Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Optimization of a combined solar chimney for desalination and power MARK

generation
⁎
Mohammad Asayesha, Alibakhsh Kasaeianb, , Abtin Ataeia
a
Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Branch, Tehran, Iran
b
Department of Renewable Energies, Faculty of New Science & Technologies, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Large footprint and very low efficiency are main disadvantages of solar chimneys. To resolve this, solar desa-
Solar chimney lination system has been added under the collector of a solar chimney power plant. Generally the collector
Solar desalination ground is completely covered by the desalination pond but here it is shown that more benefit can be achieved by
Hybrid solar systems partial occupation of the collector area. This is performed by implementing the particle swarm optimization
Particle swarm optimization
(PSO) algorithm in conjunction with a one dimensional simulation code. The code is first validated using data of
a laboratory scale solar chimney. Then, optimization results show that for a collector diameter of 250 m and
tower height of 200 m, a solar pond located between radii 85 and 125 m of the collector can maximize the
outcome of the combined system. Generally, dimensions of the desalination system depend on local cost of
building the system and price of electricity and fresh water produced.

1. Introduction distribution of state variable can be obtained with their method. A

By approaching the end of fossil fuels era, researches about new
sources of energy have attracted more and more attention. Solar ra-
diation can be considered as a reliable source in countries having hot
climates such that radiation intensities in the order of 1000 W/m2 are
common. Several technologies have been developed during the last
century for harvesting this source such as photovoltaic, concentrators,
desalinators and solar chimneys.
The concept of solar chimneys was first presented by Gunther in
1931 [1]. Several years after, the first pilot plant was built in Manza-
nares, Spain which had great impact on academic studies of solar
chimneys. Based on experimental data published from this plant, sev-
eral studies have been performed such as the works of Haaf [2,3]. Ka-
saeian et al. [4] have built a laboratory scale solar chimney in Zanjan,
Iran. Their solar chimney did not have any turbine but accurate data
about the temperature and velocity of air in the collector and tower
section at different times were reported. Other experimental studies are
also performed on small scale devices by Maia [5], Pasumarthi et al. [6]
and Ghalamchi et al. [7]. These measurements are available and may be
used for validation.
Theoretical study of solar chimneys is well reported in the literature.
First thermodynamic analyses could be found in the work of Mullet [8]
and Padki [9]. In these works, friction in the chimney is neglected and
the velocity of air inside it is approximated very roughly. No
detailed mathematical model was developed by Pasumarthi et al. [10].
In their model, the collector is considered as a whole and some ap-
proximations have been used to estimate the average amount of heat
transferred to the air. Gannon and Backstrom [11] performed a theo-
retical analysis considering different loss mechanisms and proposed a
simple model for the collector. Their work includes chimney friction,
system, turbine and exit kinetic energy losses at different sections. Si-
milar results have been presented by Bernandes et al. [12]. The large
footprint of a solar chimney and very low efficiency are major dis-
advantages of this system. Studies are performed to alleviate this pro-
blem by finding new applications for the solar chimney. To this end,
agriculture was proposed and implemented in the Manzanares plant.
With this idea, usable land could be saved and economic benefits could
be added. Another concept includes implementing heat storing mate-
rials on the collector ground. By this method, the heat is absorbed
during the day and released during nigh time. So, the availability of the
chimney is extended at the cost of introducing a lag in its performance.
Further details could be found in the work of Zhou et al. [13] and
Rufuss et al. [14].
A new concept using solar chimney system to drive both power
generation and seawater desalination systems was proposed by Wang
et al. [15]. In this system, seawater supplied from the sea is exposed to
air in the collector and thus producing warm and saturated air for the
chimney. The vapor contained in the warm air is condensed to water

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: akasa@ut.ac.ir (A. Kasaeian).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.08.006
Received 31 May 2017; Received in revised form 1 August 2017; Accepted 3 August 2017
0196-8904/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Asayesh et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80

