Sie sind auf Seite 1von 39

oXFoRD

Acknowledgements

|'d fi to acknowled ge the work of Zoltá n Dörnyei, whose ma ny


rst li ke

writings on motivation overtheyears have helped provide a great


number of the theoretical insights upon which this book has been
based.
lalso owe a huge debt to the tireless ingenuity of the English
Language Teaching community worldwide, who have revealed to me
ma ny times over what motivationa l teach i ng rea l ly looks li ke,

lfeel especia l ly gratefu l to my fel low teachers at Ki ngs Ed ucation,


Oxford, whose commitment to students and willingness to share
ideas have helped incubate myown passionforteaching.ln
pa rticu lar, l'd l i ke to tha n k my col leagues Jea nette Li ndsey-Cla rk
and Nick Davids who have collaborated with me in researching
motivation, not forgetting the ma ny students who sha red with us
their own learning experiences duringthe research.
lmust also recognizethe heroism of my own students who, overthe
years, have patiently borne with me while l've experimented with
both the ideas in this volume and those l buried alongthe way.
Sincere thanks to Andrew Dilger and Sophie Rogers at Oxford
University Press fortheir constant support and guidance, and to
Helen Cyde and Helen Wendholt for their expert editorial work.
And last but not least, l'd liketothank mydear son Jacob, who has
had to entertain himself overthe pastfew months morethan anysix-
year-old should have to, and my lovelyteenage daughter, Deyaneyra,
who continues to teach me so m uch about motivation.
Co nte nts

lntroduction- 9

FÁiRí 1:]., Tr+F, rFÉ,§nt§,§{}Al-"L&{R§*§i'ÍÍ

A Iove of language learning? -í2


The pleasure oflearning - l2
Pleasure in language - í5

Reflecting on the future- 20


The idealfutureself -20
The 'ought to' self * 23
The present self -25
Reinforcing future self-guides - 26

Seeing progress-28
Setting goals-28
Progress orientation - 32
Ornming progress -34
Motivating specific behaviours -37
Learner behaviour - 37
Rewards-39
Modelling-4í

.P48T,2 :.T.j{€,]t§4'1R+*.i§§,,€§ -,*5;:,=,=

5 Teacherbehaviour-46
Welcoming students -46
Startingwork-46
Demotivation-48
Ending lessons - 5í
6 The learning environment -53
Using space - 53
The social environment - 54
Wall space and decoration - 55
Multisensory spaces - 58
Learncr rolcs: indepcndcncc rnd rcrponsib!lity-ó0
Barriers to achieüng independence- 60
Developing independence - 62

Motiveting materirIs - 6ó
Coursebooks - 6ó
Digitalmedia-69
Content-based language teaching (CBLT) - 70

Task design -73


Creativity and skill- 73
Collaboration - 75
Choice - 76
Challenge*77
Control-7B

.,]] i,.' .].,.:].,.]],.-,,,'],,:..''.'.'****§

10 Studcnts as individuals- 82
Age-82
Gender and social roles -84
Aptitude-85
Personality-8ó
Special educational needs (SEN) -86
11 5tudent background -B8
Family background - 88
Learning background - 90
Cultural background - 91

12 Teacher motivation - 94
The school enüronment- 94
Staff development - 95
Evaluation píactices - 97

Glossary-99
Usefulwebsites- 107
lnt roduction

The challenge of motivation


A passion for knowledge and learning is what draws many of us into
teaching. So it can sometimes be frustrating when our students don't
share this enthusiasm, especially since their futures may depend on it.
Our response to this frustration helps define us as teachers. Some of us
maywant to confront our students about their apparent apathy. Others
may feei resigned to giving help only to those who seem to want it. A more
challenging approach is to recognize that there is passion and energylurking
in the classroom and attempt to draw it out through our teaching. This takes
a degree of faith and optimism, and the willingness to explore the many
factors that lie behind motivation,
Centrai to our understanding of motivation is the idea of reward. By'reward'
we don't mean something given to us, like apríze; rather we mean the sense
of pleasure or satisfactionwe get from an event, an activiry or a situation.
Motivation occurs when we anticipate this kind of reward, Our brains release
the chemical dopamine, increasing our energylevels and commitment to a
task or activity. If reward is actually gained from an activiry anticipation will
increase further still when we confront it again.
Though motivation seems straightforward in theory, it becomes far from
simple to grasp in practice, especiallywhen we consider a 1ong, complex
process iike learning. As the focus of our thoughts shifts between tasks and
situations, conflicting thoughts and emotions will compete for attention,
affecting our levels of motivation. The outcomes of this battle can sometimes
be surprising. For example, the desire to avoid a iittle displeasure in the short
term (e.g. putting offexam revision) will often have a greater effect than
the prospect of larger lon8-term rewards (like getting good results). And
the desire to see others rewarded (or go unrewarded) can also motivate us
regardless of the outcome for ourselves. We must also understand the many
little ways in which we can feel rewarded from one moment to the next,
from the simple pleasure of moving our bodies freely, to the act of lelating to
another human.
It is important to recognize that there are limits to how far teachers can
affect motivation, particularly in the case of language learning. A great deal
of progress will depend on practice done outside of class over a long time,
for exampie. What is more, aithough the costs of language learning (effort,
embarrassment, frustration, etc.) have to be paid out several hours a week,
the pleasure of interacting confidently with users of English may not be
available for some time, especially in a first language (Lr) context. But some
language teachers do inspire students, and we can certainly increase the
likelihood that motivation will deveiop. That's where this book comes in,
I i'',, .. INTRüD1JCT1ON

