to state each mastery level (for example: Answering 90% of
questions correctly); and

(v) Corrective action. For slow learners who may need extra assistance or
more practice, remedial activities, which serve as additional support,
are also available. When these learners are ready, they take another
form of the test based on the unit.
(b) Direct Instruction

This teaching method emphasises explicit teaching and testing of essential
skills to determine mastery in a particular subject area. Hence, instructional
objectives are clearly listed out and properly sequenced. The teacher plays
an active role in the teaching and learning process, assuming full control of
the lesson.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Briefly describe the contributions of behavioural learning principles to

instruction, giving suitable examples.
4.2 RECENT THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

BEHAVIOURISM
Since the late 1960s, there has been a shift from the behavioural perspective of
learning towards the cognitive. Nevertheless, the behaviouristsÊ ideas have not
lost their importance as several trends have emerged. As opposed to examining
global theories of learning, there is now a trend towards specific aspects of the
learning process, such as the nature of the conditioned response, or the
conditions for determining a reinforcing event.
According to Mowrer and Klein (in Klein, 2002), three reasons attributed to the
current trend on specific learning principles are:
(a) Global learning theories concentrate mainly on instrumental conditioning
as Pavlovian conditioning is regarded as a simple, reflective type of
learning that occurs in only a few situations. Besides, most responses are
rarely classically conditioned. In reality, however, Pavlovian conditioning
does impact human behaviour;
(b) Traditional research findings support that some general laws of learning
are applicable to all species. However, current research shows that
biological factors determine whether learning takes place as well as the rate
of learning; and

(c) Contemporary research recognises the cognitive views of learning when

previously these have deliberately been avoided. In fact, recent findings
show the contributions of associative and cognitive processes in Pavlovian
conditioning. Because of this, it is difficult to develop a single global
learning theory.
Early research on classical conditioning by Pavlov investigated the principles

governing the acquisition and extinction of a conditioned response. Studies
conducted during the last 30 years are concerned with the nature of the
conditioned response: Is the conditioned response just the unconditioned
response elicited by the conditioned stimulus? Is the conditioned response
significantly different from the unconditioned response?
Findings by Holland and Rescorla (in Klein, 2002:264) show that food satiation to
food-deprived rats reduces the value of food, thereby reducing the ability of the
unconditioned stimulus to elicit the unconditioned response. In turn, this
reduced value of the unconditioned stimulus causes the conditioned stimulus to
elicit a weaker conditioned response.
If you remember, Skinner emphasised the role of reinforcers in ensuring the

frequency of a target behaviour. However, he was not interested in the selection
of reinforcers. In contrast, later researchers have begun to investigate the kinds of
conditions that are necessary for a reinforcer to function effectively.
In recent studies conducted by Konarski, Johnson, Cronwell and Whitman (in

Klein, 2002), findings showed that the use of activities as reinforcers to produce
desired modes of behaviour was found to be effective in enhancing the academic
performance of educable mentally retarded learners. In one such study, these
researchers identified various kinds of academic behaviours that included
reading, colouring, cursive writing and arithmetic. They found that the learners
displayed an increase in each of these behaviours if higher-frequency activities
were contingent upon the occurrence of the target behaviour. For example, the
reading ability of these learners increased if they had to learn to read in order to
be given time for colouring activities.
Based on the discussion of the application of various behavioural principles in

learning and instruction, critics of behavioural methods caution teachers on the
use of reinforcement. In their opinion, reinforcement can cause a decline in
learning interest due to an over-emphasis on rewards. Hence it is important that
teachers know how to use behavioural learning principles in the best interest of
their learners in the classroom.

SELF-CHECK 4.2
Explain current trends in behaviourism which have resulted in the
development of ideas related to classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.
Ć Behavioural learning principles are applied to different aspects of behaviour.

They are: behaviour management, teaching new behaviours and maintaining
behaviour.
Ć Behaviour management in the classroom involves encouraging behaviours

and coping with undesirable behaviours.
Ć Several methods which are used to encourage positive behaviours in the

classroom are praise, the Premack principle, and positive practice.
Ć Some useful strategies used for coping with undesirable behaviours in the
classroom include negative reinforcement, satiation, reprimands,
punishment, response cost and social isolation.
Ć Teachers make use of shaping, cueing, prompting, modelling and task

analysis for teaching new behaviours.
Ć Schedules of reinforcement are used to maintain behaviour in the classroom.
Ć Behavioural learning principles have contributed to instruction, namely for

writing instructional objectives, programmed-instruction (and computer-
assisted instruction) and applied behaviour analysis.
Ć Teaching programs based on applied behaviour analysis include mastery

learning and direct instruction.
Ć Recent research in behaviourism has resulted in the development of

behavioural learning principles that were expounded by early proponents in
the field.

Applied behaviour analysis Programmed instruction

Computer-assisted instruction Prompting
Cueing Punishment
Fading Reprimands
Instructional objectives Response cost
Mastery learning Satiation
Modelling Shaping
Negative reinforcement Social isolation
Positive practice Task analysis
Praise The Premack Principle

Allyn & Bacon.
Kizlik, R. (2009). Classroom management, management of student conduct,
effective praise guidelines, and a few things to know about ESOL thrown in
for good measure. Retrieved from http://www.adprima.com/managing.
htm
McGraw Hill.
Lynda, A. (2003). Behaviourism. Retrieved from http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/
~lynda_abbott/Behaviorism.html
Lynda, A. (2003). Operant conditioning in education. Retrieved from http://
teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/Opinnov.html
Sanders, A. (n.d.). How to use positive reinforcement in the classroom. Retrieved
from http://www.ehow.com/how_4556420_use-positive-reinforcement-
classroom.html

Slavin, R. E. (2000). Educational psychology theory and practice. Massachusetts,

MA: Allyn & Bacon. Retrieved from http://www.abacon.com/slavin/
notes5.html
& Bacon.
wps.ablongman.com. (n.d.). Behavioural theories of learning. Retrieved from
http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_slavin_edpsych_7/3/867/221981.cw/inde
x.html

Topic  Social
5 Cognitive
Theory and
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss several assumptions of the social cognitive theory;
2. Explain learning by observation;
3. Explain learning as an internal process;
4. Identify some influences of the cognitive processes; and
5. Define the concept of goal-directed behaviour.
 INTRODUCTION
„Live your life each day as you would climb a mountain. An occasional
glance toward the summit keeps the goal in mind⁄ Climb slowly,
steadily, enjoying each passing moment; and the view from the summit
will serve as a fitting climax for the journey‰.
ă Harold V. Melchert
In the preceding topics, we have learnt that the behavioural perspective

dominated the psychology of learning for the first half of the 20th century.
However, in the early 1960s, a group known as the neo-behaviourists challenged
the traditional behavioural views of learning. They argued that learning goes
beyond the stimulus-response (S-R) and response-stimulus (R-S) patterns. They
introduced the S-O-R model which emphasises not only the influences of the
stimulus and the response but also the internal processes of the organism (O).
TOPIC 5 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY AND LEARNING  83
These internal processes include personal experiences and cognitive information

processes as well as the social environment of the organism. The neo-
behaviourists affirm that by observing the actions and consequences of others
around us, we can acquire new knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, values and
so on.
In this topic, we shall discuss various aspects of the social cognitive perspective
with particular focus on the works of Bandura and his colleagues in the area of
observational learning.
5.1 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE

THEORY
The social cognitive theory was originally called observational learning theory
based on the work of Bandura (Figure 5.1) and Walters in the early 1960s. It was
later renamed social learning theory. There were two reasons for this. First, it was
relevant to learning social behaviours, and secondly, observations were usually
made of other people. Later, the social learning theory was changed to social
cognitive theory in which the interpretation of learning was based on cognitive
processes.
Figure 5.1: Albert Bandura

Source: http://news.stanford.edu
As we have learnt in the preceding topics, behaviourism focuses on variables that

are observable, and measurable. This school of thought avoids whatever is
subjective, and internal that involves our mental or cognitive processes. Bandura,
however, found this concept too simplistic to explain the findings he obtained

84  TOPIC 5 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY AND LEARNING
from his experiments on adolescent aggression. He then suggested that „It is

largely through their actions that people produce the environmental conditions
that affect their behaviour in a reciprocal fashion‰ (1977). He named this
interactive, complementary system reciprocal determinism.
Later, Bandura introduced the concept of triadic reciprocality which explains

human functioning „in terms of a model where behaviour, cognitive and other
personal factors, and environmental events all operate as interacting
determinants of each other‰. This concept, which is shown in Figure 5.2 has now
become the conceptual model of the social cognitive theory.
Figure 5.2: Conceptual model of social cognitive theory

Source: Pajares (2002)
Based on the figure, reciprocal interactions are a combination of behaviour,

environmental variables and the person. Environmental variables encompass the
social and physical environments that can influence a personÊs behaviour. While
the social environment includes family members, friends, work colleagues,
community members, the media, and so on, the physical environment refers to
the size of a room, the facilities and amenities available, the ambience of the
room, and so on. In contrast, the person factor refers to a personÊs cognitive
abilities, physical characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, and so on.
The three factors ă behaviour, person and environment ă are constantly

influencing one another. Behaviour is not simply the result of the environment
and the person, nor is the environment simply the result of the person and
behaviour. In a classroom situation, learnersÊ behaviours and classroom
environments influence one another in several ways. Consider a typical teaching
and learning sequence where a teacher flashes information on a screen using the
LCD. Environmental influence on behaviour takes place when most of the
learners direct their attention at the screen without being told to do so
(environment + person (intrinsic motivation to learn)  behaviour). However,
when a small number of learners give the wrong answers to the teacherÊs
questions, she has to re-teach particular concepts instead of completing the topic
(behaviour + person (cognitive ability)  environment).
In order to understand the social cognitive theory, let us now examine its five
basic assumptions:
(a) People Can Learn from Watching or Observing Others
Example: In the classroom, some of the learners who see their peers
throwing used pieces of paper onto the floor instead of into the bin perform
the same action.
(b) Learning is an Internal Process that May or May Not Change Behaviour
Example: We often see violent acts shown over the television and in the
movies. If we are not influenced by these acts, we will not behave or act
violently after the TV show or movie.
(c) Behaviour is Directed towards Particular Goals
Example: We often do something to accomplish a goal that we have set.
Ask yourself these questions: „Why did you sign up for this course?‰
„What goals do you hope to accomplish?
(d) Behaviour Eventually Becomes Self-Regulated
Example: Very often we initiate, monitor and evaluate our behaviours in
tandem with the goals that we have set. Hence, we can learn to control or
regulate our learning and behaviour.
(e) Reinforcement and Punishment Have Direct and Indirect Effects
Example: When we form expectations based on our prior experiences with
reinforcement, they may have a greater influence on our behaviour than the
current reinforcers we receive. This is because our beliefs will influence the
effects of reinforcers.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What basic assumptions are central to the social cognitive

perspective of learning? Give further examples from the ones given
in the text.
5.2 LEARNING BY OBSERVATION

Although much of our learning occurs as a result of classical and operant
conditioning, a large portion of what we know is learned through observation
and imitation. Learning by observation does not require the presence of stimuli,
reinforcers or punishers. Rather, it involves two basic processes, which are:

(a) Watching the behaviour of another person or model; and

(b) Imitating the modelÊs behaviour.
To illustrate this further, young children learn language, social skills, fears, habits
and other daily behaviours by observing their parents, siblings, and significant
others. This is evidenced in the common phrase, „Children see, Children do‰.
Similarly, older children and adults learn academic, musical, athletic, and other
skills by observing and imitating a teacher or more experienced other.
This phenomenon of learning by observation is not only confined to humans but

also applies to animals, too. Current research findings in the field reveal that
animals such as cats, dogs, and birds, for example can learn by observing what
other members of their species do. To illustrate, young lions learn survival skills
from their parents and other older lions. In the same way, adult lions enhance
their hunting skills and learn new behaviours by observing other lions.
5.2.1 Bandura and Observational Learning

Bandura is famous for his Bobo Doll studies in which he attempted to prove that
children learn by observing and imitating an adult role modelÊs behaviour. The
Bobo Doll (Figure 5.3) is an inflatable, egg-shape balloon toy about five feet tall
with a weight at the bottom.
Figure 5.3: Bobo doll

Source: http://www.wateversclever.com/

This weight enables it to spring back to its upright position even when knocked
over. In one classic study, Bandura filmed one of his students, a young woman,
beating up a Bobo doll. As she punched it, kicked it, sat on it, hit it with a mallet,
and so on, she shouted several aggressive phrases.
He then showed this film to a group of pre-schoolers who enjoyed it immensely.

They were then asked to go to the playroom where there was a new Bobo doll
and a few small mallets. Bandura and his colleagues noted that many of these
pre-schoolers imitated what the young woman in the film did. As they punched
the Bobo doll, kicked it, sat on it, and hit it with the small mallets, they shouted
the same aggressive phrases.
In another version of this study, Bandura presented a film of the young woman
performing the same actions on a live clown as she did with the Bobo doll. He
then showed it to a group of children before asking them to go to another room
where there was a live clown and small mallets. These children proceeded to
shout aggressive phrases at the live clown, whilst punching it, kicking it, and
hitting it with small mallets.
The findings of these studies disproved the behavioural view that all learning is a
result of reinforcement or rewards. The children had changed their behaviour
even without first being given encouragement or reward to beat up the Bobo doll
or the live clown. They merely imitated the behaviour that they had observed
earlier. Bandura named this phenomenon observational learning.
In their later studies, Bandura and his team investigated the effect of observed
consequences on learning. They showed four-year-old children one of three films
of an adult acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll. In the first version, the adult
was praised for his aggressive behaviour and even rewarded with soda and
candies. In contrast, the adult in the second version of the film was scolded, and
warned not to exhibit the aggressive behaviour again. Meanwhile, the adult in
the third version was neither given any reward nor punishment.
After viewing the film, each child was left alone in a room together with a Bobo
doll and other toys. Bandura observed that most of the children imitated the
adultÊs aggressive behaviours. However, he noted that those who saw the
version of the film where the adult was punished, imitated the behaviours less
often compared with those who watched the other two films. Nevertheless, the
results changed drastically when the researchers promised the children a reward
if they would copy the adultÊs behaviour. Bandura discovered that all the three
groups of children showed large and equal amounts of aggressive behaviour
towards the Bobo doll.

Based on the findings, Bandura concluded that even those children who did not
see the adult model receive a reward had also learned through observation.
However, they (especially those who saw the model being punished) would not
show what they had learned until they expected a reward for doing so. Bandura
termed it latent learning, in which an individual learns a new behaviour but does
not display it until there is the possibility of being given a reward.
5.2.2 Principles of Observational Learning

Observational learning operates on the following principles:
(a) The observer will imitate the modelÊs behaviour if he is attracted by the
modelÊs attributes such as good looks, popularity, intelligence, talents, and
so on;
(b) The observerÊs imitation of the modelsÊ behaviour will be in tandem with
the manner in which the model is treated. For example, if the model is
given a reward for his behaviour, then very likely the observer will mimic
the rewarded behaviour. On the other hand, if the model is punished for his
behaviour, then very likely the observer will not reproduce that same
behaviour; and
(c) There is a difference between an observer „acquiring‰ a behaviour and
„performing‰ a behaviour. Through observation, the observer can acquire
the behaviour but he may decide not to display it. Later when a situation
arises where he may be given an incentive for performing that behaviour,
he may then decide to exhibit it.
5.2.3 How Observational Learning Impacts Learning

The impact of observational learning on learning can be discussed from two
aspects, namely instruction and assessment.
In the classroom, teachers can use collaborative learning strategies where

learners are given the opportunity to learn from their peers in the social and
environmental contexts. In this respect, learners must be taught to be mindful of
the impact of their observation on their own behaviour.
In conducting assessment, teachers must take into consideration that learners

are unable to perform a learned behaviour unless they are provided with a
conducive environment to do so. Besides ensuring that the physical environment
in the classroom is appropriate for teaching and learning, the teacher can also use
incentives and rewards, where appropriate.

ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Discuss some of the strengths and weaknesses of observational
learning.
2. Recall one classroom experience where some of the learners

imitated the aggressive actions of their peers. Which learners are
most likely to imitate such actions?
5.3 LEARNING AS AN INTERNAL PROCESS

Social cognitive psychologists postulate that learning and knowledge are two
different but complementary elements. They contend that learning is an internal
process whilst knowledge is an external entity. Learning occurs as a result of the
processing of input in order to accomplish an established goal. This processing of
input involves various cognitive processes such as memory, motivation,
thinking, and reflection. This clearly shows that learning is an internal process
where the amount of learning that takes place is dependent on the processing
capacity of the learner, the amount of effort that the learner puts into the learning
process, the depth of the processing, and the learnerÊs existing knowledge
structure (Craik & Lockhart, in Schunk, 2000).
If learning is an internal process, then learners can determine the amount of

learning they want. In other words, they are responsible for their own learning.
However, not all of them are capable of self-regulation. Teachers sometimes just
give out a learning task and then expect all the learners to „go out and learn‰.
Social cognitivists contend that self-regulated learning is nurtured in a childÊs
early years at home where he is given simple tasks such as sorting out the clothes
of family members and putting them into the respective drawers. Then his self-
regulated learning is further developed as a schooling child when he is given
short learning tasks to complete on his own in the classroom and at home. As he
grows up and enters secondary school, he takes control of his learning by
managing his time between studies and performing other tasks which are
required of him.
Self-regulated behaviour follow a series of steps as summarised in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: The self-regulated behaviour process

In conclusion, it can be said that teachers should encourage their learners to learn
independently in school so that self-regulated learning will continue throughout
their lives. Self-regulated learning requires a combination of academic learning
skills, self-control and self-motivation. In other words, they have the skill and the
will to learn (McCombs & Marzano, in Woolfolk, 2005).
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What do you understand by learning as an internal process?
5.4 INFLUENCE OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES

As mentioned earlier, learning is influenced by various types of cognitive
processes such as memory, mental representations, and language. Cognitive
processes play a very important role in determining learning and behaviour as
they are concerned with knowledge and the way people use the knowledge they
have.
5.4.1 Memory
The Atkinson-Schriffin Model (Figure 5.5) illustrates a three-stage information
processing approach. Our sensory organs such as eyes, ears, skin, taste buds, and
nose receive information from the environment. This information then passes
through three levels of memory. At each level, cognitive processes operate on the
information by giving it meaning, refreshing it and integrating it. In other words,
encoding takes place at the sensory memory stage before it goes to the learnerÊs
short-term memory. There it is again encoded before it goes into the long-term
memory.