Nomenclature Subscripts

A area a ambient
C heat capacity bw bracing wheel
c constant c glass cover
d diameter ct cover temperature
eps emissivity ew water evaporation
F force g ground
f friction factor gr ground to roof
Fa aspect factor h heat
g gravity hb beam heat
H section height hd diffusive heat
h convection factor p at constant pressure
I irradiation r roof
k conduction factor ra roof to ambient
L latent heat of evaporation rh roof convection
m mass flow rate rs roof to sky
n number t tower
P pressure wt water temperature
Pr Prandtl number w water
q heat transfer rate g ground
Re Reynolds number
r radius Greek letters
T temperature
t time α absorbtivity
v velocity β transmissivity
w weight θ angle
x particle position vector ε roughness
y local best value ρ density
ŷ global best value σ Stefan-Boltzmann coefficient
z height/depth τ shear stress
μ viscosity

using a condenser installed at the chimney top. The resulting freshwater
having high gravitational potential energy is used for driving power
turbines at the bottom of the tower. The performance of this combined
system was compared with a classical one by Zhou et al. [16].
Another concept was presented by Zuo et al. [17] in which the
collector ground is covered with solar distillation ponds. In this system
the solar energy is first absorbed by the insulated desalinator ground
and thus heating the water layer above it. The resulting vapor is con-
densed on the desalinator glass roof and collected with predefined
tubes. The desalinator roof is then cooled by the air moving through the
collector and thus providing warm updraft air for the chimney. So the
idea is to integrate a solar distillation system under the collector of a
solar chimney. With a simplified model, they have shown that the ef-
ficiency of a solar chimney can be improved from 0.74% to 55.35%.
Zuo et al. [18] built a small experimental setup for the combined solar
chimney system and found that the efficiency of this system was not
more than 25% which is notably lower than his prediction.
In the latter concept, the collector area is fully occupied by the
desalination system while no obligation exists for this. Here, it is pro-
posed that the desalination system may only be installed in some

Fig. 1. Forces applied on a sample C.V.

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M. Asayesh et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80

regions of the collector instead of completely covering the collector the convection factor suggested by Adams [21]:
ground. The required area and its location under the collector must be
hra = 5.7 + 3.8vw (5)
calculated through an optimization procedure, considering the local
cost of building the system and the price of electricity and fresh water The amount of heat transferred to the air inside the collector is
produced. With this concept better financial benefit can be obtained. calculated using the heat convection factor derived from the
This procedure is started by a 1D code validated by experimental data Gnielinski's relation (Eq. (6)) combined with the Haaland [22] equation
of the solar chimney built by Kasaeian [4]. Then the PSO algorithm is (Eq. (7)) for surface friction:
implemented to optimize the combined system proposed by Zuo [17].
(f /8)(Re−1000) Pr
hrh = ⎛k ⎞
2. Numerical model 1 + 12.7(f /8)0.5 (Pr 2/3−1) ⎝ d ⎠ (6)

3 3.33 −2
In this section, mathematical models used for performance predic- ⎛ ⎛ 7.7 ⎞ ⎛ ∊/d ⎞ ⎞ ⎤
f = 2.7778 ⎡
⎢log10 ⎜ ⎝ Re ⎠ + ⎝ 3.75 ⎠ ⎟ ⎥ , ∊ / d < 10−4
tion of the system are described. For a good estimation, mass, mo- ⎝ ⎠⎦ (7)
⎣
mentum and energy conservation equations and also heat transfer re-
lations are used. Before starting, following assumptions must be made: By taking the same strategy for the ground, we may write:

• No wind condition
∂Tg
(βe αg )b Ihb + (βe αg )d Ihd = qgr −k g + qgh
• No shadow condition ∂z z=0 (8)
• Sun radiation angle effect is neglected.
• Flow conditions are axisymmetric
In Eq. (8), qgr is already calculated. qgh is also calculated as in Eq.
(6). Finally, the energy conservation equation for the flowing air inside
the collector, is
2.1. The collector
∂
qrh + qgh = ρH ⎡v (Cp T )⎤
To write needed equations, an elementary volume of the collector ⎣ ∂r ⎦ (9)
must be considered. Applying the mass conservation law, results in:
1 ∂
(ρvr H) = 0 2.2. The turbine
r ∂r (1)
In this formulation, the slope of the collector roof can be taken into For the turbine, a simplified model is used. Here an ideal wind
account by variation of the height of the passage (H) with radius. The turbine with an efficiency equal to the Betz limit is assumed [7,23,24].
dynamic equations can be obtained by applying the radial momentum Thus:
conservation law, and making use of Fig. 1.
ΔPturbine = 0.5(16/27) ρπrt2 v 2 (10)
∂P Fsupports
−⎛H
⎜ + τr + τg + ⎞ = ρH ⎛v ∂v + ∂v ⎞
⎟