Figure 5.5: Atkinson-Schriffin model

Source: http://www.learningandteaching.info
It is important for you to know that only a limited amount of information can be
processed at any one time. This is because of the influence of attention. For
example, if you are distracted by the noise in the room where you are studying,
your attention becomes divided between your books and the noise. If you study
in a quiet room, then you will pay more attention to what you are studying. In
other words, cognitive processes determine what kinds of available information
will be stored or ignored.
5.4.2 Mental Representations

The human memory stores two kinds of mental representations of experiences,
namely mental imagery and symbolic representations. Mental representations
have some sensory qualities. For example, you can imagine the roads you will
take to reach home from school even without having to be physically present.
This means you are using mental imagery. If a stranger asks you for road
directions to a particular place, very likely you will be able to tell him the name
of the roads and perhaps famous landmarks he will have to pass through just by
using your mental imagery.
The second type of mental representations are symbolic representations. They are
also called concepts, which are meaningful categories of objects, or events that
are based on their specific characteristics or attributes. For example, when you
think of the group „cows‰, you will think that they each have a tail, eat grass and

say „moo‰. Therefore, when you see an animal that posseses these three
characteristics, you will say it is a cow. However, if you see a horse with a tail
and eating grass, you will be able to differentiate it from a cow as you have
already developed the concept of a cow.
Children, however, only pick out one or two characteristics of a concept. For
example, the child had just learned that the colour of an apple is red, he will say
that strawberries, cherries, and plums are apples, because the colour belongs to
the concept of „apple‰. As they grow older and their cogitive processes develop,
their symbolic representations begin to improve.
5.4.3 Language
Another cognitive process that influences learning is language. In order to
understand the meaning of what is written, the reader must know two structural
components, namely syntax and semantics. Syntax combines symbols into a
comprehensible sequence. Whilst, semantics give meanings to the words in the
sentence, thus enabling you to understand the meaning of the sentence, or
sentences. For example, when you read the following sentence, „The trainee
teacher looked upset at the sight of the noisy class‰. The first thing you will do is
to try and understand every word in the sentence by referring to your „personal
dictionary‰. Then you have to distinguish the meaning of the word „trainee
teacher‰ from the individual words. The same goes for „noisy class‰. Finally, you
will try and understand the meaning of the whole sentence and all the other
sentences in the paragraph or text.
As children grow older, their mastery of syntax and semantics improves, thus
facilitating language acquisition. In this way, their learning will also improve
significantly.
ACTIVITY 5.2
What are some other cognitive processes besides memory, mental
representations and language that influence learning? Explain by
giving relevant examples.

5.5 GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR

Edward C. Tolman (Figure 5.6) believed that learning did not involve the
strengthening of connections between stimulus and response, or conditioned
learning. He then introduced a new kind of behaviourism known as purposive
behaviourism. Based on the findings of his studies using rats in mazes, he
proposed that learning did not involve the strengthening of connections between
stimulus and response, or conditioned learning. He argued that the rats in his
experiments learn the place where they have been rewarded rather than the
particular movements required to get there (a demonstration of place learning).
Figure 5.6: Edward C. Tolman

Source: http://faculty.frostburg.edu
Figure 5.7 shows the apparatus used in one of TolmanÊs experiments that
illustrates purposive behaviour in rats. The alphabet „A‰ was the starting box
while the alphabet „B‰ was the goal.
Figure 5.7: TolmanÊs experiments of purposive behaviour

Tolman placed a hungry rat at „A‰. He observed that very quickly and unhesitatingly,
it learned to turn right to reach „B‰. He explained that this occurred because the rat
had developed a cognitive map of the maze and where the place of the reward was
located. To test this, Tolman placed the rat at „C‰. If learning is the result of stimulus-
response, then the rat would turn right and reach „D‰. If learning is the result of a
cogitive map, then the rat would reach its reward in „B‰. Tolman found that most of
the rats reached B, thereby leading to the conclusion that a cognitive map was most
likely developed by rats in maze running.
TolmanÊs purposive behaviourism is often considered the bridge between

behaviourism and cognitive theory. It operates on the following principles:
(a) Learning is always purposive and goal-directed;
(b) Learning often involves the use of environmental factors to achieve a goal
(e.g., means-ends-analysis);
(c) Organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal;
(d) An organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal. In other words, learning is
acquired through meaningful behaviour; and
(e) Learning is organised, where the stimuli are not connected by just simple
one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Instead, the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated into a tentative cognitive-
like map of the environment. It is this tentative map that indicates „routes
and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what
responses, if any, the animal will finally make‰ (Tolman, 1948:192).
To summarise, goal-directed behaviour is always getting-toward something or

getting-away from something. Thus, description of any behaviour should include
the following aspects:
(a) What the organism is doing;
(b) What it is trying to do; and
(c) Where it is going.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1. Based on your classroom experience, give some examples of
goal-directed behaviours that you have observed in your
learners.
2. What kinds of learners will usually exhibit goal-directed
behaviours.

Ć The social cognitive theory was originally called observational learning, and then
renamed social learning theory. Presently, it is known as social cognitive theory.
Ć Neo-behaviourists introduced the S-O-R model which emphasises the

influences of the stimulus, response, and the internal processes of the
organism (O) on learning.
Ć Triadic reciprocality refers to the reciprocal interactions of behaviour, person

and the environment.
Ć The social cognitive theory operates on five assumptions.
Ć Observational learning involves two basic processes: watching the behaviour

of another person or model and imitating the modelÊs behaviour.
Ć Based on the Bobo Doll studies conducted by Bandura and his collegues, five
general principles of the social cognitive theory have been developed.
Ć Observational learning involves four elements: attention, retention,

production and motivation.
Ć Learning is an internal process where the amount of learning that takes place
is dependent on certain factors.
Ć Learners are encouraged to become self-regulated learners who can

determine the amount of learning they want.
Ć Learning is influenced by various types of cognitive processes such as

memory, mental representations, and language.
Ć Tolman proposed the concept of place learning which is also known as

purposive behaviourism.

Cognitive processes Purposive behaviourism

Goal-directed behaviour Reciprocal determinism
Latent learning Self-regulated behaviour
Observational learning Triadic reciprocality
Athabasa University. (2004). Foundations of educational theory for online

learning. Retrieved from http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/ch1.html
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York, NY: General Learning
Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Boeree, C. G. (2006). Albert Bandura. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/
cgboer/bandura.html
Inman, J. (n.d.). Social cognitive theory: A Synthesis. Retrieved from http://
www.wetherhaven.com/Documents/socialcognitivetheory.pdf
Parsons, R. D., Hinson, S. L., & Sarso-Brown, D. (2001). Educational psychology: A
practitioner-researcher model of teaching. Canada: Wadsworth Thomsom
Learning.
Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy.
Retrieved from www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html
Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd ed.).
Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological review, 55,
189ă208.
& Bacon.

Topic  The Social
6 Cognitive
View of
Reinforcement
and
Punishment
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how expectations are formed;
2. Describe the influence of vicarious experiences on expectations;
3. Express how cognitive processing occurs;
4. Explain the influence of expectations on choice of behaviour; and
5. Discuss the effect of the non-occurrence of expected consequences.
 INTRODUCTION
„Every individual needs to grow ă but if the intent to grow is fuelled by
positive reinforcement, the growth process certainly becomes faster. On
the other hand, if shortcomings are highlighted (even for fuelling the
intent to grow/improve) ă the pace of improvement certainly slows
down‰.
ă Tanmay Vora, 2007

TOPIC 6 THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEW OF REINFORCEMENT  99
AND PUNISHMENT
In the previous topic, you learnt that the social cognitive perspective evolved as a
consequence of different views of learning from the behavioural approach. This
perspective consists of two components: the social and the cognitive. The social
component emphasises that humans often learn from one another, whilst the
cognitive component emphasises the role played by thought processes in
determining behaviour.
This topic focuses on how reinforcement and punishment influence learning and
behaviour. These influences include five cognitive features, namely expectations,
vicarious experiences, cognitive processing, choice behaviour and non-
occurrence of expected consequences.
According to social cognitivists like Bandura, Rosenthal and Zimmerman, these

influences are said to be interdependent in nature. Generally, we form
expectations about the future consequences of certain behaviours or possible
consequences of responses based on how current experiences or situations are
reinforced or punished. These expectations affect the extent to which we
cognitively process new information. Besides this, we are also influenced by
observations of consequences that follow other peopleÊs behaviour. In other
words, the vicarious experiences of others, followed by the consequences, affect
to a certain extent how we choose to behave. Finally, the non-occurrence of
expected consequences has either reinforcing or punishing effects in and of itself
(Omrod, 2008).
6.1 EXPECTATIONS
As mentioned earlier, our learning is very much influenced by our expectations
about forthcoming events and their consequences. Specifically, these expectations
are also known as expectancies. In this section, the terms expectations and
expectancies will be used interchangeably.
By definition expectations are expected consequences of a particular

behaviour or action.
In other words, it refers to the subjective probability that a given behaviour will
lead to a particular outcome (reinforcer or punisher). Typically, it involves
questions such as „How likely is it that a particular behaviour will lead to a
particular outcome?‰ If, for example, a student constantly violates school
regulations (Behaviour X), how likely will he be sent to the discipline teacherÊs
office (Outcome Y)? Outcome expectations can also be specific of academic
performance. In another instance, If a student gets good grades, he will be able to

100  TOPIC 6 THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEW OF REINFORCEMENT
AND PUNISHMENT
gain entrance to an institution of higher learning to pursue a field of study of his

choice.
Other questions include the following: „How „high‰ or „low‰ are the
expectancies?‰ „How confident is the individual that the behaviour will result in
the outcome?‰ Having high expectancies indicate his confidence of being
rewarded for his behaviour. Similarly, individuals who have low expectancies do
not believe that their behaviours will be reinforced. As a result, they put very
little effort into their behaviours, thus causing them to fail. When this happens, it
confirms their low expectancies. This process of decreasing expectancies is a
common occurrence of a vicious cycle. Thus teachers should try to enhance
learnersÊ confidence by encouraging them to cultivate high expectancies for
reinforcement.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
In your own words, define „expectations‰.
6.1.1 Implications in the Classroom

Our learners come into the classroom with certain expectations of the
reinforcement or punishment they will receive as a consequence of various
behaviours. To illustrate, consider this situation where learners find that a certain
subject teacher sets questions based on the textbook, whilst another sets
questions from workbooks and assigned readings from the Internet. Given this
scenario, learners will very likely form expectations as to what specific
behaviours (that is, reading their textbooks, doing revision questions from their
workbooks, surfing the Internet) are likely to be reinforced on forthcoming tests.
However, very often, the expectations that learners form about what behaviours
will be reinforced or punished are sometimes based on very little evidence. For
instance, a learner might believe that when she boasts about how rich her family
is, she will be the source of admiration of her classmates (a reinforcer).
Conversely, another learner might believe that her classmates will ostracise her
for being rich (a punisher), regardless of whether they would actually do so.
In the classroom, reinforcement increases the frequency of behaviour only when

learners know what behaviour is actually being reinforced (Bandura, in Omrod,
2008). Therefore, teachers should constantly give specific feedback regarding
which behaviours will be reinforced and which will be punished. For this reason,
if a learner scores a D in his coursework assignment, his teacher should call him

AND PUNISHMENT
up and explain to him why he performed badly. This will help to deter him from
repeating the same mistakes again.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Describe a classroom experience when you decided not to take action

because of the consequences you thought it might bring you.
6.2 VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES

From the social cognitive perspective, we may experience reinforcement or
punishment by observing other people and feeling how they feel. This
phenomenon is called vicarious experience, or vicarious emotional arousal. The
feelings of empathy arising from observing the experiences of others creates an
opportunity for emotional conditioning. For example, if we watch someone
crying incessantly, we may tend to feel some degree of sadness too.
Typically, people who observe another personÊs particular behaviour being

reinforced, tend to exhibit that behaviour more frequently themselves ă a
phenomenon known as vicarious reinforcement (Omrod, 2008). This simply
means that by observing the consequences that their classmates experience,
learners realise for instance, that hard work produces good grades and that
regular training wins gold medals, etc.
On the other hand, when people see another person being punished for a
particular behaviour, they are less likely to display that behaviour more
frequently themselves ă a phenomenon known as vicarious punishment. For
example, when a teacher gives a time-out to a misbehaved learner, it is less likely
that his classmates will repeat that behaviour.
However, vicarious punishments may also curb positive behaviours. For

example, a teacher responds in a sarcastic tone to a learner for not being able to
answer a seemingly easy question. Indirectly, the teacherÊs behaviour will most
likely discourage the other learners in the classroom from asking relevant
questions. Thus, vicarious reinforcement and punishment can cause shifts in an
individualÊs action tendencies based on someone else's outcomes.
In conclusion, vicarious experiences are important as they enable us to form

patterns of behaviour quickly, resulting in less time wasted on trial-and-error

AND PUNISHMENT
endeavours or making costly and sometimes, fatal mistakes. Furthermore, such

experiences will also allow us to explore new situations and activities in the
pursuit of new knowledge.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Based on what you have learnt about vicarious experiences, give

some examples of vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
in the classroom.
6.3 COGNITIVE PROCESSING

The social cognitive perspective of learning places emphasis on our cognitive
ability to construct reality, selectively encode information, and display the
behaviour based on the values and expectations that we hold (Jones, 1989).
Our expectations of behavioural outcomes influence the extent to which we

prioritise the events in our lives. This means that we tend to pay more serious
attention to something that we expect will be reinforced. Therefore, if we do not
expect to be reinforced for learning something, then there is a tendency for us to
ignore it or leave it out of our mental process. To illustrate, if learners are told
that the forthcoming examination covers all the topics taught, they are more
likely to do a thorough revision if they want to get good grades (a reinforcer).
Conversely, if the teacher tells them that certain topics will not be evaluated, it is
very likely that they will leave out these topics in their revision.
Similarly, when a teacher teaches in a manner that learners find difficult to

understand, they will pay little or no attention to him. This is one reason why
weak learners who do not think they can learn what is being taught will tend to
get into mischief as they are bored and disinterested in the lesson.
In addition, if we are exposed to things that we are not expected to be

accountable or responsible for, then we will make very little effort to learn. Take
for instance, if all learners are told to attend leadership courses, it is very likely
that only those holding important positions in class, or co-curricular activities
will try their best to learn how to be a good leader; those who are not given
leadership positions will not really put in much effort.

AND PUNISHMENT
ACTIVITY 6.3
Describe how your learners attend to what you teach in the
classroom. Give examples to support your answer.
6.4 CHOICE OF BEHAVIOUR

Social cognitivists argue that people learn many things in their daily lives, but
they will most probably exhibit the ones they think will bring them
reinforcement. Conversely, they almost never demonstrate the things that they
think will not be reinforced. Such things then become forgotten over time. In the
context of school, learners learn many things related to academic knowledge,
psychomotor skills moral values and so on. Unfortunately, if teachers do not
reinforce the relevant knowledge and skills that are exhibited, there is a likely
possibility that learnersÊ progress and development will be greatly hindered.
In the classroom, it is common to find learners who work very hard for a
reinforcer. In other words, they are striving for an incentive. An incentive is
considered as something that we hope for or expect; it is not guaranteed because
we may or may not get it. For example, some learners study very hard because
they hope to be on the DeanÊs list. However, sometimes when there are too many
excellent achievers, then perhaps co-curriculum excellence may be used as a
criterion as well.
Generally, people work for incentives that they believe are attainable. As an
illustration, each year, high achievers vie for a limited number of scholarships
offered in foreign universities. Those with average and poor grades know they
do not stand a chance. Hence it is very likely that they will not bother to apply
for these scholarships.
Thus, it is important to remember that when providing incentives in the

classroom, teachers should bear in mind that at least some learners perceive them
as attainable. Otherwise, it is better not to do so as they serve no purpose at all.
ACTIVITY 6.4
1. Why is it important to provide incentives for learners in the
classroom?
2. List down some criteria for incentives for learnerÊs achievement.

AND PUNISHMENT
6.5 NON-OCCURRENCE OF EXPECTED

CONSEQUENCES
Bandura (in Omrod, 2008) opines that non-occurrence of an expected
consequence can be considered either as a form of punishment, or a form of
reinforcement. When people expect to be reinforced for a certain response, but
they are not, they regard it as a form of punishment. This results in them less
likely to exhibit that behaviour again in the future. Take the case of a learner who
spends a lot of time doing his coursework assignment. Naturally, he expects to
score a good grade, but unfortunately, he only scored an average grade.
Subsequently, the next time he is given an assignment, he will not put in so much
of his time and effort.
Conversely, when people expecting to be punished for a certain negative

response, are able to get away with it, they feel that the behaviour has been
reinforced. Consequently, they are more likely to exhibit that forbidden
behaviour again. As an illustration, a learner goes around the class disturbing his
classmates who are busy doing their work. The teacher ignores his misbehaviour.
This learner will continue with this negative behaviour because he perceives that
it is all right and the teacher does not mind him behaving that way.
Social cognitivists argue that just as the non-occurrence of reinforcement

is a form of punishment, the non-occurrence of punishment is a form of
reinforcement. Therefore, teachers should always be on the look-out for desirable
behaviours exhibited by learners in the classroom and follow through with
positive reinforcement. Similarly, when teachers observe learners exhibiting
undesirable behaviours such as breaking a rule, they should also enforce
promised consequences that learners expect. Otherwise, it increases the chances
of that misbehaviour being displayed or that rule being broken again.
ACTIVITY 6.5
1. Describe an incident when you broke a school rule and expected

to be punished, but you were not? How did you feel? Discuss with
your course mates and tutor.
2. Relate another incident when you did a good deed and expected
to be rewarded, but you were not? What effect did this have on
you?

AND PUNISHMENT
Ć Our learning is very much influenced by our expectations about forthcoming

events and their consequences.
Ć Expectations refer to the subjective probability that a given behaviour will

lead to a particular outcome (reinforcer or punishment).
Ć Vicarious reinforcement occurs when people are likely to repeat behaviour

that they see rewarded.
Ć Vicarious punishment occurs when people are unlikely to repeat behaviour

that is punished.
Ć We tend to pay more serious attention to something that we expect will be

reinforced, and attempt to mentally process it effectively, and vice versa.
Ć We learn many things in our daily lives, but will most probably exhibit the
ones we think will be reinforced; and almost never demonstrate those that we
think will not be reinforced.
Ć The non-occurrence of an expected consequence can be considered as a form

of punishment of or a form of reinforcement.
Choice of behaviour Non-occurrence of expected

Cognitive processing Vicarious experiences
Consequences Vicarious punishment
Expectation Vicarious reinforcement

AND PUNISHMENT
Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In annals of child development (Vol.

6, pp. 1ă60). Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.
Boeree, C. G. (2006). Albert Bandura. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/
cgboer/bandura.html
Betz, N. E., & Voyten, K. K. (1997). Efficacy and outcome expectations influence
career exploration and decidedness. The career development quarterly, 46,
179ă189.
Jones, J. W. (1989). Personality and epistemology: Cognitive social learning
theory as a philosophy of science. Zygon, 24(1), 23ă38.
Mearns, J. (2014). The social learning theory of Julian B. Rotter. Retrieved from
http://psych.fullerton.edu/jmearns/rotter.htm
Omrod, J. E. (2008). Educational psychology: Developing learners. (6th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, NY: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River.

Topic  Modelling
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the theory of observational learning;
2. Describe how modelling affects behaviour;
3. Identify the characteristics of effective models; and
4. Explain the processes involved in learning from models.
 INTRODUCTION
„Even the self-assured will raise their perceived self-efficacy if models
teach them better ways of doing things.‰
ă Albert Bandura, Social Learning
Theory, 1977
Figure 7.1: Albert Bandura (1925)

Source: http://images.google.com.my/images?hl=en&source=hp&q=Albert+Bandura
In the preceding topic, we learnt about the social cognitive view of reinforcement and
punishment. This topic focuses on modelling. As the name suggests, modelling occurs
when an individual exhibits a particular behaviour, and other people look on and
learn from it. Modelling is one form of observational learning.
108  TOPIC 7 MODELLING
This topic will discuss various aspects related to modelling. To begin with, we
will examine the theory of observational learning, and then learn how modelling
affects behaviour. Then we will read about the characteristics of effective
models, and the processes involved in learning from models.
7.1 THE THEORY OF OBSERVATIONAL

LEARNING
What is observational learning? Basically, it is a kind of learning that takes place
as a result of observing, retaining and repeating a new behaviour exhibited by
other organisms. It is also known as vicarious learning, social learning, or simply,
„monkey see, monkey doÊÊ (Figure 7.2).
Figure: 7.2: A lion cub observing adult lions hunting

Source: http://www.google.com.my/#hl=en&source=hp&q=photo+of+cub&met
In humans, we have specialised nerve cells called mirror neurons, which enable
actions that we observe in our external surroundings to be transmitted into our
nervous system. Observational learning is said to occur at any stage in our lives.
Nevertheless, theorists argue that it is more evident during our childhood years
when we model after people who are just a little older than us.
Research findings show that observational learning has a great influence on

childrenÊs aggressive and pro-social behaviour. Rushton (in Eysenck, 2004)
argued that children have a tendency to imitate a modelÊs behaviour even if that
behaviour was conflicting with their beliefs and values. However, if you recall, in
BanduraÊs (in Eysenck, 2004) Bobo doll study, children imitated behaviour that
was rewarded and avoided those that were not. Hence, replicating observed

TOPIC 7 MODELLING  109
behaviour depends on various factors, such as the observerÊs own knowledge

and experiences (Gergely, in Eysenck, 2004).
Based on what you have learnt about observational learning, how then does it
differ from imitation? Contrary to imitation, observational learning does not
always result in the observer duplicating the behaviour exhibited by the model.
This happens when the observer learns that an undesirable behaviour leads to
unfavourable consequences, resulting in him learning to avoid displaying that
behaviour.
In summary, it can be concluded that, human learning does not only occur as a
result of conditioning but also from the observation of others' behaviour too. This
type of learning is considered to be more efficient than actually experiencing the
behaviour itself. Several studies have shown that observers will imitate a model's
behaviour when they observe the model being rewarded for that behaviour but
not when they observe them being punished. However, other studies have
shown that success or reward alone is not necessarily sufficient for an observer to
imitate a model's behaviour. Moreover, as observational learning has only a
limited scope, it does not, therefore, account for most language learning in
children.
To get more information, please visit:

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHOAtGsc2wo &
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCETgT_Xfzg&feature=related
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. In your opinion, is observational learning an effective form of

learning? Why? If no, please give your reasons.
2. List down some factors which influence observational learning in

the classroom.
7.2 HOW MODELLING AFFECTS BEHAVIOUR

In the previous section, we read that observational learning occurs when an
observerÊs behaviour changes to imitate that of models. Do you realise that we
learn many different kinds of skills through modelling? Some examples include
motor skills, reading and writing skills as well as interpersonal skills.

Social cognitivists such as Bandura postulate that we learn from two kinds of
models as shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Two types of models
If you recall, Topic 5 discussed BanduraÊs study about learning by observation on

nursery-school children which was carried out in the 1960Ês. After watching an
adult behaving aggressively towards a plastic punching-bag clown, commonly
known as the Bobo doll, these children displayed the same degree of aggression
towards the Bobo doll, imitating the behaviour of the adult (live) model of
aggression.
However, we are also influenced by the fictional characters that we read about in
novels or see on television and in films. These characters are generally known as
symbolic or media models. Children, in particular, tend to imitate behaviours
that seem to have no adverse consequences. For instance, children are great fans
of „Ultraman‰, „Superman‰ and other cartoon characters that they watch on the
television or video. In most cases, they are most apt to imitate the actions and
behaviours of these characters.
Similarly, children also learn aggression by watching violent acts and behaviours
in the family, or in the media. Violence depicted in video games seem to be the
norm and is also given reinforcement in the form of rewards. Consequently,
children tend to believe that aggression is a socially accepted way to manage
interpersonal conflict.
In modern society, the television has become an important source of

entertainment for children, providing ample opportunities for observational
learning. In the United States, research has shown that by early adolescence, the
average American child has already watched thousands of murder dramas as
well as other violent acts on television. Such portrayals of violence, abusive and
vulgar language are certainly inappropriate for children to imitate.

The damaging effects of watching violence on television has been the subject of
research over many years. The findings of studies conducted inside and outside
the laboratory, reveal that viewing television violence is related to increased
aggression in children. Therefore, it is important that parents supervise and
monitor the programmes that their children watch on television and other media.
Television programmes however, do not only result in negative behaviours in

children. We also need to look at the positive aspects of television programmes.
Educational programmes like „Sesame Street‰ enable children to learn the letters
of the alphabet, words, numbers, and social skills quickly and easily. In addition,
they develop problem-solving skills and the ability to resolve conflicts using
cooperation and discussion.
Studies also show that children model same-sex parents/characters more than
different sex parents/characters. Besides this, they are also given social
reinforcement when they exhibit gender-specific behaviours. For instance, girls
who help their mothers with household chores are often praised for doing so.
Similarly, when boys help their fathers mow the lawn or wash the car, they are
also rewarded.
Generally, there are three types of modelling as shown in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Types of modelling
It is said that when children observe unselfish actions and behaviour, they tend
to imitate the same unselfishness. Likewise, those who observe selfishness are
also more likely to imitate the selfish behaviour.
According to social cognitivists such as Bandura, Rosenthal, and Zimmerman,

modelling has four effects on human behaviour. Let us look at Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Modelling effects on human behaviour
The observational learning effect is said to have taken place when an observer
displays new behaviour patterns that have a zero probability of occurrence prior
to exposure of the observed behaviour, even when motivation was high
(Bandura, 1986). For instance, learners learn how to conduct a science
experiment, execute a service in tennis, and greet someone in French correctly
after seeing and hearing models perform such actions. Besides this, they may also
acquire and display values, beliefs and attitudes held by significant others.
In some cases, an observer demonstrates an observed behaviour after seeing a

model being reinforced for that behaviour, or after having received vicarious
reinforcement. This is known as the response facilitation effect. For example,
learners tend to study hard in order to obtain good grades when they see their
classmates being rewarded for doing so.
In contrast, an observer may sometimes exhibit a previously learned behaviour

less frequently after seeing a model being punished for the behaviour. This is
referred to as the response inhibition effect. Take the case of learners who are
punished for behaving rudely towards their teacher. The other learners in the
class are less likely to behave in such a manner. Similarly, they are also less likely
to copy during examinations when they see their peers being punished for doing
so. Likewise, they tend to be passive in class when the teacher makes a joke out
of their classmatesÊ responses.
On the other hand, an observer may also show a previously forbidden or

punished behaviour more frequently upon observing a model display that
behaviour without adverse consequences. In this case, the response disinhibition
effect has occurred. For instance, when learners observe their classmates getting
away with undesirable behaviours, they are more likely to engage in such
behaviours which previously were inhibited. Can you remember the concept of
non-occurrence of expected punishment which you have learnt in the previous
topic? For this reason, prohibited behaviour that does not receive any negative
repercussions becomes enticing.

Table 7.1 explains briefly on the effects of modelling.
Table 7.1: Effects of Modelling
Modelling Effect Underlying Process

Observational learning Observers display new behaviour patterns that initially
have a zero probability of occurrence, prior to exposure of
the modelled behaviour.
Response facilitation Observers demonstrate an observed behaviour as a
consequence of direct or vicarious reinforcement of the
modelled behaviour.
Response inhibition Observers exhibit an observed behaviour less frequently
after seeing the modelled behaviour being punished.
Response disinhibition Observers exhibit an observed behaviour more frequently
upon observing the modelled behaviour not receiving
adverse consequences.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Based on what you have learnt about the four effects of modelling,
give one example for each of these effects in your classroom.
2. What did you learn from each of these situations?
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE MODELS

Generally, we are motivated to behave in a certain manner as a result of
observing the behaviour of models that seem appealing to us. According to social
cognitivists, effective models possess one or more of the following four
characteristics, which are:
(a) Competence;
(b) Prestige and power;
(c) ``Gender appropriateÊÊ behaviour; and
(d) Behaviour relevant to the learnerÊs own situation.

Let us look at the characteristics of effective models:
(a) Competence
Comparatively speaking, learners imitate the behaviours of those who are
competent rather than those who are incompetent in whatever they do
inside or outside the classroom. This is the reason why they will strive hard
to emulate the skills of professional footballers or a certain national squash
player compared to those who play in the local school field or community
sports club. Similarly, they will also imitate the lifestyle of a classmate they
admire rather than one who is socially maladjusted. In addition, they will
also act and conduct themselves in the manner of their favourite teacher
who is skilled in teaching compared to a new and inexperienced teacher
who is not as yet confident in his teaching.
(b) Prestige and Power

Typically, young children and teenagers admire famous historical heroes,
pop stars, famous world leaders, popular names in sports and athletics, and
so on. In the local context, they tend to imitate the behaviours of the school
head prefect, the school sports captain, a notorious gang leader and others.
In simple terms, it means that we often seek to emulate people with
prestige and power. For this reason, it is important for teachers to expose
their learners to people who are role-models, through reading about
famous personalities in books and electronic media. Such personalities may
include those local and abroad. Alternatively, professionals can be invited
to the school to talk about and share their life experiences.
(c) ``Gender appropriateÊÊ Behaviour

Learners normally model actions and behaviours that they believe are
suitable to their gender. Thus it is usual for them to limit their academic,
and subsequently, career choices to feminine and masculine professions.
For example:
Girls used to shy away from jobs that required them to work with
machines or outdoors with exposure to the sun and rain. Similarly, boys
also used to avoid professions that required them to take down notes
either mechanically or electronically. However, in recent times, it is quite
common to see female engineers and male secretaries.
Perhaps this is due to learnersÊ exposure to non-conventional professions

which have helped them change their perceptions as to what is termed as
``gender appropriateÊÊ behaviour. In this way, gender issues will not
become obstacles that stand in the way of a profession of their preference.

(d) Behaviour Relevant to the LearnerÊs Own Situation

Under normal circumstances, learners tend to model behaviours to suit
their social situations. Therefore, if a learner thinks he will be socially
accepted when he keeps a hairstyle like that of his classmates, he will
certainly do so. Similarly, some girls are tempted to smoke cigarettes or
take drugs if they think their friends will accept them in their social
activities.
Based on what has been discussed about the characteristics of effective models, it
is evident that learners model their teachersÊ actions and behaviours. Thus it is
crucial that we, as teachers, model appropriate and desirable behaviours. We
should be mindful not to be biased in our opinions, or show prejudice against the
academically weak learners. Neither should we favour the high achievers who
may form only a small minority in the class. The manner in which we conduct
ourselves and the enthusiasm we show in our subject delivery do convey a
message to our learners. It is important to remember that our actions speak
louder than words.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Based on your own experiences, what are some characteristics

of effective models?
2. Explain how you would model these characteristics in your

classroom.
7.4 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN LEARNING

FROM MODELS
As mentioned earlier, observational learning operates on three principles.
(a) Firstly, it occurs when we organise and then rehearse the modelled
behaviour symbolically before displaying it explicitly. This process is
further enhanced if modelled behaviour is first coded into the written form
and then translated graphically for better retention and retrieval, compared
to merely observing it.
(b) Secondly, we tend to imitate a modelled behaviour if we value the
consequences that follow.
(c) Thirdly, we are also more likely to exhibit the modelled behaviour if we
identify similarities between ourselves and the model, or we admire the
model and the modelled behaviour has some functional value to us.

Social cognitivists have outlined four processes that are necessary for learners to
model an observed behaviour effectively, namely attention, retention, motor
reproduction and motivation as summarised in Table 7.2.
(a) Attention
Several factors influence our attention to models, such as model and
observer characteristics, task features, and characteristics of modelled
activities. In order for learners (observers) to learn from a teacher (model),
the teacher must get their attention. In the classroom situation, this can be
achieved through the use of clear presentations using appropriate resources
and materials with bright colours and oversized features. Besides good
teaching skills and good mannerisms, proximity to the teacher is also
another element. This explains why those learners who are sitting in the
front rows usually pay more attention to the teacher when compared to
those in the back rows.
Besides this, attention can be influenced by observer characteristics that
include their sensory capacities, arousal level, and perceptual set and past
reinforcement. In addition, the characteristics of the modelled events such
as complexity, functional value and distinctiveness are also critical factors
that determine the extent to which observers pay attention to the model.
Modelled activities that observers believe are important and lead to
rewarding consequences command greater attention.
(b) Retention
This involves cognitively organising, rehearsing, coding and transforming
modelled information for storage into memory. Modelled behaviour can be
stored either as an image, or in verbal form, or both. In the classroom, the
teacher (model) can use various techniques which include verbal sequences,
or visual images, or both. What is important is to ensure that the observer
(learner) has coded or structured the information in a form that he can
remember easily.
Research findings indicate that both coding and rehearsal enhanced
retention of modelled events. Thus observers who coded and rehearsed
exhibited best recall. Rehearsal without coding and coding without
rehearsal were found to be less effective.
(c) Motor Reproduction or Rehearsal

This process involves translating visual and symbolic images of modelled
behaviour into overt behaviour. In some cases, observers have already
fulfilled the first two elements of attention and retention. However, they
may still be unable to perform the act. In the classroom context, this

shortcoming can be overcome by the teacher by giving learners more

practice, feedback and coaching.
(d) Motivation
Generally, observers will display the observed behaviour if they have some
reason or motivation to do so. The use of direct or external reinforcement
and vicarious reinforcement can be an incentive. In some cases, the threat of
punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, may be a
``motivatingÊÊ factor to display the observed behaviour. For some observers,
they are motivated to model the observed behaviour as a result of
self-reinforcement. Hence, in the classroom situation, teachers motivate
learners to display modelled behaviour by ensuring lessons are interesting,
relating teaching and learning materials to student interests, emphasising
student goal-setting, monitoring goal progress, and so on.
Table 7.2: Modelling Processes
Modelling Process Explanation

Attention ObserversÊ attention is influenced by model and observer
characteristics, task features, and characteristics of modelled
activities.
Retention or Cognitive organisation, rehearsal, coding and transformation of
Rehearsal modelled information for storage into memory, either as an
image, or in verbal form, or both.
Motor Practice, feedback and coaching enhance reproduction of
Reproduction observed behaviours.
Motivation Display of observed behaviour is influenced by positive
outcomes and incentives.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Describe the four processes involved in learning from models.

2. How can teachers promote these processes in the classroom?
In conclusion, it can be said that attention and retention are important factors for
the acquisition of a modelÊs behaviour. Production and motivation, however,
control the performance of the behaviour.

 Observational learning takes place as a result of observing, retaining and

repeating a new behaviour.
 Observational learning has a great influence on childrenÊs aggressive and

pro-social behaviours.
 There are two kinds of models, namely live and symbolic or media models.
Television programmes do not only result in negative behaviours in children,
but can also enable children to learn language, and enhance their
problem-solving skills.
 There are three types of modelling, which are academic modelling, cognitive
modelling and morality modelling.
 Modelling has four effects on human behaviour, which are observational

learning effect, response facilitation effect, response inhibition effect, and
response disinhibition effect.
 Effective models possess one or more of four characteristics: competence,

prestige and power, ``gender appropriateÊÊ behaviour, and behaviour
relevant to the learnerÊs own situation.
 Four processes that are necessary for learners to model an observed behaviour
effectively are attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

Academic modelling Observational learning

Attention Observational learning effect
Cognitive modelling Rehearsal
Live model Response disinhibition effect
Media model Response facilitation effect
Morality modelling Response inhibition effect
Motivation Retention
Motor reproduction Symbolic model
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive

theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Psychology: An international perspective. Sussex:
Psychology Press Ltd.
Omrod, J. E. (2008). Educational psychology: Developing learners (6th ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River.
Dewey, R. (2007). Observational Learning. Retrieved from
http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/observational_
learning.html

Topic  Self-efficacy
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of self-efficacy;
2. Discuss the influence of models on self-efficacy;
3. Distinguish between self-efficacy and instructional efficacy;
4. Describe how self-efficacy affects behaviour; and
5. Identify some factors in the development of self-efficacy.
 INTRODUCTION
„People who regard themselves as highly efficacious act, think, and feel
differently from those who perceive themselves as inefficacious. They
produce their own future, rather than simply foretell it.‰
From Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive

Theory, 1986.
The previous topic presented a major tenet of the social cognitive theory, which
is, observational learning, and the various aspects related to modelling and
effective models. Yet another tenet of the social cognitive theory that is equally
important for learning is self-efficacy. What do you know about self-efficacy?
Generally, it is a learnerÊs belief about himself in relation to the difficulty and the
outcome of the task given.
The purpose of this topic is to present various aspects related to self-efficacy, that
include its concept, its effects on behaviour and the factors involved in its
development.