⎝ ∂r r Δθ ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ∂t ⎠ (2)
Kroger [19] has proposed the following equation for the shear stress 2.3. The tower
due to friction for the roof as a smooth surface:
The same strategy as the collector can be applied to the tower for
ρ0.8v1.8μ0.2 the derivation of needed equations. For the momentum, Fig. 3 can be
τr = 0.02
H 0.2 (3) considered.
For the ground as a rough surface, the following is used [19]: ∂pt ⎛ τt πdt + Fbw ⎞ ∂v
− − ⎜ = ρt ⎛g + vt t ⎞
⎟
0.51 ∂z ⎝ At ∂z ⎠
∊ 0.254 ⎡ ⎠ ⎝ (11)
τg = 0.014875ρv 2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ μ ⎞ ⎤
⎝ 2H ⎠ ⎢1.75 ⎜ ρv ∊ ⎟ + 1⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦ (4) The force exerted by tower structure can be estimated according to
the work of Von Backström [25] with Kbw = 0.1:
To finalize, the terms presented in Eq. (2), forces applied from roof
supports must be estimated. To this end, supports are considered as 1
(At Kbw 2 ρt vt2) nbw
cylinders with drag coefficients of 1 [20]. For the collector roof, the Fbw =
Ht (12)
following equations hold for the energy conservation and heat transfer,
as depicted in Fig. 2. By assuming tower walls to be adiabatic, the energy equation for the
In this figure, the amount of heat radiated from the ground to the updraft flow inside the tower may be written as follows:
roof and also from the roof to the sky are denoted by qgr and qrs re-
spectively and obtained by well-known radiation theories. The amount ∂ ∂
ρt vt (Cp Tt ) + (ρ vt gz ) = 0
of heat convection to ambient outside air stream is obtained by using ∂z ∂z t (13)

Fig. 2. energy conservation for a C.V. of the roof.

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M. Asayesh et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80

Ih βr α c + qch + qrc + qew + qw = 0 (15)

The amount of heat absorbed for evaporation of water can be cal-
culated according to the following relation [26,27]:
qew = 0.016273h′ (Pwt −Pct ) (16)
In which,
1/3
(Pwt −Pct )(Tw + 273) ⎤
h′ = 0.884 ⎡ (Tw−Tc ) +
⎢
⎣ 268,900−Pw ⎥
⎦ (17)
And
5114 ⎞
P = exp ⎛25.317−
⎝ T + 273 ⎠ (18)
Fig. 3. Forces on the fluid in the tower. Thus the evaporation rate in a pond can be obtained by:
qew = mew L (19)
It is assumed that this heat is completely delivered to the pond roof
and the entire vapor is condensed. The energy equation for the water
can be interpreted as follows:
ṁ w,in CTw,in + Ih βr βc = qew + ṁ w,out CTw (20)

3. The optimization procedure

Fig. 4. Energy conservation for a section of the combined system.
2.4. The desalination system
If a desalination system is placed under the collector, the ground at
that section is replaced with an evaporation pond. Here, it is assumed
that there is no vapor leakage and that the distillation system is divided
into independent and separated ponds. Also there is no flow in the
desalination system such that momentum variations are neglected.
Thus the mass conservation for each section implies that
mew + m w,in + m w,out = 0
The energy conservation for the glass cover of the desalination
system reduces to (see Fig. 4):
Authors believe that the area and location of the desalination system
under the collector must be determined through an optimization pro-
cess, keeping in mind the cost of building the system and the price of its
products. So, covering the whole area may not be efficient (see Fig. 5).
In this study, PSO is implemented. This method was first developed by
Kennedy et al. [28] in 1995. To optimize the size and location of the
desalination system under the collector, two variables (inner and outer
radius of the desalination annulus) are needed. Thus the position of
each particle in the swarm has two components. Here, 120 particles are
used. These particles are initially spread and can move in a constrained
2D area limited by the radius of the collector. The new position of each
particle (x) is obtained by adding a velocity term to its last position.
x i (t + 1) = x i (t ) + vi (t + 1) (21)
The velocity of each particle can be calculated as follows:
vi,j (t + 1) = wvi,j (t ) + c1 ra1,j (t )(yi (t )−x i (t )) + c2 ra2,j (t )(yi (̂ t )−x i (t ))
(14)
(22)
Here, y is the position at which the lowest value of the objective
function is encountered by the selected particle during its travel. Also,

Fig. 5. conventional (left) and optimized (right) hybrid system.