TOPIC 8 SELF-EFFICACY  121
8.1 CONCEPT OF SELF-EFFICACY

Bandura postulated that self-efficacy involves a belief that one can produce a certain
behaviour, independent of whether one can actually do it or not (Bandura, in Driscoll,
2004). In other words, it is a belief about one's capabilities but not about knowing what
to do. When determining our self-efficacy, first of all, we assess our skills in relation to
the given task, then we evaluate „our capabilities to translate those skills into action‰
(Schunk, 2000).
In a typical classroom situation, learners usually do some kind of self-assessment

regarding a particular subject that is being taught by the teacher. These self-
assessments are called efficacy expectations. As shown in Figure 8.1, a learner
who believes he is not good in Mathematics will put in little or no effort in
completing the classroom exercises or homework given by the teacher.
Figure 8.1: BanduraÊs theory of self-efficacy as a mediator of performance and

achievement
Source: Driscoll, (2004)
In other words, the amount of effort he puts in is proportionate to the level of his
efficacy expectations. However, if he is convinced that practise will enhance his
performance in Mathematics (outcome expectations), then he will make sure he
does constant practise. Thus, both positive outcomes and efficacy expectations
are crucial elements in determining if an individual will or will not exhibit
certain behaviours.
How does self-efficacy differ from outcome expectations? Based on what you
have learnt, self-efficacy is our self-constructed judgement regarding our ability
to exhibit certain behaviours or to attain certain goals. This is in contrast with
outcome expectations which are concerned with our beliefs with respect to the
anticipated outcomes of our actions. For instance, a learner believes that if he
helps a classmate who is weak in Science, he will be thanked by this classmate
(positive outcome expectation). However, if he doubts his capability of helping
this classmate (low self-efficacy) he will refrain from doing so. Again, this
122  TOPIC 8 SELF-EFFICACY
relationship may not hold. In the example, the learner may believe he is capable
of helping his classmate (high self-efficacy) but refrains from doing so if he thinks
his offer of help will be rejected by this classmate (negative outcome expectation).
Additionally, self-efficacy should be distinguished from self-concept. As

mentioned earlier, self-efficacy refers to oneÊs perceptions of specific capabilities,
whereas, self-concept is oneÊs general self-perception (Schunk, 2000). In other
words, self-efficacy involves judgement as compared to self-concept which
involves how we generally feel about ourselves. Our self-concept is formed
through our experiences with and interpretations of our environment, as well as
reinforcements and evaluations by significant others.
8.1.1 Self-efficacy and Models

In the previous topic, we learnt about models and modelling. Do you realise that
the models in our environment have an important influence on our self-efficacy?
Generally, models fall into two categories:

(a) Adult Models; and
(b) Peer Models.
Numerous studies have been done to demonstrate the effect of adult models on
the self-efficacy of children. In one such study by Zimmerman and RingleÊs (in
Schunk, 2000), children observed an adult model fail in solving a puzzle despite
repeated attempts. These children were then asked to solve the puzzle
themselves. It was noted that by observing a confident but non-persistent model,
the childrenÊs self-efficacy increased. However, observing a pessimistic but
persistent model lowered their self-efficacy.
In another study, children who observed an adult model solve a mathematical

division were given similar exercises to do (Relich, Debus & Walker, in Schunk,
2000). Those who were given positive feedback for their ability and effort showed
an increase in their self-efficacy.
Based on the findings of these two studies, it can be said that exposing children
to adult models can affect their self-efficacy for learning and performance. A
similar effect was also found when learners observed same ability peer models
perform a task.

Brown and Inouye (in Schunk, 2000) conducted a study on perceived similarity
in competence to models. College students observed and then judged the self-
efficacy of a peer model who had failed in solving anagrams (a game which
object is to form words from a group of randomly chosen letters). These students
were then asked to solve the anagrams themselves. When they were told that
they were more competent than the peer model, their self-efficacy and
persistence increased as compared to telling them they were equal in
competence.
8.1.2 Self-efficacy and Instructional Efficacy

How can we distinguish between self-efficacy and instructional efficacy? In the
context of the classroom, self-efficacy refers to the teacherÊs personal efficacy to
perform particular behaviours that will result in given outcomes. In comparison,
instructional efficacy refers to a teacherÊs personal beliefs about his capabilities to
help learners learn.
Instructional efficacy is said to influence a teacherÊs instructional activities, as

well as his effort and persistence in the teaching and learning process. Teachers
with low instructional efficacy tend to avoid planning activities that are beyond
their capabilities, put in little effort to source for materials, have little or no
patience with slow learners, and do not conduct remedial activities for learners
with learning disabilities. On the other hand, teachers with higher self-efficacy
tend to foster a conducive classroom environment, expend great effort to
promote learning, and persist with weak learners.
In summary, instructional efficacy is a crucial factor in determining learnersÊ

academic performance and achievement. Thus, it is recommended that pre-
service and in-service teacher education programmes develop strategies for
instructional efficacy. Having efficacious teacher models who can demonstrate
how to assist weak learners as well as disinterested and unmotivated learners, is
one useful strategy for raising teachersÊ self-efficacy and instructional efficacy.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. To what extent are efficacy expectations related to outcome
expectations? Give suitable examples.
2. How do models in the environment influence learnersÊ
self-efficacy?

8.2 HOW SELF-EFFICACY AFFECTS BEHAVIOUR

Basically, our beliefs about our capabilities to attain a certain performance level will
determine how we think, feel and behave. In other words, our self-efficacy affects our
choice of activities, the effort we put in and our persistence, and ultimately our
learning and achievement. We shall now examine each of these effects.
We tend to choose activities and tasks that we believe will bring us success over
those that will result in failures. In other words, learners with low efficacy for
learning may avoid doing certain tasks; those who feel they are efficacious will
participate more actively. Thus, it is natural for learners who are good in Science
to volunteer to represent the school in an Inter-school Science quiz; those who are
weak in this subject may not even be interested to make an attempt. Similarly,
learners who are good in football will go for selection to be in the school football
team over those who have good oratory skills.
In the classroom, learners who possess a high self-efficacy tend to put in more
effort to complete a given task. When faced with difficulties, they try ways and
means to overcome them; in fact they sometimes see them as challenges. In
contrast, those with low self-efficacy tend to give up more easily. We often hear
them complain, „I canÊt seem to get it. I donÊt understand. I give up.‰ This second
category of learners is not persistent in their efforts to solve problems which
come their way.
Research findings show that given the same ability levels, learners with high self-
efficacy acquire better learning and have better achievement as compared to
those with low self-efficacy. When learners believe that they can achieve success
in the task given to them, they are more likely to utilise their cognitive processes,
such as paying attention in class, encoding information received, storing
information for easy retrieval and so on. On the other hand, those with low self-
efficacy are less likely to engage themselves in such activities. Table 8.1 outlines
the influence of learnersÊ self-efficacy on behaviour.
Table 8.1: Influence of LearnersÊ Self-efficacy on Behaviour
Aspect High Self-efficacy Learners Low Self-efficacy Learners

Task orientation Open to challenging tasks. Shun challenging tasks.
Effort Put in increased effort when Put in little or no effort when
faced with challenging tasks. faced with challenging tasks.
Persistence Persistence when goals are Give up when goals are initially
initially not met. not met.

Beliefs Believe they will succeed. Focus on feelings of inadequacy

Able to manage anxiety and and incompetence.
stress when goals are not Unable to manage anxiety and
realised. stress when goals are not
realised.
Use of Strategy Concentrate on strategies that Persist with strategies that do
work. not work.
Performance Show better and higher Show lower performance than
performance than low self- high self-efficacy learners of the
efficacy learners of the same same ability.
ability.
Source: Adapted from Eggen and Kauchak (2004)
Furthermore, there are developmental differences in self-efficacy. Generally,

young children have high self-efficacy and always believe that they are capable
of performing and accomplishing all the tasks given to them. Sometimes, such
beliefs can be over-estimated and unrealistic. As they progress to higher
schooling levels, their self-efficacy becomes more realistic and their level of over-
confidence drops. They also tend to compare their achievements with those of
their classmates.
8.2.1 Promoting Self-efficacy in the Classroom

Given the importance of self-efficacy in learning, how can teachers promote
learnersÊ self-efficacy? The following strategies may provide useful guidelines:
(a) Providing clear instructions for a given task. In this way, learners are clear
about what the task demands of them, for example, are they required
to do fieldwork or source materials from the internet? Hand in a
hard-bound copy or soft copy or both? Assignment format? and so on;
(b) Providing skill development or training, if necessary. Learners become
more confident when they are better equipped to complete the task;
(c) Modelling the desired behaviour. Teachers are role models for their
learners. To be effective models, teachers must evoke trust, admiration, and
respect from their learners; they must exhibit a level of behaviour that the
learners can visualise attaining;
(d) Providing competence-promoting feedback. Feedback of this kind will
encourage learners to put in greater effort in the given task in order to
achieve success;

(e) Promoting mastery of challenging tasks. When learners go beyond merely

completing to mastering difficult and challenging tasks, they are more
receptive to take on such tasks in the future; and
(f) Defining success in terms of improvement or task accomplishment.
Learners become more encouraged to take on learning tasks when they
realise that success of a task can be achieved through incremental
improvement.
8.2.2 Implications of Self-efficacy in the Classroom

What are some implications of an efficacious classroom? When learners have a
strong sense of efficacy, it fosters their personal well-being. They perceive
difficult learning tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be
avoided. This perception stems from an intrinsic interest in the given task
resulting in them being fully absorbed in the task at hand.
In order to succeed in a given task, efficacious learners set themselves

challenging yet attainable goals and become fully committed to them. They
prepare themselves mentally to face obstacles by increasing their efforts. They
associate failure to insufficient knowledge and skills, which then motivates them
further to acquire them.
In comparison, learners who have low efficacy often shun difficult tasks which
they view as personal threats. Besides, they also have low aspirations and a weak
commitment to the goals they have set. In the face of adversity, they give in to
their personal deficiencies, and consequently give up as they lose faith in
themselves.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. How would you differentiate between high efficacious and low

efficacious learners in your classroom?
2. Suggest ways to enhance the self-efficacy of the learners in
your classroom.
8.3 FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

SELF-EFFICACY
Generally, it is said that we are fairly accurate in assessing the level of our self-
efficacy. However, sometimes misjudgement occurs as a result of factors which

are beyond our control. Take the case of a learner who repeatedly obtains a low
score in her essay despite increasingly putting in a lot of effort. The reason for
this is that the English teacher is very strict with her marking. Continuous failure
will result in this learner developing a mistaken belief that she is poor in essay
writing. Another example is the rich boy who is ostracised by his classmates who
are envious of him. Consequently, he will develop the mistaken belief that a
wealthy family background creates enemies.
Social cognitivists suggest that four factors influence the development of self-
efficacy, namely:
(a) Performance accomplishments;
(b) Vicarious experience;
(c) Verbal persuasion; and
(d) Physiological indexes.
Now, let us examine each other in greater detail.
(a) Performance Accomplishments

Performance accomplishments refer to the influence of our past successes
or failures with a task. Obviously, previous successes will enhance our
self-efficacy in completing a task given to us in comparison to previous
failures. Take the example of a learner who repeatedly gets a low grade
for his assignments. Surprisingly, he manages a high grade for one
assignment which was completed after discussing it with some of his
classmates. This success will motivate him to have group discussions in
the future before embarking on his assignments. Hence, it is important
that teachers expose learners to various kinds of learning supports so that
they have a wide range of choices to help them perform instructional tasks
assigned to them.
When learners accomplish repeated success in their tasks, their self-

efficacy is automatically enhanced. Subsequently, if they then experience
an occasional failure, they are still able to accept it. Most likely, this failure
will increase their determination to succeed in the future. When this
happens, they are said to have developed resilient self-efficacy.
On a similar note, continued failures will result in low ability levels to

succeed in the future. This is typically the case of weak learners who have
very low self-efficacy. Low self-efficacy causes failures and thus these
learners are caught in this vicious cycle.

(b) Vicarious Experience

If you recall, this term which has been discussed in Topic 6 refers to our
observations of the successes or failures of a modelled behaviour. To
illustrate, a learner feels that he is not competent enough to enter a
declamation contest. He sits in during one such contest and then changes
his self-expectations when he discovers that the prize winners were not so
remarkable after all. Observing his peers resulted in him gaining greater
self-efficacy. Thus he is more likely to participate in future declamation
contests.
Therefore, as teachers, it is imperative that we boost our learnerÊs self-

efficacy by drawing their attention to the achievements of other learners
with the same ability level. This will indirectly give them the confidence
to try for themselves.
(c) Verbal Persuasion

Verbal persuasion refers to the persuasion of significant others regarding
our capability to succeed at a particular task. It is also known as messages
from significant others.
For instance, in a physical education class, there are some learners who
are afraid to execute a high jump. The physical education teacher can
boost these learnersÊ confidence by saying, „You can do it. Just give it a
try‰. When a significant other offers words of persuasion, it is likely to
hike up that particular individualÊs self-efficacy. However, if, in the above
example, the individual fails to cross over the high jump bar despite
several attempts, the teacherÊs effort is in vain.
Verbal persuasions can also be in the form of constructive comments

which convey the message, „IÊm confident that you have the ability to
perform better than this. These are some of my suggestions.‰ If learners
take this cue, follow the suggestions given, and attain success, we as
teachers have already enhanced their self-efficacy. Nevertheless, in our
attempts to help our students with learning disabilities, we may have
gone to the point of spoon-feeding them. When this happens, we are
conveying the implied message that we do not believe they are going to
make it on their own.
(d) Physiological Indexes

Physiological indexes are the fourth influencing factor in the development
of self-efficacy. These indexes include the levels of fatigue, hunger and
emotional well-being of the individual. Fatigue or hunger are said to
reduce self-efficacy although they are often unrelated to the given task.

Emotional well-being refers to the level of fear or anxiety that can also
affect oneÊs self-efficacy as it can put thoughts of failure into oneÊs
working memory.
Another example that is considered a physiological index is oneÊs „gut

feelings‰ about probable success or failure at a task. Though difficult to put
into words, somehow, we seem to know whether we will succeed or fail at
a given task. Have you heard some of your learners say, „I canÊt describe it,
but itÊs no use even trying? I know IÊll never make it.‰ When learners are
adamant about such low self-efficacy beliefs, as in the above example of
some who are terrified of the high jump pole, they will not even make any
effort to try. In this case, the physical education teacher is faced with the
hard task of helping them overcome their fears and feelings of anxiety
through various strategies. One such strategy is probably systematic
desensitisation through the use of successive approximations.
Table 8.2 shows the factors influencing self-efficacy.
Table 8.2: Influencing Factors on Self-efficacy
Factors Elaboration
Performance accomplishments Influence of past successes or failures with a task
Vicarious experience Influence of a modelÊs successes or failures with a
task
Verbal persuasion Influence of other peopleÊs persuasion/opinion
about oneÊs capability at a task
Physiological indexes Influence of fatigue, hunger, fear, anxiety or „gut
feeling‰ on success or failure at a task
Ć Self-efficacy is a belief that one can produce a certain behaviour, independent

of oneÊs capability.
Ć Positive outcomes and efficacy expectations are crucial determinants of

observed behaviour.
Ć Self-efficacy differs from outcome expectations and self-concept.
Ć Adult models and peer models influence a learnerÊs self-efficacy.
Ć Self-efficacy differs from instructional efficacy.

Ć Instructional efficacy influences a teacherÊs instructional activities, as well as

his effort and persistence in the teaching and learning process.
Ć Self-efficacy affects an individualÊs choice of activities, effort and persistence,

and learning and achievement.
Ć Efficacious learners tend to put in more effort to complete a given task

compared to inefficacious learners.
Ć High efficacy learners acquire better learning and have better achievement
when compared to those with low self-efficacy.
Ć Four influencing factors on the development of self-efficacy are performance

accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological
indexes.
Adult models Performance accomplishments

Efficacy expectations Physiological indexes
Instructional efficacy Resilient self-efficacy
Outcome expectations Verbal persuasion
Peer models Vicarious experiences
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopaedia

of human behaviour (Vol. 4, pp. 71ă81). New York, NY: Academic Press.
(Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.]., Encyclopaedia of mental health. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998). Retrieved from:
http://www.des.emory. edu/mfp/BanEncy.html.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American
Psychologist, 37, 122ă147.
Allyn & Bacon.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Educational psychology: Windows on

Classrooms (6th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Upper Saddle River.
Behaviour Change Theory and Models. Retrieved from
http://www.csupomona.edu/~jvgrizzell/best_practices/bctheory.html
Center for Positive Practices. (2005). Self-efficacy. Retrived from
http://www.positivepractices.com/Efficacy/SelfEfficacy.html#TheGeneral
Problem
Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is self-efficacy? Retrived from
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm

Topic  Cognitive
9 Psychology
and Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the assumptions of cognitive psychology;
2. Explain some basic concepts of cognitive psychology; and
3. Describe a model of human memory.
 INTRODUCTION
„Learning without thought is labour lost; thought without learning is
perilous‰.
ă Confucius
The field of psychology was largely influenced by behaviourism until the 1950s.
Then, between 1950 to 1970, focus began to shift towards topics such as attention,
memory, and problem-solving. This period, often known as the cognitive
revolution, generated considerable research that proposed various information
processing models of learning.
Cognitive psychology is part of a broader field known as cognitive science. The

core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store
information. The findings of cognitive research propose ways to improve
memory, how to increase accurate decision-making, and how to design
appropriate educational curricula to increase learning.
This topic will discuss the assumptions and basic concepts of cognitive
psychology as well as present a model of human memory.

TOPIC 9 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING  133
9.1 ASSUMPTIONS OF COGNITIVE

PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitive psychology proposes five assumptions about how people learn (refer
to Figure 9.1). These assumptions are concerned with the following aspects:
(a) Influence of cognitive processes;
(b) Selectivity of learning content;
(c) Construction of meaning;
(d) Role of prior knowledge and beliefs; and
(e) Active involvement in learning.
Figure 9.1: Assumptions of the information-processing theory

Source: Adapted from Omrod, 2008
(a) Influence of Cognitive Processes

Cognitive psychologists view learning as an internal mental phenomenon
and not as external behavioural changes. Thus, the cognitive processes that
involve thinking and interpreting will impact our learning. To illustrate,
when you teach Year One students the fives multiplication table, your
learners will first have to relate the concept of 5  2 = 10 to 5 + 5 = 10. Then
they have to understand and relate that 5  6 = 30 to counting 5 six times.
For this reason, it is therefore crucial for us, as teachers, to provide learning
activities that not only determine what our learners learn but how
effectively they learn it.

134  TOPIC 9 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING
(b) Selectivity of Learning Content

In our daily lives, we are often deluged by a wealth of information, ranging
from the visual form to print and electronic forms. In addition, we also
receive information through our other senses.
To elaborate, do the following exercise:
Answer the following questions.

(i) How many other things in your environment do you see besides the
words on this page?
(ii) What sounds do you hear at this moment?
(iii) Enumerate the objects that you are presently touching with your
fingers and toes.
Reflect on your answers to the above questions. You will agree that given
the limitless amount of stimuli that you are exposed to, you tend to select
and give your attention only to the ones that you think are important.
Similarly, in the classroom, our learners also choose from the enormous
amount of information that they receive. Therefore, as teachers, we should
ensure that our learners are equipped with the necessary knowledge and
skills to make good and wise instructional decisions.
(c) Construction of Meaning

Research findings show that we usually combine small bits of information
that we receive and make meaning out of them. As an illustration, look at
the two figures shown in Figure 9.2. What do you see?
Figure 9.2: What do you see?

Source: http://graphicdesign. Spokanefalls .edu/tutorials/process/
gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm

In the image on the left, there are actually 15 figures but you will probably see it
as a unified whole, or a single entity. You will probably say it is the shape of a
tree. Similarly, you will also say that the second image on the right represents
either some kind of shade or the silhouette of a face. The reason for the
differences in the images is because we usually combine new information with
what we already know. This process, known as construction of meaning,
requires us to interpret what we see in our own ways.
Hence, it is important for us as teachers, to be aware that our learners do

not always acquire learning in the same way as information is presented to
them. It is normal for them to construct their own meaning out of the
information that they receive. For this reason, we should constantly check
the accuracy of their interpretations through questioning, listening to them,
and encouraging them to give feedback.
(d) Role of Prior Knowledge and Beliefs

We all come from different family backgrounds that provide us with
different kinds of knowledge, and beliefs to make meaning out of new
information that we obtain. The same is also true for our learners, too. Prior
knowledge and beliefs greatly influence how receptive we are to new
experiences.
Therefore, it is pertinent that we, as teachers, identify the prior knowledge

and beliefs of our learners. This will enable us to plan and conduct learning
activities that are relevant to their family and cultural backgrounds.
(e) Active Involvement in Learning

In our daily lives, we should not act like sponges that merely absorb
information given to us. Rather, we should actively determine what and
what not to know, and what to and what not to learn. In other words, we
should be active participants in the learning process.
Similarly, as teachers, we should motivate our learners to play an active

role in their learning. We can do this by planning instructional activities
that stimulate their thinking.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. In your opinion, why is it important for teachers to know about

the assumptions of cognitive psychology?
2. What are the educational implications related to the above
assumptions?

9.1.1 Sub-domains of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology consists of the following sub-domains as shown in
Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3: Sub-domains of cognitive psychology
However, some cognitive psychologists have even included social and cultural
factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition and evolutionary approaches
as part of cognitive psychology.
Table 9.1 contains a brief description of each of the sub-domains listed in Figure 9.3.
Table 9.1: Sub-domains of Cognitive Psychology
Sub-domain Description
Perception Subjective interpretations that we make of environmental stimuli.
Current research: Focus on the interaction of separate
interpretations and integration into coherent precepts.
Selection of information for further processing and management of
Attention several simultaneous information sources.
Current research: Influence of attention on performance,
mechanisms of attention, and networks for attention control.

Learning Acquisition of new information in response to environmental

stimuli.
Current research: Focus on implicit learning (influence of prior
experience on performance), explicit learning, and conceptual
learning (nature of processing of incoming information).
Memory How memories are acquired, stored, and retrieved; memory for
facts, for procedures or skills, and working and short-term memory
capacity.
Current research: Focus on storage and retrieval processes.
Concept The ability to organise perception and classification of experiences
Formation through the use of relevant categories.
Current research: Focus on cognitive neuroscience (identification of
important brain structures for category formation).
Judgement and Basic requirements (explicit and implicit) in voluntary behaviour.
Decision Current research: Focus on dynamic system analyses of judgement
and choice.
Reasoning The process by which logical arguments are evaluated or
constructed.
Current research: Focus on inference making and analogy, logical
reasoning, and Bayesian reasoning.
Problem- Solving The study of how humans pursue goal directed behaviour.
Current research: Focus on complex pattern recognition, and
computer simulation of problem-solving.
Language Refers to language acquisition, language comprehension, language
Processing production, and the psychology of reading.
Current research: Focus on lexical systems, semantic representation
systems, and cognitive imaging.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Based on what you have learned about the various sub-domains of

cognitive psychology, visit relevant websites that describe current
research in any particular sub-domain(s).

9.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF COGNITIVE

PSYCHOLOGY
In this section, you will learn four basic concepts related to cognitive psychology:
(a) Memory;
(b) Storage;
(c) Encoding; and
(d) Retrieval.
(a) Memory
Cognitivists define memory as the mental processes involved in the
acquisition and retaining of information for later retrieval. In other words,
memory study focuses on how memories are acquired, stored, and
retrieved.
There are four common approaches to the study of memory:

(i) The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model;
(ii) Levels of Processing Approach;
(iii) The TulvingÊs Model; and
(iv) Parallel Distributed Processing Approach.
These approaches will be discussed in later topics.
(b) Storage
Storage refers to putting away what has been learnt into our memory. It is
analogous to storing books into drawers and cupboards only to make
references of them when we need to look for certain information. In the
context of cognitive psychology, we usually put away the information we
receive into our long-term memory.
(c) Encoding
We do not usually store information exactly as we receive it; rather we
assign meanings and interpretations to them. In other words, we encode it.
For example, auditory stimuli are changed to the visual form when we
imagine the scenery of a place that is being described to us. In the same
way, visual stimuli can also be converted to the auditory form when we
read aloud an excerpt of a novel. To elaborate, read the following passage
one time only, and do the task which follows:

Figure 9.4: Panda

Source: http://images.google.com.my/images=panda
A snow leopard roars in the high mountains of Asia. A black rhinoceros

gallops across the calf glide through the deep waters of the ocean. All of these
animals share the Earth with us. They fascinate us with their beauty, their
grace, and their speed. We love observing their behaviour, and learning more
about their habits. But just loving them is not enough. All of these animals are
endangered. Many of them have died, and without special care, they may
someday disappear from the Earth. The giant panda of Asia is a fascinating
and unique animal. Yet there are only about 1,000 still living in the wild. The
giant pandaÊs diet consists mainly of the bamboo plant, so when the bamboo
forests die, so does the panda. China is now making an effort to protect these
special creatures from becoming extinct. In South America, destruction of the
rain forest threatens many animals. Unusual mammals, such as the howler
monkey and the three-toed sloth, are endangered. They are losing their
homes in the rain forest, and thousands die when they are caught and
shipped off to be sold as exotic pets. Why is it important to care for animals
like these? One reason is to protect the balance of life on Earth. Another
reason is the beauty of the animals themselves. Each species of animal is
special. Once it is gone, it is gone forever.
Source: Gone Forever by Barbara Reeves
Available: http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/marketing/
sfesl/tests/grade7.html#reading2
After you have finished reading the passage, spend a few minutes to write down
as much of the passage as you can remember.
How much of the passage did you remember? You probably remembered that
the panda is considered as one of the endangered species. You may also have
recalled that pandas are found in Asia, and that China is doing her very best to
ensure that this special animal does not become extinct. But did you remember

each and every detail about the other endangered animals? It is common for us to
remember the general meaning of what we read as opposed to the specific detail.
(d) Retrieval
This concept refers to the process of trying to remember information that
we have previously stored. In simple terms, it is analogous to looking for a
particular file that we have kept in the storeroom. Thus, if we do not
maintain systematic record-keeping, it will definitely take us a long time to
retrieve this file. As an illustration, do the following exercise to assess your
power of retrieval.
Time yourself and see how quickly it takes you to complete the following
questions:
(i) What is your home address?
(ii) In what year did Malaysia achieve her Independence?
(iii) What is the capital of Turkey?
(iv) What did you have for breakfast five years ago today?
How did you fare with the above questions? Most likely, it was very easy
for you to answer question one. It probably took you a little longer to
remember that Malaysia achieved her Independence in 1957 and that
Ankara is the capital of Turkey. Very likely also, that the memories of what
you had for breakfast five years ago today can never be retrieved though it
was stored at that time.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. Explain the four basic concepts of the information processing
theory.
2. Why is it important for teachers to be aware of these concepts?
9.3 A MODEL OF HUMAN MEMORY

In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of human memory which was
made up of two components, short-term memory and long-term memory. Later a
third component (actually the first in the sequence) was added, namely, sensory
memory. Figure 9.5 shows Atkinson and ShriffinÊs model of human memory. In

the following section, the characteristics of each of the three components will be
discussed.
Figure 9.5: A model of human memory

Source: http://www.cc.gatech.edu/classes/cs6751_97_winter/Topics/human-
cap/memory.html
9.3.1 Sensory Memory

As you know, we receive various types of information through different channels
via our senses. In addition, our perceptual systems also play a crucial role in
creating perceptions about the information that enters our processing system. As
mentioned earlier, our mental system only has a limited processing ability.
Therefore, most incoming information cannot be immediately dealt with. Instead,
we only attend to certain information. Any information not immediately
attended to is held briefly in a very temporary „buffer‰ memory, making it
possible to attend to some of it a bit later.
For example, you can still hear your classmate asking you a question even
though you were not really listening when he put forward that question. This
buffer memory is called the sensory memory or sensory register.
A sensory memory exists for each sensory channel:

(a) Iconic memory for visual stimuli;
(b) Echoic memory for aural stimuli; and
(c) Haptic memory for touch.
The sensory memory is said to retain an exact copy of what is seen (visual) or
heard (auditory). It is said to last for a few seconds. However, some theorists
argue that it only lasts 300 milliseconds. In addition, it has unlimited capacity
and is able to hold a great deal of information at any one time.

Information is passed from the sensory memory into short-term memory by

attention. Thus, filtering of stimuli occurs for those that are of interest to the
individual at a given time.
9.3.2 Short-term Memory

The short-term memory (STM) is also known as the working memory. In contrast
to our sensory memory, it only has a limited capacity. For example, if several of
your classmates are talking simultaneously, you can usually attend to only one
conversation. This is known as the cocktail party phenomenon (Cherry, in
Omrod, 2008). Besides, information in our short-term memory stays for about 18
to 20 seconds. If we wish to hold information in STM, it is often encoded
verbally.
Short-term memory is said to act as a ``scratch-padÊÊ for temporary recall of the

information under process.
For example, in order to understand a sentence that you are reading, you need
to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence as you read the rest. Try
chunking the sentence into seven plus or minus two words. You will find that
this can enhance your short-term memory capacity. It is for this reason that
your identity card number is hyphenated instead of a single long number.
Information that enters our STM soon fades away, or decays if it is no longer
attended to. Information that is being actively attended to is then sent to our
long-term memory to be stored.
Our STM sets severe limits on the amount of information that can be held in our
minds simultaneously, as well as the duration for which it lasts once attention is
withdrawn from it. For this reason, it is sometimes described as the ``bottleneckÊÊ
of the human information processing system.
9.3.3 Long-term Memory

Our long-term memory (LTM) is used for storage of information over a long
period. But just how long is our long-term memory? I am sure you agree that we
often forget things that we have learned after a day, a week, a month, or a year.
This is because the information that is kept in our LTM may slowly ``weakenÊÊ
and in some cases, become impossible to retrieve if not used for a long time. Thus
the exact duration of our LTM has never been determined and perhaps never can

be (Eysenck & Keane, in Omrod, 2008). Table 9.2 shows the summary of the
characteristics of the three components of the human memory.
Table 9.2: Characteristics of Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory and Long-term Memory
Component of Sensory Memory Short-term Long-term Memory

Human Memory Memory
Capacity Large Limited Unlimited
Duration A few seconds 18 to 20 seconds (Indefinitely) long
Processing Unencoded Encoded Encoded
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Briefly describe the three components of the human memory that

is sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
2. What are the implications of these three components to the
teaching and learning process?
Ć The cognitive revolution that occurred between 1950 to 1970 generated

considerable research that proposed various information-processing models
of learning.
Ć The core focus of cognitive psychology, part of a broader field known as

cognitive science, is on how people acquire, process and store information.
Ć Cognitive psychology proposes five assumptions about how people learn:

(i) Influence of cognitive processes;
(ii) Selectivity of learning content;
(iii) Construction of meaning;
(iv) Role of prior knowledge and beliefs; and
(v) Active involvement in learning.
Ć Cognitive psychology consists of the following sub-domains: perception;

attention; learning; memory; concept formation; reasoning; judgement and
decision-making; problem-solving; and language processing.

Ć Four basic concepts related to cognitive psychology are memory, storage,

encoding and retrieval.
Ć The model of human memory is made up of three components, that is:

sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
Ć Each of these three components possesses certain characteristics.
Attention Perception
Cognitive psychology Problem-solving
Cognitive science Reasoning
Concept formation Retrieval
Encoding Sensory memory
Judgement and decision-making Sensory register
Language processing Short-term memory
Learning Storage
Long-term memory Working memory
Memory
Hall, R. H. Information-processing theory. Retrieved from

http://medialab.mst.edu/rhall/educational_psychology/2001/vl2a/info_
new. html
users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human Memory: Atkinson-Shiffrin Model. Retrieved from

http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/AtkinsonShifrin.html
Omrod, J. E. (2008). Educational psychology: Developing learners (6th ed.).

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River.


The Gestalt Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples
/gestaltprinc.htm
Van Wagner, K. (nd). What is cognitive psychology. Retrieved from

http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/cogpsych.htm
Zhong-Lin Lu, & Dosher, B. A. (2007). Cognitive psychology. Retrieved from

http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_psychology
The Cognitive System. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:

Valdosta State Huitt, W. (2006). University. Retrived from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/cogsys.html

Topic  Memory
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the function of short-term memory;
2. Describe how information is stored in long-term memory;
3. Explain how information is retrieved from long-term memory; and
4. Discuss the concept of forgetting.
 INTRODUCTION
„Memory is a child walking along a seashore. You never can tell what
small pebble it will pick up and store away among its treasured things‰.
Pierce Harris, Atlanta Journal
For thousands of years, the study of human memory has been the subject of
interest of science and philosophy. It is also a major focus of cognitive
psychology. Memory and learning are very closely related and are
interdependent. You have already learned from the previous topic that memory
refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
information. Therefore, memory is an essential part of the learning process.
However, learning is also dependent on memory. The knowledge that you store
in your memory provides the framework for you to link new knowledge with
your existing knowledge. The more extensive your framework of existing
knowledge, the easier it is for you to link new knowledge.
As you learned in Topic 5, there are several models of memory but the most
commonly used is Atkinson and ShriffinÊs (1968) Stage Model of Memory. This
model explains the basic structure and function of memory and outlines three

TOPIC 10 MEMORY  147
distinct stages of memory, namely: sensory memory, short-term (working)

memory, and long-term memory.
In this topic, you will learn the functions of short-term and long-term memory, as
well as discuss how forgetting occurs.
10.1 SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)

In the preceding topic, you learned that memory is stored in three memory
systems, which are: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory. Sensory memory preserves incoming sensory information for only a
fraction of a second, generally not more than half a second for visual or iconic
information, and three or four seconds for auditory or echoic information. We
focus our attention to certain aspects of this sensory memory before allowing
some of this information to proceed to our short-term or working memory.
Recent findings in cognitive research place great emphasis on the role of our
short-term memory (STM). It is said that failures in STM will result in learning
disabilities. Why do you think this happens? The reason is that we do all our
active thinking and problem-solving in our STM.
Cognitive psychologists suggest that we need to do four things as shown in

Figure 10.1 if we want our STM to function effectively:
Figure 10.1: Effective ways for STM to function

148  TOPIC 10 MEMORY
In order to ensure that the correct information gets into STM, we need to focus
our attention on it. In the context of the classroom, we as teachers, can facilitate
this process by directing our learnersÊ attention to key words, highlighting
important facts, and so on.
It is important to remember that we need to handle information appropriately to

prevent it from fading from our STM. In doing so, we face two limitations, which
are limited capacity and limited duration. As we have learned, our STM can only
handle a small number of pieces of information at any one time. A psychologist,
George Miller (Figure 10.2) in his 1956 study proposed the magical seven plus or
minus two (7 μ 2) pieces of information. According to the study, the information
remains in STM for only a short period of time, approximately 15 to 30 seconds.
Figure 10.2: George Miller

Source: http://www.psychologicalscience.org
Hence, it is important for us as teachers to assist our learners to overcome these

limitations. Read and try to understand the six ways listed:
(a) Deliver only small amounts of new learning material at any one time. This
will enable learners to focus their attention effectively;
(b) Train them to stop focusing their attention on old information so that they
will have space in their short-term memory for new information;
(c) Teach learners to chunk several pieces of information. This involves
combining separate pieces of information into a single, complex piece of
information. For example, ask them to try and remember the following
series of 10 digits: 1-8-0-0-7-5-2-5-2-5. Then teach them to try chunking into
five chunks (one- or two- or three-digit numbers): 1-800-75-25-25;

(d) Teach them how to efficiently and rapidly transfer information into and out
of their short-term memory. In other words, sharpen their retrieval skills;
(e) Encourage them to use devices such as note-taking, graphics and diagrams
instead of committing everything to memory; and
(f) Introduce them to the concept of maintenance rehearsal or rote recital of
stored information. When our learners mentally or verbally repeat or
review information, it will help keep it from fading while in the short-term
memory. Besides, it allows information to remain there longer than the
usual 20 30 seconds.
Transferring information correctly from our short-term to our long-term memory

involves a process known as encoding. Figure 10.3 summarises four types of encoding.
Figure 10.3: Four types of encoding
Each of them is explained in detail in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Types of Encoding
Type Elaboration Example

Shallow Repeating information to oneself. A mobile phone number.
Elaborate Linking, associating or connecting Using visualisation or guided
incoming information with that imagery techniques (mnemonics).
already stored in your memory.
Automatic Transferring of information from Read the two sentences below:
STM into LTM without much or (i) What did you have for breakfast
any effort and awareness. this morning?
(ii) How did you come to school
today?
Did you experience difficulty
answering the above questions? You
probably did not. You already
understand the meaning of the words
contained in them. You need not
actively try to process the definition
of the words.