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M. Asayesh et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80

START

Random
Distribution of
Particles in the
Space

Performance
Prediction of The
Combined System
for Each Particle

Calculation of Calculating the

Objective Function Position of Each
for Each Particle Particle

Determination of
Personal Best
Position

Determination of Calculating the Fig. 7. Solar chimney by Kasaeian et al. [4] [Reprinted with permission from Elsevier].
Global Best Velocity of Each
Position Particle

Check
Termination
NO

YES

END

Fig. 6. The optimization flowchart.

y ̂ is the position of the particle with the lowest objective function value
between all particles. The inertia term (w) was first introduced by
Eberhart [29], representing the radius of the area that each particle can
travel. At the start of the process a large value (near 1) must be assigned
to the weight such that a particle can move faster and reach the final
point faster. This value must be gradually decreased during the solution
to allow a particle to finely move toward the optimum point [30]. ra1
and ra2 are some random variables, preventing particles from being
trapped in local minimums. Coefficients c1 and c2 represent the relative
importance of personal and swarm experiences in determination of the
new path direction. They are generally selected such as their sum,
equals 4.
The objective function in this work is formulated as follows:
collector cost + tower cost + desalinator cost
∅=
electricity price + freshwater price (23)
In this function, the collector and tower cost are constant but the
desalination cost is dependent on its area (R1 and R2). Also, the amount
of electricity and the produced fresh water are functions of the desali-
nation area (R1 and R2). It should be noted that optimization
Fig. 8. Atmospheric conditions in the work of Kasaeian [4] [Reprinted with permission
from Elsevier].
parameters (R1 and R2) are constrained between the collector radii.
These costs are calculated as in Ref. [17]. The local price of electricity is
26 cent per kW h and the price of fresh water is assumed to be 27 cent
per cubic meter. For better understanding, the optimization flow chart
is shown in Fig. 6.
4. Results and discussion
A simulation code has been developed using the discretized form of
equations derived in the last section. The accuracy of this code must be
evaluated before starting the optimization process. So, in Sections 4.1
and 4.2, a simple solar chimney and a combined system are simulated
and studied.
4.1. Solo solar chimney
In this section, the solar chimney discussed in Ref. [4] is studied.

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M. Asayesh et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80

Fig. 9. Numerical and experimental results for chimney outlet velocity at

different times.

Fig. 10. Numerical and experimental data for temperature distribution

inside the collector.

Fig. 11. Temperature rise of the air stream during a complete day.

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M. Asayesh et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80

Fig. 12. Air temperature distribution in the collector of a simple chimney.

Fig. 13. Air temperature distribution in the collector of a combined

chimney.

Fig. 14. The results of PSO.