Effortful Transferring of information from Memorising your notes for your

STM into LTM either by working upcoming monthly History test.
hard to repeat or rehearse the Repeating a friendÊs new mobile
information or by making phone number in your head until you
associations between new and old can write it down.
information.
From Table 10.1, you can conclude that shallow encoding is used when we need
to hold a small amount of linguistic information in our mind for several seconds.
In the example given, when you repeat a phone number to yourself, you are only
temporarily storing the information.
In comparison, if you use elaborative encoding, you are making the information
more meaningful as you link, associate or connect the incoming information with
the existing information in your memory. The use of mnemonics thus makes it
easier for you to retrieve the information as you have already established an
actual means to recall it.
Besides this, you can also infer that there are some types of information that
are automatically encoded without much effort and awareness, whilst other
information requires us to do effortful encoding through repetition, rehearsal or
making associations between new and old information.
In conclusion, it can be said that STM performs three functions, namely:

(a) Attending, which involves selectively attending to relevant information and
ignoring all other irrelevant information;
(b) Rehearsing, which enables you to hold information for a short period of
time until you decide what to do with it; and
(c) Storing, which helps you store or encode information into long-term
memory.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Explain how you, as a teacher, can enhance the short-term memory

of your learners.
2. When is it appropriate for learners to use:

(a) Shallow encoding; and
(b) Elaborative encoding in the learning context?
Give suitable examples.

10.2 STORAGE OF INFORMATION IN LONG-

TERM MEMORY (LTM)
In contrast to our STM, the long-term memory (LTM) has an unlimited storage
capacity and a very long duration of time for the purpose of retrieving, or
remembering such information in the future. For this purpose, two processes are
involved: encoding, which is the process of transferring information from short-
term to long-term memory by paying attention to it, repeating or rehearsing it, or
forming new associations; and retrieving, which refers to selecting information
from LTM and transferring it back into STM.
Cognitive psychologists propose two useful techniques for storing information in

LTM, which are repetition, and elaborative rehearsal, as you can see in Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4: Storing information in LTM
From Figure 10.4, we can see that repetition of information serves two major
purposes;
(a) To correct inaccuracies; and
(b) To create overlearning, thus, reinforcing connections.
In elaborative rehearsal, on the other hand, you actively review and relate the
information that is already stored in your LTM. This process involves the
following steps as outlined in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5: How elaborative rehearsal works
How can you distinguish between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative

rehearsal? Maintenance rehearsal refers to simply repeating or rehearsing the
information rather than forming any new associations. Elaborative rehearsal
involves using effort to actively make meaningful associations between new
information that you wish to remember to old or familiar information that is
already stored in LTM.
As teachers, our goal is to assist our learners to store information in LTM and to
use that information in the future to solve problems effectively. LTM consists of
two main categories; declarative and non-declarative, as shown in Figure 10.6.
Figure 10.6: Memory systems in long-term memory

Now, let us study a little bit more about the different types of memory systems in
our LTM.
(a) Declarative Memory

Declarative memory is explicit in nature. It is divided into semantic
memory and episodic memory.
(i) Semantic memory refers to the remembrance of facts and generalised
information such as verbal information, concepts, rules, principles,
and problem-solving skills. Such information that is meaningful to
you is usually stored in networks or schemata.
(ii) Episodic memory refers to your memory of personal experiences from
your past. It can also include elements such as the time and place
where the event occurred. For example: your 10th birthday party, a
movie you saw two weeks ago, and so on. In other words, it organises
information around episodes in our lives.
What are the characteristics of semantic and episodic memory? Cognitive

psychologists propose the following three characteristics:
(i) Episodic memories are easier to forget than semantic memories.
(ii) Episodic memories comprise subjective experiences, compared to
semantic memories which are objective in nature.
(iii) Episodic memories often include an affective (emotional) component,
in contrast with semantic memories that rarely do.
(b) Non-declarative Memory

Non-declarative memory is implicit in nature. It is divided into procedural
memory, priming and conditioning.
(i) Procedural memory refers to your ability to remember how to
perform a task or to employ a strategy. For example, learning a motor
skill such as riding a bicycle, acquiring writing skills, and so on. The
procedures are apparently stored in a series of steps. Thus, when you
retrieve information from procedural memory, you retrieve the first
step, which triggers the second, and then the third, and so on.
(ii) Priming refers to your increased ability to identify or detect a stimulus
that has been recently presented. It is measured as the improvement
in performance for previously presented or repeated stimuli as
compared to stimuli presented for the first time.
For example, you have recorded in your memory the name „Tunku
Abdul Rahman‰ with records for „Bapa Malaysia‰, „First Malaysian
Prime Minister‰, and „Independence‰. Next, when you are asked to
name the first Malaysian Prime Minister, you are more likely to give
the correct answer as compared to some of your friends who have not
been primed to the name. You will learn more about priming in the
next section.
(iii) Conditioning refers to your ability to make associations between two
stimuli, or between behaviour and its consequences. If you recall, the
concept of conditioning has been discussed in Topics 2 and 3.
Contemporary researchers have also discovered another type of LTM that they
name as metamemory. This refers to the knowledge of how memory systems
work and how to use such systems in retrieving stored information.
According to cognitive psychologists, one important phenomenon that supports

the permanence of our LTM is flashbulb memory. This refers to our consistent
and detailed recollection of a significant event that has occurred in our lives. For
example, many people can still recall how they sat in front of their television sets
on the day Neil Armstrong became the first man to step on the moon.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. How is information stored in our LTM? Give suitable examples

for each of the memory systems.
2. How would you, as a teacher, enhance your learnersÊ ability to

store information into their LTM?
10.3 RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION FROM

LONG-TERM MEMORY
In order for information that has been encoded and stored in oneÊs memory to be
used, we need to be able to retrieve it. We are constantly retrieving information
in our daily activities, from remembering what you studied last night for the
Science test today to executing a new volleyball service your coach taught you
last month.
Retrieving is the process of accessing stored memories. In short, it requires you to

accurately select the learned information from LTM and transfer it back into
STM. Cognitive psychologists have listed out four ways to help you pull out
information from LTM as outlined in Figure 10.7.

Figure 10.7: Types of memory retrieval
Now, let us look at Table 10.2 for further details about each type of memory
retrieval, their retrieval cues and an example to illustrate them. The type of
retrieval cue or prompt impacts how learned information is retrieved.
Table 10.2: Types of Memory Retrieval and the Elaboration
Type of Elaboration Type of Retrieval Cue

Memory
Retrieval
Recall Able to access information not in In the form of a question
conscious awareness.
 Free recall recall the items in the
list; order or sequence is
unimportant.
 Serial recall recall the items in the
list in the correct order.
Example: names, fill-in-the-blanks
items
Recollection Involves reconstructing memory. Use of logical structures,
Example: essay questions partial memories, narratives
or clues
Recognition Able to identify information after Identification of a
experiencing it for a second time previously experienced
Example: multiple choice quiz stimulus
Relearning Relearning previously learned Identification with a

information previously learned stimulus
Example: preparing for an exam
In relation to the concept of recall, Herman Ebbinghaus (Figure 10.8) was the one
who introduced the serial position curve.

Figure 10.8: Herman Ebbinghaus

Source: www.york.ac.uk
The serial position curve is as shown in Figure 10.9. It is roughly U-shaped.
Figure 10.9: The serial position curve

Source: http://articles.directorym.com/Memory_Storage-a1053613.html
This curve shows the relationship between the position of an item in the list
(serial position) and the ability to recall it. Based on the curve, there are two
effects:
(a) Primacy effect, where items at or near the beginning of a list are easier to
recall than those in the middle; and
(b) Recency effect, where items near the end of the list are also easier to recall
than those in the middle.

10.3.1 Serial Position Test

Spend three minutes to read the list of 20 verbs or action words in Table 10.3.
Then say aloud the words that you can recall from the list.
Table 10.3: 20 Action Words
accomplished strengthened performed questioned

targeted persuaded halved boosted
balanced changed understood tutored
presided guided achieved dedicated
championed worked cultivated resourceful
Which of the words in the list can you recall, the words in the first and last
columns or the ones in the second and third columns? According to Hedwig von
Restorff, who was a perceptual psychologist, the items in the middle of a list are
most difficult to commit to memory, hence making it more difficult to recall. She
suggested that to overcome this problem, you can make these items distinctive,
for example, by writing them in red to contrast them with the black. The
contrasting colour makes us focus our attention on these items, thus enhancing
their processing. The improved memory for distinctive items in the middle of a
list is known as the Von Restorff effect, after its discoverer.
Additionally, in order for us to retrieve information quickly and effectively, the

information that is stored in LTM must be organised and filed according to its
pattern or meaning. The effectiveness of retrieval cues is dependent on the
organisation of the stored information.

Figure 10.10 shows the three different ways information is organised in LTM.
Figure 10.10: Organisation of information in long-term memory
Now, let us look at each of it in detail.
(a) Associations
Associations made at the time of encoding the information include the
following:
(i) Concepts and categories using a multi classification system to group
items based on their common properties;
(ii) Clusters organise similar or related items in groups;
(iii) Contexts match retrieval cues to encoded information; and
(iv) Schemas organise a cluster of knowledge about a particular event or
object by retrieving from relevant experiences in the past
(b) Priming
Priming refers to memory retrieval using cues that stimulate a memory of
the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. There are two
types of priming, which are:

(i) Conceptual Priming involves activation of concepts stored in

semantic memory; and
(ii) Perceptual Priming identifying a stimulus based on its physical
features.
(c) Encoding Specificity Principle

This principle is defined as the tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with:
(i) External, environmental factors;
(ii) OneÊs internal physiological ``stateÊÊ; and
(iii) OneÊs current mood.
In conclusion, LTM performs three functions: storage, deletion and retrieval.

Information from STM is stored in LTM through rehearsal. Deletion of
information occurs as a result of decay and interference. Information is retrieved
using recall and recognition. In comparison, recognition is less complex as the
information is provided as a cue. Provision of retrieval cues enhances recall as
information can be accessed more quickly.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. How is information retrieved from LTM?
2. How would you, as a teacher, enhance retrieval cues in your

learners?
10.4 FORGETTING: THE LOSS OF MEMORY

Have you ever experienced forgetting where you left your house keys? Or forgot
to switch on the porch light at night? Forgetting is such a common daily
occurrence that, often, we resort to various methods to help us remember
important dates and events. We write „Things To Do‰ on Post-It notes and paste
them on our refrigerator door, jot down on our daily planner, post reminders on
our mobile phones, and so on.
What actually happens when you are searching for your missing house keys? For
a while, it seems that the information about the place where you put the keys is
completely erased from your memory. However, this does not explain the
concept of forgetting correctly. Forgetting does not just mean losing or erasing

information from your long-term memory; it is actually a problem of availability

(information was not properly encoded or stored, thus making it unavailable) or
accessibility (information was encoded but could not be accessed or retrieved at
the material time).
Herman Ebbinghaus was one of the first psychologists to investigate the

properties of human memory, specifically, forgetting. He constructed and
systematically memorised a list of 20 three-letter nonsense syllables. These items
consist of a consonant, vowel, and consonant (CVC) that do not spell anything in
English. An example is „caj‰ One complete run through the list constituted a
single repetition.
After a number of repetitions, Ebbinghaus tried to recall the items on the list. He
discovered that his ability to recall the items was proportionate to the number of
repetitions made; very quickly at the initial stages, and then more slowly. Finally,
he achieved mastery. This marked the first learning curve as seen in Figure 10.11.
Figure 10.11: The forgetting curve

Source: http://academic.udayton.edu
Ebbinghaus then proceeded to test his retention. He took a new list and practised
until he was able to repeat the items correctly twice in a row. He waited for
varying periods of time before putting himself to the test. He found that
forgetting happened most rapidly immediately after the practice sessions.
However, the rate slowed down as time went on when fewer items could be
recalled. This curve represented the first forgetting curve.
Based on these experiments, Ebbinghaus proposed an important memory

phenomenon known as the overlearning effect. For example, you might need just
10 repeated memorisations to produce two perfect recalls. If you continued for
another eight times, this means 80% overlearning.

What is the effect of „overlearning‰? It is to make the information more resistant

to disruption or loss. Ebbinghaus discovered that the forgetting curve for
overlearned material is shallower, where the duration of time was longer to
forget a given amount of the material.
There are four major reasons why we forget information as shown in

Figure 10.12.
Figure 10.12: Reasons for forgetting
Now, let us study in detail the reasons forgetting occurs.
(a) Retrieval Failure

Retrieval failure refers to an inability to retrieve information from memory
(Figure 10.13). One possible explanation for retrieval failure is known as
decay theory. As you know, each time we receive new information, a
memory trace is said to form. Over time, these memory traces soon fade
and start to disappear. Thus, if a particular piece of information is not
retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost. For example, you will
probably be unable to recall the registration plate number of your familyÊs
first car that your father bought when you were two years old.
Figure 10.13: Retrieval failure

(b) Interference
Interference means some memories seem to compete and interfere with
other memories, either by overwriting or pushing out existing memories. In
other words, they are „memories interfering with memories‰. There are two
types of interference, which are proactive interference and retroactive
interference, as outlined in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4: Types of Interference
Type Elaboration Example

Proactive Previously learned information You intend to visit a friend who
makes it more difficult to remember has just shifted to a new house.
new information. You find yourself driving to her
old house instead.
Retroactive Learning new information makes it Your neighbour has just given
harder to remember previously you his new mobile phone
learned information. number. When asked what his
old mobile number is, you
cannot remember.
(c) Encoding Failure

Encoding failure means that a particular piece of information that is often
seen was never actually stored into LTM (Figure 10.14). This is one of the
reasons of forgetting. You might like to try this activity. Draw both sides of
a 50 sen coin from memory. Then compare your drawing to an actual 50 sen
coin. How did you perform? Most probably you remembered the shape,
size, the number „50‰ and the words „Bank Negara Malaysia‰. You
probably forgot the emblem on the flip side of the coin. Why is this so? It is
because only information necessary for distinguishing the 50 sen coin from
other coins was encoded into your memory.
Figure 10.14: Encoding failure
(d) Motivated Forgetting

Typically, we purposely forget sad and traumatic events and experiences.
This is known as motivated forgetting. Basically, there are two forms of
motivated forgetting, namely, suppression and repression. Suppression is a
conscious form of forgetting. An example of suppression is when a teenager

who has been continuously beaten as a child for misbehaviour may now be
unable to recall specific acts of misbehaviour. The reason for this is because
he has chosen to suppress these traumatic memories. In comparison,
repression is the process by which the mind pushes a memory of some
threatening or traumatic event deep into the unconscious mind.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
1. Discuss theories of forgetting.
2. As a teacher, how can you help your learners to overcome the

problem of forgetting?
In order for STM to function effectively, we need to

 ensure that the correct information gets into this area;
 handle this information in a suitable manner while it is there;
 use some of the information in this area to produce some kind of output;
and
 transfer information correctly to LTM.
Chunking involves combining separate pieces of information into a single,

complex piece of information.
Maintenance rehearsal or rote recital requires the mental or verbal repetition

or review of information to help keep it from fading while in the STM.
Encoding refers to the process of transferring information correctly from our

STM to our LTM.
There are four types of encoding, which are: shallow encoding, elaborative
encoding, automatic encoding and effortful encoding.
STM performs three functions, namely attending, rehearsing and storing.

Retrieving is the process of accessing stored memories.
The types of retrieval cue or prompt used to trigger the retrieval of LTM
impacts how learned information is retrieved.

The four ways for memory retrieval are recall, recollection, recognition and
relearning.
The effectiveness of retrieval cues is dependent on the organisation of the

stored information.
Three different ways of organisation in LTM are association, priming, and the
encoding specificity principle.
Ebbinghaus proposed an important memory phenomenon known as the

overlearning effect.
There are three types of retention tests, namely, recall, recollection and
saving.
The serial position curve shows the relationship between the position of an
item in the list (serial position) and the ability to recall it.
The primacy effect refers to our ability to recall items at or near the beginning
of a list easier than those in the middle.
The recency effect refers to our ability to recall items near the end of the list
easier than those in the middle.
There are four major reasons why we forget information which are: retrieval
failure, interference, encoding failure and motivated forgetting.
Retrieval failure refers to an inability to retrieve information from memory.
One possible explanation for retrieval failure is known as decay theory.
Interference means some memories seem to compete and interfere with other
memories.
There are two types of interference, namely, proactive interference and

retroactive interference.
Encoding failure means that a particular piece of information was never

actually stored into our long-term memory.
Motivated forgetting means we purposely forget sad and traumatic events

and experiences.

Associations Priming
Attending Proactive interference
Automatic encoding Procedural memory
Chunking Recall
Clusters Recency effect
Concepts and categories Recognition
Declarative memory Recollection
Effortful encoding Rehearsing
Elaborative encoding Relearning
Encoding Repression
Encoding failure Retrieval
Encoding specificity principle Retrieval cue
Episodic memory Retrieval failure
Flashbulb memory Retroactive interference
Forgetting curve Savings
Interference Schema
Learning curve Semantic memory
Maintenance rehearsal Serial position curve
Metamemory Shallow encoding
Motivated forgetting Storing
Non-declarative memory Suppression
Overlearning effect Von Restorff effect
Primacy effect

Byrnes, J. P. (2008). Cognitive development and learning in instructional contexts

(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Explanations for forgetting. About.com. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/explanations-
for-forgetting.htm
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Forgetting. About.com. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/forgetting.htm
users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human memory. Retrieved from
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/Ebbinghaus.html
McGraw Hill.
Purdue University Calumet. (n.d.). Long-term memory. Retrieved from
education.purduecal.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy6/edpsy6_long.htm
Dubuc, B. (2002). Memory and learning. Mcgill. Retrieved from
thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_07/d_07_p/d_07_p_tra/d_07_p_tra.
html
Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th. ed.).
New Jersey, NY: Merrill.