78
M. Asayesh et al.
Fig. 15. The Pareto front diagram.
This solar chimney (Fig. 7) has a collector with the diameter of 10 m
and a tower with 12 m height and 25 cm diameter.
Several sensors were installed in the collector and the tower to ac-
curately measure the temperature and velocity of air in the chimney in
different times. Atmospheric conditions were recorded and reported as
shown in Fig. 8. The chimney geometry and boundary conditions in-
cluding weather conditions (temperature and radiation intensity) are
imported into the code. Due to the variations of atmospheric conditions
during the day, simulations are performed transiently and the results
for the mentioned day are shown in Fig. 9.
It can be observed that the numerical code has predicted the tran-
sient behavior of the chimney with good precision. The maximum de-
viation is about 0.2 m/s. Another data being reported in Ref. [4] is the
temperature distribution inside the collector at 12:00. Results are
compared in Fig. 10. It can be observed that the maximum deviation is
about 4 K. Generally good agreement between data can be found.
Fig. 11 represents the behavior of the solar chimney in a 24 h period
including the night time in which the heat, stored in the ground, reacts
as a source of energy.
The mentioned deviation can be due to:
• Error in temperature measurement caused by sensors precision and
location error (non-uniformity of temperature in collector height).
• Sun radiation angle being neglected in the code
• Probability of presence of clouds during the test.
• Neglecting the wind
• 1D Model error
• Numerical solution error
4.2. Combined system
Since no reliable experimental data of a combined system could be
found, results are compared with numerical data in the work of Zuo
[17]. In his work, a chimney with 200 m tower and 250 m collector
diameter is simulated. The chimney is simulated in two levels. First the
simple chimney is studied. Results are shown in Fig. 12. Here a max-
imum of 2 K deviation in temperature is observed. In this configuration
the system will produce 23 kW of electricity. Zuo has reported an
electricity production rate of 29 kW.
In the second step, Zuo et al. have reported the results for
Table 1
Comparison of different configurations of the combined system.
Simple solar chimney (R1 = R2 = 0)
Electricity production (kW) 22
Fresh water production (kg/s) 0 10.4
Objective function value 3.7e5
Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 72–80
temperature distribution of air when the collector ground is completely
covered with a desalination system. The data are compared in Fig. 13.
Here, more deviation in the order of 3 K is observed. In this case, the
production decreases to 11 kW with 10.4 kg/s of fresh water. The va-
lues, reported by Zuo, are 13 kW and 9.2 kg/s for the electricity and
fresh water, respectively. These deviations can be due to some differ-
ences in the initial assumptions and input data which were not reported
in their work. Finally it can be concluded that the numerical code de-
veloped in this study can successfully predict the performance of simple
and combined solar chimneys with good accuracy. So, it can be used as
the core of an optimization procedure in the following section.
4.3. Optimized system
The chimney reported in the work of Zuo et al. [17] is considered as
the base geometry for optimization and further study. In Fig. 14 the
initial distribution of particles and also their final destination are
shown. The path of a sample particle is also plotted. This path is just an
illustration of how fast the particles are moving toward the optimal
point. An inefficient or badly configured optimization has its particles
circling around the space without any global aim and thus, needing
much more iterations to attain the final answer.
In the PSO algorithm, the optimum point is where particles finally
gather in. This point is easily found according to the final position of
particles. It can be observed that almost all particles are clustered at a
point with coordinates 85 and 125. So, the desalination system must be
located between these radii. In other words the desalination system
must be located at the inlet of the collector with a thickness of 40 m.
The Pareto front diagram as shown in Fig. 15 can help to find an insight
in the relative location of the best answer among all other possible
answers. This diagram shows the locus of performance of all possible
choices for the location and area of the desalination system. It can be
seen that where no fresh water is produced (no desalination system),
the chimney has the maximum energy yield. Also, when the desalina-
tion system delivers its maximum fresh water by occupying all the
collector area (lower right corner of the diagram), the minimum energy
yield is obtained. The answer of the optimization problem must be lo-
cated on the upper edge of the diagram, where the maximum electricity
is obtained with a given amount of fresh water needed. The final answer
is shown with a star on the diagram.
The optimization procedure has placed the desalination system at
the inlet section to benefit from cooler air from the environment. So, the
amount of fresh water produced per area of the desalination system is
maximized. In this configuration the electricity production is about
18.5 kW with 6.5 kg/s of fresh water. It can be seen that the amount of
electricity production is less than a simple solar chimney of the same
size with 22 kW of energy production. However, the performance of the
new system is much better than a full hybrid one (11 kW electricity
generation). Table 1 is prepared for a better comparison between the
configurations.
In this case, the temperature distribution of air inside the collector is
as plotted in Fig. 16. It can be observed that the slope of the graph
experiences sharp changes where the desalination system is terminated.
In this zone, the temperature rise accelerates because almost all of the
radiation energy is now absorbed by the air.
Full combined solar chimney (R1 = 5, R2 = 125) Optimum combined system (R1 = 85, R2 = 125)
11 18.5
6.5
2.54e5 2.3e5
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M. Asayesh et al.
5. Conclusion
Recently the combination of solar chimney and a solar desalination
system are proposed in some papers, leading to systems with more ef-
ficiency and less footprint. In that concept, the collector ground is to-
tally occupied by the desalination system. Considering the cost of
building a system and also the local price of products, this seems not to
be the best choice. In this work, the best configuration for the location
and area of the desalination system under the collector is obtained by
PSO scheme. The optimization algorithm is coupled with an experi-
mentally validated numerical code which can predict the performance
of the system with 1% error.
This study is performed on a solar chimney with a 250 m collector
and 200 m height tower. Results show that the desalination system
must be located at the inlet of the collector between radii 85 and 125 m.
This configuration has the most efficient economic output considering
local rates. So, this optimization must be performed for each installa-
tion site.
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