Topic  Information-
11 processing
Theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the various levels of processing information;
2. Explain the concept of parallel distributed processing; and
3. Describe the neuroscience approach.
 INTRODUCTION
„There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so‰.
ă William Shakespeare
As we have learned earlier, the primary focus of the information approach is on

the structure and function of mental processing within specific contexts and
situations. If you recall, there are basically four major theories or models that
postulate how we process information. In the earlier two topics, you have
learned about the Atkinson and ShiffrinÊs stage theory model that describes how
information is processed in a serial, discontinuous manner from one stage to
another before being stored in memory.
In addition to this stage theory model, there are also two others; the levels of
processing theory and the parallel-distributed processing model. There is also a
fourth, the connectionistic model, which is an extension of the parallel-
distributed processing model.
This topic will discuss both the models mentioned as well as the neuroscience
approach to human memory.

168  TOPIC 11 INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY
11.1 LEVELS OF PROCESSING

Levels of processing conceptualises memory according to the type rather than the
location of the processing when information is received (Craik, 1979, in Schunk,
2004). The Levels of Processing Theory (LPT) hypothesises that stimulus
information is processed along a continuum at multiple levels simultaneously
depending upon its characteristics. Such mental processing ranges from the deep
and meaningful, to the shallow and surface-level.
(a) Deep processing occurs when information is analysed in terms of its
importance and meaning; and
(b) Shallow processing refers to information that is processed in terms of its
surface structure (letters, sounds, etc.).
Based on the explanation, it seems that when information undergoes deep levels
of processing, it leads to more lasting memories thus resulting in them being
more easily retrieved. Conversely, shallow levels of processing lead to less long-
lasting memories resulting in them being less easily retrieved.
The varying levels of processing can be divided into different categories as

shown in Figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1: Categories of levels of processing
As a further explanation, consider the orienting tasks that engage us in different

levels of processing when we are given the word, „TRY‰ (see Table 11.1).

TOPIC 11 INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY  169
Table 11.1: Levels of Processing Theory
Level of Type of Questions Used to Elicit

Task
Processing Encoding Appropriate Encoding
Shallow Structural Process the word by „Is the word written in
processing  Physical visually scanning it to capital letters?‰
structure of judge it structurally.
the word
Intermediate Phonemic/ Either: „Does the word rhyme
processing Auditory (a) Listen to; with ÂcryÊ?‰
 What the Or/and:
word (b) Mentally sound
sounds like the word.
Deep Semantic Think about the What does this word
processing  Meaning of meaning and then mean if it is put into this
the word relate it to the rest of sentence:
the sentence, or put it „It is useless to
in a meaningful over spilt milk‰.
category.
Based on the table, it can be seen that the three levels of processing require
different types of tasks. In shallow processing, we engage in structural encoding
where we consider the physical characteristics of the given word. Whereas, in
intermediate processing, we encode the given word phonemically by either
listening to someone verbalising it or we mentally sound it ourselves. On the
other hand, in deep processing, we do semantic encoding where we analyse the
meaning of the word in order to relate it to the rest of the sentence.
In addition, Craik and Lockhart (1972) argued that the ability to recall and retain
information varies according to the three levels of processing as shown in
Figure 11.2.

Figure 11.2: Ability of recall at three levels of processing

Source: www.abac.edu/elee/PSYC1101/
From Figure 11.2, it can be concluded that the percentage of words recognised
(recall) will be better for words that are processed more deeply (semantic) as
compared to those processed for sound (acoustic words), often categorised as
intermediate processing. Also, words processed for superficial characteristics like
size, colour or shape (shallow processing) will produce the lowest probability of
recall.
If we were to relate this to the stage theory of memory, it can be said that short-
term memory tends to use an acoustic code whilst long-term memory veers
towards the use of a semantic code. For this reason, acoustic information is
quickly forgotten as it seems to be in the short-term memory and is shallowly
processed. On the other hand, semantic information takes a longer time to be
forgotten as it seems to be in the long-term memory and is thus deeply
processed.
In 1975, Craik and Tulving conducted an experiment to investigate the effects of

different types of processing on word recall. 60 participants were selected for this
experiment. First of all, they were shown 60 words, one at a time. For each word,
they were required to answer one of the three questions as shown in Table 11.1.
After that, they were shown a list containing 180 words. Their task was to pick
out the original 60 words.

The following results were obtained:

(a) 17% of words in the structural/visual question form were correctly
recognised;
(b) 37% in the phonemic/auditory form; and
(c) 65% in the semantic form.
From this experiment, it can thus be concluded that the type of processing
significantly has a large effect on memorability as it affects later recall. This
further confirms Craik and LockhartÊs theory about depth of processing where
deeper levels of analysis yield more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger
memory traces than do shallow levels of processing.
Besides this, elaboration is said to be an important factor in learning and

memory. Elaborative rehearsal is preferred over maintenance rehearsal as the
former involves deeper or more semantic analysis. Consequently, elaborative
rehearsal improves LTM and reduces forgetting.
Furthermore, these two researchers also proposed that if information is attended

to as it is being encoded; it also increases the probability of it receiving more
depth processing. The reason is we tend to remember meaningful events/things
because of the processing involved compared to meaningless events/things.
In conclusion, it can be said that LPT serves as a realistic and credible alternative
to the stage theory model. The primary application of the levels of processing
theory is effective to verbal learning, or the memorisation of word lists. However,
in recent years, it is being applied to reading and language learning, too.
SELF-CHECK 11.1
1. Distinguish between the Stage Theory Model and the Levels of
Processing Theory.
2. What are the characteristics of the Levels of Processing Theory?
11.2 PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

(PDP)
As mentioned earlier, the Atkinson and Shiffrin Stage Theory Model
hypothesised that information is processed serially in a linear manner. A newer
approach is that of parallel processing where information is said to be processed

more or less simultaneously. One such model in this category is the Parallel
Distributed Processing (PDP) model of memory.
As stated earlier, an extension of the PDP model is the Connectionistic Theory

(CT) developed by psychologists David E. Rumelhart (Figure 11.3) and James
McClelland (Figure 11.4) in 1986.
Figure 11.3: David E. Rumelhart Figure 11.4: James McClelland

Source: http://rumelhartprize.org Source: http://rumelhartprize.org
Currently, this is one of the dominant forms of current research in cognitive

psychology. In fact, it is consistent with the most recent brain research.
The primary proposition of the CT model is that information is stored in different

locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections. To
elaborate further, the building blocks of memory are units and connections,
rather than concept modes or propositions. Thus these blocks are simple
processing devices and not meaningful bits of information. They consist of
interacting units which are connected, forming an immense network across
which processing is widely distributed.
What happens when learning takes place? It is said that the stimuli or input from
the environment in the form of concepts and principles activate the connections
among the units. It is this activation that enables the input or knowledge to be
stored there.
The CT model is also consistent with the levels of processing model in that the
more connections to a single concept the more likely it is to be remembered. This
is because the elaboration used is more extensive.

ACTIVITY 11.1
1. Compare and contrast between the Levels of Processing

Theory and the Parallel Distributed Processing Model.
2. How would you apply the Parallel Distributed Processing

Model in the classroom?
11.3 THE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH

In the past decade, the neuroscience approach, particularly cognitive
neuroscience, has emerged as a prevalent approach towards understanding
human cognition ă how the brain supports thought, perception, affection, social
processes, and so on, as illustrated in Figure 11.5.
Figure 11.5: How the brain supports human cognition

Source: http://www.nature.com
It lies at the interface between traditional cognitive psychology and the brain
sciences such as neurology, neuroimaging and so on. It endeavours to generate
cognitive theories based on various types of information. Amongst these include

patterns of behavioural damage resulting from brain injury, and measurements

of brain activity when cognitive tasks are executed.
Neuroscientists are increasingly using models of functional brain architecture to

locate accurate brain structures relevant to specific cognitive functions.
Knowledge of the exact brain areas related to specific cognitive processes will
most likely result in a clearer view of the brainÊs regions, and ultimately a better
understanding of human cognition processes. To illustrate, as we gain insights
into the roles of respective neurotransmitters, we are able to build computer
simulations to help us understand and predict the various complex mechanisms
involved.
Commonly used techniques like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and X-ray
computed tomography (CT) scans have produced invaluable results when used
on patients to find out the location and extent of their brain damage.
ACTIVITY 11.2
1. Explain the benefits of the neuroscience approach to memory.
2. What are some limitations of the neuroscience approach?
Ć Levels of processing conceptualises memory according to the type rather than

the location of processing when information is received.
Ć The Levels of Processing Theory (LPT) hypothesises that stimulus

information is processed along a continuum, ranging from the deep and
meaningful, to the shallow and surface-level.
Ć Deep processing occurs when the information is analysed in terms of its

importance and meaning.
Ć Shallow processing refers to information that is processed in terms of its

surface structure (letters, sounds, etc.).
Ć When information undergoes deep levels of processing, it leads to more

lasting memories thus resulting in them being more easily retrieved.

Ć Shallow levels of processing lead to less long-lasting memories resulting in

them being less easily retrieved.
Ć The categories of Levels of Processing are:

 Graphemic (letters that make up the word);
 Orthographic (shape of the written word);
 Phonemic (sound of the spoken word); and
 Semantic (meaning of the word).
Ć Experiments have been carried out to identify various orienting tasks that are
required for different levels of processing,
Ć Ability of recall and retention vary according to the three levels of processing,
that is deep, intermediate, and shallow.
Ć Craik and LockhartÊs theory about depth of processing states that deeper
levels of analysis yield more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger memory
traces than do shallow levels of processing.
Ć If information is attended to as it is being encoded, it also increases the

probability of it receiving more depth processing.
Ć The primary application of the levels of processing theory is effective to

verbal learning, but is now being applied to reading and language learning.
Ć The Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model of memory hypothesises

that information is processed more or less simultaneously.
Ć The Connectionist Theory (CT) proposes that information is stored in

different locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of
connections.
Ć The CT model is also consistent with the LPT model in that the more
connections to a single concept, the more likely it is to be remembered.
Ć In the past decade, the neuroscience approach, particularly cognitive

neuroscience has emerged as the prevalent approach towards understanding
human cognition.

Cognitive neuroscience Orthographic

Connectionist theory Parallel distributed processing
Deep processing Phonemic
Graphemic Semantic
Intermediate processing Shallow processing
Levels of processing
Craik, F., & Lockhart, R. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory
research. Journal of verbal thinking and verbal behaviour,11, 671ă684.
Allyn & Bacon.
Free-ResearchPapers.com. (n.d.). Depth of processing model. Retrieved from
http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b6/pko92.shtml
Answers.com. (n.d.). Levels of processing effect. In wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://www.answers.com/topic/levels-of-processing-effect
Rumelhart, D., & McClelland, J. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing:
Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
Huitt, W. (n.d.). The Cognitive System. Educational psychology interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Waldosta State university. Retrieved from
http://www.teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyppt/Theory/infoproc.ppt
Huitt, W. (2003). The Information Processing Approach to Cognition. Education
psychology interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infoproc.html

Branaghan, R. J. (n.d.). WhatÊs so special about stories?, Arizona State University,

Retrieved from
http://www.cerici.org/documents/storytelling/Russell_Branaghan.ppt
Everding, G. (2006). Working memory: Key to breakthroughs in cognitive
neuroscience. Washington University in St Louis. Retrieved from
http://news-info.wustl.edu/tips/page/normal/6884.html

Topic  Complex
12 Cognitive
Processes
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how concept learning can be applied in the classroom;
2. Describe strategies for encouraging transfer of learning;
3. Explain the steps involved in problem-solving; and
4. Discuss how meta-cognition and study strategies can improve
learning.
 INTRODUCTION
„The significant problems we face cannot be solved at the same level of
thinking we were at when we created them.‰
ă Albert Einstein
The study of learning encompasses not only the different theories of learning
discussed so far, such as behaviourism, social cognitivism, cognitivism and the
information-processing theory; it also covers other important cognitive processes
related to learning.
This topic will explain all the processes that learners go through in
understanding concepts and transferring knowledge to their daily lives. The
processes are also present in problem-solving and further learning.

TOPIC 12 COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES  179
12.1 CONCEPT LEARNING

First of all, what do you understand by the term „concepts‰? Briefly, concepts are
mental structures that categorise sets of objects, events, or ideas (Klausmeier, in
Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). When we categorise our experiences, it helps us to
better understand the world we live in.
To illustrate, look at Figure 12.1. What do you see?
Figure 12.1: Hexagons
The correct answer is five hexagons. But some of you may argue that the five
polygons in Figure 12.1 vary in their orientation and size. However, you must
remember that „hexagon‰ is a mental structure that you have formed in your
mind to represent all types of six-sided, two-dimensional closed plane figures
regardless of their size and orientation.
Based on the explanation, it is clear that we have grouped the five figures into a
concept that we call „hexagon‰. We do not try to remember each one of them as
separate entities. Can you imagine how complicated and complex learning will
be then?
12.1.1 Theories of Concept Learning

Generally, theorists have proposed three theories to explain how we form
concepts as listed in Figure 12.2.

180  TOPIC 12 COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Figure 12.2: Concept learning theories
These are the explanations for each of the theories.
(a) Rule-driven Theory

According to this theory, learners form concepts based on well-defined
characteristics or features. Medin, Profitt and Schwartz (in Eggen &
Kauchak, 2004) name this as the conceptÊs defining elements. For example,
the concept „hexagon‰ has the following characteristics: six sides, three
parallel lines, all sides having equal angles of 120 degrees. Hence, if learners
can identify these characteristics in given figures, they have already
understood the concept of „hexagon‰. Other characteristics such as
orientation and size are not important or necessary for making accurate
categorisations.
(b) Prototype Theory

The second theory of concept learning is known as prototype. This means
that learners construct concepts based on the best representative of its
concept, category or class (Medin et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). For
example, the prototype for „sports shoes‰ includes „Reebok‰, „Nike‰,
„Adidas‰ and so on.
(c) Exemplar Theory

The exemplar theory proposes that learners store the most highly typical
examples of a concept (Medin et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). For
example, learners who have kept different breeds of cats may not construct
a prototype for cat but instead may store images of a Siamese cat, a Persian
cat, Bengal cat, Burmese cat, and so on.
Based on the discussion, it can be seen that the three theories of concept learning
are used for different aspects. For example, you usually encode Mathematical
concepts such as shapes and numbers in terms of their characteristics. On the
other hand, you categorise different brands of watches, handbags, and makes of
motor vehicles as prototypes. Lastly, concepts such as fish or dog are encoded as
exemplars.

12.1.2 Misconceptions about Concept Learning

Since concepts are constructed by the individual, misconceptions can occur as a
result of influencing factors such as the learnersÊ background knowledge, beliefs,
emotions, and expectations (Dole & Sintra, in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). Consider
the following examples of misconceptions: in geography, learners often have
difficulty distinguishing between a stalactite and a stalacmite while in
psychology, learners use the terms self-esteem and self-concept interchangeably,
although they are distinctly different. Similarly, in a pedagogy class, learners
have problems explaining the terms instructional strategies and techniques.
In order to overcome the occurrence of misconceptions, teachers should teach for

conceptual change (Dole & Sintra; Posner et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). In
order to change learnersÊ thinking, the following conditions are necessary:
(a) The existing condition must become dissatisfying;
(b) An alternative conception must be understandable; and
(c) The new conception must be useful or relevant in the real world.
(Eggen & Kauchack, 2004)
Let us consider the following illustration. Leela is a student teacher currently

doing her teaching practice. In her original conception about positive
reinforcement, Leela thought that she could use token economies for learners
who gave correct answers; or it would encourage active participation amongst
the learners. The token economies, however, did not bring about the desired
conceptual change as learners in Year 6 are not really interested in accumulating
„Stars‰. Since the existing condition proved to be dissatisfying, Leela had to find
another alternative strategy in the form of educational computer games. Since
12-year-olds enjoy learning from the computer, this new conception turned out to
be successful. It was also relevant in the real-world as it enhanced the reflexes of
the learners.
12.1.3 Application of Concept Learning in the

Classroom
As teachers, how can we apply what we have learned about concept learning in
the classroom? Eggen and Kauchack (2004) suggest two ways as outlined in
Figure 12.3.

Figure 12.3: Concept learning
Firstly, teachers should think of and use examples and non-examples to enable
learners to understand a particular concept. For example, in teaching the concept
of Malaysian fruit, teachers can bring examples of real local fruit such as a
banana, papaya, star fruit, guava, or mango while also including the Montel
variety of banana, Indian mango, cherries, grapes and strawberries as non-
examples.
Secondly, teachers are required to link new concepts to related concepts. For
example, an English teacher wants his learners to differentiate between narrative
writing and academic writing. He has to provide samples of both types of
writing and then have the learners explain the similarities and differences
between the of writings.
SELF-CHECK 12.1
1. Compare and contrast the three theories of concept learning.
2. Discuss how you, as a teacher, will apply concept learning in

your classroom. Give suitable examples.

12.2 TRANSFER
Transfer is defined as oneÊs ability to use previously learned information in a
context or situation. As teachers, we hope that our learners can transfer the
knowledge and skills acquired from one course or subject to another, and also
from the classroom to the world outside. Similarly, we also hope that they can
transfer their home experiences to the classroom.
Mayer and Wittrock (1996) proposed that transfer can be either positive or
negative. As the name suggests, positive transfer takes place when learning in
one context enhances learning in another. On the other hand, when learning in
one context hampers learning in another, it is called negative transfer. Take the
simple example of a learner who learns that all birds have wings, besides laying
and incubating their eggs. If he sees a hen and concludes that it is a bird, positive
transfer has taken place. However, if he sees a pigeon pecking at some grains
thrown on the ground and concludes that it is a hen, this is called negative
transfer.
12.2.1 Types of Transfer

Generally, there are two types of transfer as seen in Figure 12.4.
Figure 12.4: Types of transfer
Now let us read the explanations for better understanding of this.

(a) General transfer refers to oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills
learned in one context to other different contexts. To illustrate, a learner in a
Biology class uses a concept map to facilitate remembering the different
parts of the human brain and their functions. She uses this same learning
strategy in her History class for the topic on the Malaysian education
system from pre- to post-Independence. It is evident that there is no overlap
in content between Biology and History.

(b) Specific transfer refers to oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills
learned in one context to a similar context. To illustrate, if you have learned
how to drive a car, it facilitates the process of learning how to drive a lorry
later on. In short, this means that there is an overlap between the original
task and the transfer task.
Interestingly, research findings reveal that learners engage in specific
transfer more frequently than general transfer (Gray & Orasanu in Eggen &
Kauchak, 2004).
12.2.2 Principles of Transfer

There seems to be a problem with the transfer of knowledge and skills from the
classroom to the outside world amongst our learners (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996).
There are seven factors that influence transfer, namely:

(a) The amount of instructional time;
(b) The extent to which meaningful learning takes place as compared to rote
learning;
(c) The extent to which learners learn principles and not just mere facts;
(d) The variety of examples given and the opportunities provided for practice;
(e) The degree of similarity between two situations;
(f) The length of time that occurs between two situations; and
(g) The extent to which information is regarded as context-free as compared to
context-bound.
These factors have become the framework underlying the basic principles of
transfer. Table 12.1 explains each of these principles and its implication in the
classroom context.

Table 12.1: Basic Principles of Transfer
Principle(s) Educational Implication Classroom Example

The amount of Teachers should focus on When teaching about
instructional time is teaching a few topics in Malaysian culture, concentrate
directly proportionate depth instead of many on the similarities and
to the probability of topics superficially. differences of traditional
transfer. dances across the different
races rather than merely
explaining the traditional dance
of each race.
The amount of transfer Engage learners to relate In teaching about the concept of
is greater for new learning material to scaffolding, ask learners to
meaningful learning prior knowledge rather think about how workers use
compared to rote than memorising facts. scaffolding-like structures to
learning. build highărise buildings.
Transfer of principles Teach the principles When teaching learners how to
occurs more readily as related to each topic. execute a volleyball, tennis or
compared to transfer of cricket serve, emphasise hand-
facts. eye coordination. Also explain
why such focus is important.
The amount and When teaching new When teaching about complex
variety of examples concepts and skills, sentences, ask learners to
and learning provide as many varied construct complex sentences in
opportunities is examples as well as narrative essays, class bulletin
directly proportionate practice exercises in activity reports, and school
to the probability of different contexts. magazine articles.
transfer.
The degree of Give learning tasks that When teaching about time
similarity between two are similar to those in management skills, have
situations is directly real-life situations. learners prepare a daily
proportionate to the planner on their various
probability of transfer activities on schooldays.
from one situation to
another.
The shorter the time Ensure that the time lapse After teaching the topic on
lapse between learning is short between teaching baton pass in a Physical
a topic and applying it a topic and applying it. Education class, ask learners to
in a similar or different form groups of four and
context, the greater the practise passing the baton for a
probability of transfer. 100 m relay.

The probability of Relate topics in one area When teaching the topic on
transfer for context-free to topics in other areas classical conditioning, ask
rather than context- and to daily life learners to provide examples of
bound learning situations. application in the workplace,
material. and child-rearing practices.
Based on the summary of the basic principles of transfer in Table 12.1, it is

evident that if teachers follow these principles closely, they will very likely
promote positive transfer in their learners.
ACTIVITY 12.1
1. Give examples of general and specific transfer.
2. How would you, as a teacher, enhance the transfer of learning

in your learners? Give your own examples.
12.3 PROBLEM-SOLVING
We encounter different kinds of problems in our daily lives. Problems can be
considered as situations which are goal-oriented but the individual does not
know how to reach these goals. As you may have experienced, some problems
are easy to solve as they are straightforward and only hav a single correct
solution. Others, however, may be more complex as they may have several ways
of addressing the issue. The problem-solving strategies that we employ differ
depending on the content and scope of the problem.
In the following section, we shall examine two types of problems, namely well-
defined problems and ill-defined problems. We shall also learn about two
categories of problem-solving strategies: algorithms and heuristics.
12.3.1 Well-defined and Ill-defined Problems

According to experts on problem-solving, problems can be differentiated
according to how clearly specified and structured they are. A well-defined
problem is defined as one which has clearly stated goals, contains all the
necessary information that is required to solve it, and has only one correct
answer. An example would be mathematical problems.

In comparison (See Figure 12.5), an ill-defined problem does not have clear goals,
the information required to solve it is inadequate, and the problem contains more
than one possible solution. For example, social issues, economic issues and so on
can be solved from many different perspectives and there are no fixed solutions.
Figure 12.5: The comparison between a well-defined problem and an ill-defined problem
Research findings show that learners encounter problems finding solutions to ill-
defined problems. As teachers, one of our challenges in helping them in this area
is to teach them problem-solving strategies.
12.3.2 Algorithms and Heuristics

As mentioned earlier, there are two problem-solving strategies. Problems that are
solved following specific, step-by-step instructions are said to be using
algorithms. For example, you buy a DIY (Do-It-Yourself) cabinet unit from a
hypermarket. By following the „Directions for Assembly‰ that are enclosed in the
box, you successfully put it together. This shows that when we follow an
algorithm correctly, we are assured of the correct solution.
However, in life, not all problems come with directions for assembly. Social
problems such as drug-taking behaviour among youths do not have an algorithm
for solving them. Similarly there are no algorithms available to fight the current
high inflation problem. In place of algorithms, we can resort to a heuristic, which
is defined as a general problem-solving strategy that may or may not provide a
good solution. One heuristic for the drug-taking behaviour among youths is
providing youths with positive alternative activities during their free time.
Table 12.2 outlines some guidelines for teaching problem-solving strategies.

For the purpose of easy reference, these guidelines have been divided into
algorithms, heuristics, and algorithms and heuristics.

Table 12.2: Guidelines for Teaching Problem-solving Strategies
Problem-solving Strategy Suggested Guidelines

For teaching algorithms  Explain and demonstrate algorithms for application in
specific situations.
 Show examples of algorithm application.
 Guide learners in understanding why particular
algorithms are effective and relevant in specific
situations.
 Check learnersÊ incorrect application of a particular
algorithm by reviewing the steps taken.
For teaching heuristics  Provide exercises for learners to practise identifying
and defining ill-defined problems.
 Teach heuristic strategies, such as identifying sub-
goals, working backwards, and drawing analogies to
assist learners solve problems where there are no
specific algorithms.
For teaching both  Focus on the context of specific subject areas when
algorithms and heuristics teaching problem-solving strategies.
 Assist learners in solving difficult and complex
problems through scaffolding, e.g. providing hints
about possible solutions, breaking up the problem into
small, discrete units, and so on.
 Encourage learners to solve problems collaboratively
by forming small groups, and sharing ideas about
possible solutions.
In conclusion, we can conclude that well-defined problems can be solved more

easily, compared to ill-defined problems. Besides, when algorithms can be used
to solve a particular problem, that problem is generally less complex than the one
that requires the use of heuristics.
12.3.3 A Problem-solving Model

Cognitive psychologists have proposed a general problem-solving model
consisting of five steps which are, identifying the problem, representing the
problem, selecting a strategy, implementing the strategy and evaluating the
results. See Figure 12.6.

Figure 12.6: A Problem-solving Model
Let us now examine each of these five steps in greater detail.
(a) Identifying the Problem

This is the most difficult step in problem-solving as it involves patience and
avoids early commitment to a solution (Hayes, in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004).
Some of the factors influencing effective identification of the problem
include: inadequate background knowledge of problem-solving;
inexperience in problem definition; tendency to rush into a solution before
achieving clear problem identification; and convergent thinking.
(b) Representing the Problem

Representing the problem is important in order to avoid taxing the working
memory especially when the presenting problem is complex. Mayer (in
Eggen & Kauchak, 2004) recommends three strategies that include:
(i) Restating the problem differently so that it becomes more
comprehensible;
(ii) Relating the problem to a previous problem; and
(iii) Representing the problem visually.

(c) Selecting a Strategy

The third step in the problem-solving model involves selecting a strategy.
For this purpose, one or both of the problem-solving strategies as discussed
before can be used. These include algorithms and heuristics.
(d) Implementing the Strategy

The next step involves implementing the selected strategy. Implementation
is considered a routine task. If, however, learners discover that they are
unable to implement the strategy, they have to review the problem and the
strategy selected.
(e) Evaluating the Result

This final step in the problem-solving model poses a challenge to learners,
especially in cases when the solution obtained does not seem sensible.
Mayer (in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004) suggests that teachers should emphasise
the thinking component of problem-solving rather than the answer.
12.3.4 Expert-novice Differences in Problem-solving

Ability
Researchers have proposed four important differences in problem-solving
between experts and novices (Bruning, et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). These
differences are outlined in Table 12.3.
Table 12.3: Expert-novice Differences in Problem-solving Ability
Aspect Expert Novice

Problem  Looks for context and  Views problems as isolated
representation relationships. and separate entities.
Problem-  Able to solve problems quickly;  Solves problems slowly;
solving  Possesses wide general  Focuses on mechanics.
efficiency knowledge.
Planning for  Does careful planning before  Does brief planning;
problem- trying out solutions to new  Quickly adopts and tries out
solving problems. solutions.
Problem-  Possesses high metacognitive  Possesses a limited
solving ability; metacognitive ability;
monitoring  Does away with unproductive  Persists with unproductive
strategies. strategies.

Based on the summary in Table 12.3, it can be seen that experts are better able to
solve problems as they are said to have both domain-specific and general
knowledge gained from their experiences. As a consequence, they can use the
different types of heuristic strategies such as identifying sub-goals, drawing
analogies, and so on.
ACTIVITY 12.2
1. Give one example of a well-defined problem and an ill-defined
one.
2. How would you apply the problem-solving model that you have
learned to manage a class of unmotivated learners?
12.4 METACOGNITION AND STUDY

STRATEGIES
In the earlier topic, we learned about concept learning and how to transfer
learning effectively. We also learned about types of problems and the strategies
on how to solve them. Are you now ready to learn about metacognition and
effective study strategies? Let us read further.
12.4.1 Metacognition
Before we go any further, what do you understand by the term „metacognition‰?
It refers to oneÊs awareness and control over oneÊs cognitive processes. In the
classroom context, high-achieving learners are more conscious of the way they
learn and study, and attempt to regulate their cognitive processes in an
endeavour to maximise their learning. In short, they are more metacognitive
about their learning, compared to low-achieving learners.
Metacognition is characterised by the following:

(a) Knowing the limits of oneÊs learning capabilities;
(b) Knowing the kind of learning tasks that can be realistically achieved within
a certain period of time;
(c) Knowing the types of effective and ineffective learning strategies;
(d) Planning a learning task approach that will yield success;

(e) Using effective learning strategies for processing and learning new
material;
(f) Monitoring oneÊs knowledge and comprehension about successful learning; and
(g) Using effective strategies for retrieving information that has been
previously stored.
Source: Omrod, 2000
As you can see, learning strategies are related to metacognition. In fact, a

learnerÊs knowledge of effective learning strategies is directly proportional to his
metacognitive awareness. This in turn, has a direct effect on the learnerÊs
achievement (Perkins, in Omrod, 2000). In addition, Wittrock (in Omrod, 2000)
argues that the application of complex metacognitive strategies will result in
conceptual change when change is required.
12.4.2 Effective Study Strategies

In this section, we will examine some study strategies that have been proven
by research studies to be effective. These strategies include the following:
identification of important information, note-taking; retrieval of relevant prior
knowledge; organisation; elaboration; writing summaries; and monitoring
comprehension. Read about the outline of these strategies in Table 12.4.
Table 12.4: Effective Study Strategies
Study Strategy Description

Identification of Focuses on the following features of books and classroom lectures:
important  First sentence of a paragraph or lesson;
information
 Items in italics or boldface type;
 Items described verbally or written on the whiteboard; and
 Interesting statements.
Note-taking Serves two important functions:
 Helps learners encode information into long-term memory; and
 Provides an additional means of storing information.
Retrieval of Provides the basis for meaningful learning:
relevant prior  Relates new information to previous knowledge; and
knowledge
 Asks specific questions for learners to retrieve prior
knowledge about a certain topic.
Organisation Produces effective learning through:
 Outlining learning material; and

 Constructing a concept map.

Making Enhances learnerÊs performance through the use of:
elaborations  Inferences made from the course material learned; and
 Elaborative interrogation where the learner develops and
answers his own elaborative questions.
Writing summaries A good summary encompasses three processes:
 Distinguishes important from unimportant information;
 Condenses details into more general ideas; snd
 Identifies how general ideas are related.
Monitoring In order to know what they know or do not know, learners:
comprehension  Re-read a sub-topic;
 Raise questions in class; and
 Engage in self-questioning.
Based on the discussion, we can conclude that some of the study strategies, such
as note-taking and outlining learning material constitute internal processes that
we can observe. In contrast, retrieval of relevant prior knowledge and monitoring
comprehension are not so easily observable. However, it is these second set of
strategies that affect learning (Kardash & Amlund, in Omrod, 2000).
SELF-CHECK 12.1
1. Based on what you have learned about the different study
strategies, explain which strategy or strategies you use
frequently? Give reasons for your answer.
2. What educational benefits do your learners gain from the study

strategies?
Ć Concepts are mental structures that categorise sets of objects, events, or ideas
to help us better understand the world we live in.
Ć The three theories of concept learning are rule-driven theory; prototype

theory, and exemplar theory.

Ć The rule-driven theory states that learners form concepts based on well-
defined characteristics or features.
Ć The prototype theory proposes that learners construct concepts based on the
best representative of its concept, category or class.
Ć The exemplar theory expounds that learners store the most highly typical
examples of a concept.
Ć In order to overcome the occurrence of misconceptions, teachers should teach

for conceptual change.
Ć Application of concept learning in the classroom require that teachers think

of and use examples and non-examples to enable learners to understand a
particular concept, and link new concepts to related concepts.
Ć Transfer is defined as oneÊs ability to use previously learned information in

one context or situation.
Ć Transfer can be either positive or negative. Positive transfer takes place when
learning in one context enhances learning in another. Negative transfer takes
place when learning in one context hampers learning in another.
Ć General transfer refers to oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills
learned in one context to other different contexts. Specific transfer refers to
oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills learned in one context to a
similar context.
Ć The problem with transfer of knowledge and skills from the classroom to the
outside world is due to several influencing factors that have been translated
into general principles underlying transfer.
Ć There are two types of problems, namely well-defined problems and ill-
defined problems.
Ć A well-defined problem has clearly stated goals, contains all the necessary
information that is required to solve it, and has only one correct answer.
Ć An ill-defined problem does not have clear goals, the information required to
solve it is inadequate, and the problem contains more than one possible
solution.
Ć The two categories of problem-solving strategies are algorithms and

heuristics.

Ć Problems that are solved following specific, step-by-step instructions are said
to be using algorithms. A heuristic is a general problem-solving strategy that
may or may not produce a workable solution.
Ć A general problem-solving model consists of five steps: identifying the

problem, representing the problem, selecting a strategy, implementing the
strategy and evaluating the results.
Ć Problem-solving between experts and novices differs in four aspects, problem

representation, problem-solving efficiency, planning for problem-solving and
problem-solving monitoring.
Ć Metacognition refers to oneÊs awareness and control over oneÊs cognitive

processes.
Ć Effective study strategies include the following: identification of important

information, note-taking; retrieval of relevant prior knowledge; organisation;
elaboration; writing summaries; and monitoring comprehension.
Algorithms Negative transfer

Concept Positive transfer
Concept learning Prototype theory
Exemplar theory Rule-driven theory
General transfer Specific transfer
Heuristics Study strategies
Metacognition
Prentice hall. (n.d.). Complex cognitive processes. Retrieved from

http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_6/0,8057,885692-,00.html
Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Educational psychology: Windows on
classrooms. (6th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Upper Saddle River.

Mayer, R., & Wittrock, M. (1996). Problem-solving transfer. In D. Berliner &

R. Calfee (Eds.). Handbook of educational psychology, 47ă62. New York,
NY: Macmillan.
Newman, V. (1995). Problem-solving for results. Great Britain: Gower Publishing
Ltd.
Omrod, J. E. (2000). Educational psychology: Developing learners. (3rd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River.
Novak, J. D., & Canas, A. J. (2008). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and
How to Construct Them. Technical report IHMC map tools. Florida
Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. Retrieved from
http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/
TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.htm

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Dr Choong Lean Keow

Moderator: Dr Ke Guek Nee

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, April 2010

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Topic 1 Introduction to Psychology of Learning 2

Topic 2 Behavioural Psychology and Learning 21

Topic 3 Operant Conditioning 40

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3.8 The Nature and Effect of Punishment 55

Topic 4 Recent Research in Behaviourism 63

Topic 5 Social Cognitive Theory and Learning 82

Topic 6 The Social Cognitive View of Reinforcement and Punishment 98

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Topic 7 Modelling 107

Topic 8 Self-efficacy 120

Topic 9 Cognitive Psychology and Learning 132

Topic 10 Memory 146

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Topic 11 Information-processing Theory 167

Topic 12 Complex Cognitive Processes 178

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be familiar with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial

Study the module 60

Topic 2 introduces the behavioural perspective of learning. Ivan PavlovÊs

Topic 3 examines the various aspects of operant conditioning. A comparison

Topic 4 discusses the application of behavioural principles in the classroom. It

Topic 6 describes the social cognitive view of reinforcement and punishment. It

Topic 7 examines the theory of observational behaviour. The various aspects

Topic 9 presents the tenets of the cognitive perspective of learning. A model of

Topic 10 deals with memory with emphasis on short-term and long-term

Topic 11 examines the information-processing theory. It focuses on the various

Topic 12 discusses several complex cognitive processes that include concept

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is found at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations

References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

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Free-ResearchPapers.com. (n.d.). Depth of processing model. Retrieved from

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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1.1 DEFINITION OF LEARNING

Based on the dictionary definition, learning involves „a gain of knowledge or

From the encyclopaedia and psychology textbook definitions given above, we

2 Secondly, learning must be produced by experience. Hence, you can

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Based on what you have read about CarmichaelÊs experiment on salamanders,

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perhaps, helping to prepare an organism to learn a skill quickly. Take a simple

2. Is learning dependent on maturation? Give reasons to support

1.2 TYPES OF LEARNING