How this book is organized


Part considers howwe can increase students'anticipation of reward when
1
they contemplate learning the English 1an8ua8e, wherever they are. We'll
explore the aspects of language learning they are likely to find rewarding, so
the idea of learning English might appeal more (Chapter 1). We'll also look
at how a focus on the future can increase positive thinking (Chapter 2) , and
how the acquisition process (Chapter 3) and engaging in positive learning
behaúours (Chapter 4) canbe made more rewarding.
In Part 2 we'll consider how we can create a more rewarding environment in
the classroom so that students develop 8reater commitment to their courses,
We'll start by considering our own behaviour as teachers (Chapter 5) and
move on to explore the learning environment (Chapter 6), learner roles and
responsibilities (Chapter 7), the materials we use (Chapter B), and the way
we design tasks (Chapter 9).
Finally, Part 3 considers howwe can respond to background factors which
can have an impact on students'motivation to learn. First, we'll address
individuai differences, such as gender and social roles, age, personalit5r, and
special educational needs, and see how these personal factors affect how far
we anticipate reward in language learning (Chapter 10). The focus will then
be broadened to look at family, culture, and learningbackgrounds (Chapter
11). In the last chapter, we'llreturn to perhaps the most important factor, the
teacher, and ask how we can inspire ourselves to motivate others (Chapter 12) .

The earlier chapters in each Part address the factors that affect motivation
more broadly. Subsequent chapters then deal with more specific issues.
Readers may therefore find that the context provided in earlier chapters is
useful when reading later ones and may benefit from reading chapters in
the order in which they've been presented. However, each chapter can be
read on its own, and the chapter headings are designed to guide the reader
towards aspects of teaching practice that are most relevant.
The main text of the bookhighlights the factors behind motivationthat are
specific to each chapter topic, and outlines motivational pedagogic approaches
that íelate to them. Try this activities provide specific ideas and techniques that
you can try immediately, whi|e Gettíng it right sections give procedural tips
to help deal with situations where motivation may be especially at risk. The
IVhythisworks sections at the end of each chapter provide a more academic
rationale for the approaches recommended in the main text, and a starting
point for further exploration of issues affecting motivation. In addition, the
Glos s ary pr owdes explanatory notes on words that appear in bold throughout
-tJsefulwebsite.s
the main text, and the section lists online resources for
extending or developing activities discussed in the book.

Target audience
The ideas in this book are designed to suit learners from the last years of
primary school to early adulthood. But all contexts vary, and the ideas are
designed to provide a selection rather than a programme of action. I hope
to inspire you to experiment, find solutions that work for you, and stay
motivated!
part l The individual learner
1 A love of language learnin8?

,.fl

fil
lilll
]ili

il
Timothy Doner is a teenage hyperpolyglot, a lover of language learning.
J!
f
Having learnt Hebrew and Arabic at the age ofjust 13, he has gone on to Il

become fluent in over 20 languages. As the motivation to learn languages


,i1

comes from Timothy himself, we might describe it as intrinsic motivation.


;l
I

,li

It's fair to say that Timothy Doner's enthusiasm is not shared by many young
people: modern languages are often rated among the least popular of school
subjects. students love the idea of being able to speak foreign languages but,
unlike Timothy, they often fail to anticipate a sense of reward when they
think about the process of learning them. On the contrary, they may expect
a great deal of frustration. If we are to make English intrinsicallymotivating,
we need to compensate for anynegative feelings our students mighthave
about itby emphasizing the aspects of language learning that are most likely
to create a sense of gain and pleasure. Of course, individuals differ in what
they find rewarding, so we might start by finding out what our students find
pleasurable about using English.

TrythisG Apleasuresurvey
Write on the board What isfun about English? lnvite students to think of specific
things they enjoy doing in English. Write some of your own ideas to help, e.g.
watching NFL (Americanfootball) onTV, singing Justin Biebertracks on my karaoke
machine,etc. Print images related to their ideas, such as book covers or photos of
sports stars, and create a wall display.

The pIeasure of learning


Regardless of individualpreferences, all learners are likelyto find certain
aspects of language learning particularly rewarding. When we learn a
language, we not only gain an understanding of a wide range of written and
spoken language forms but also an understanding oftexts, from books to
conversations. For many learners, these cognitive gains bring a keen sense of
reward.

Understanding our world


The desire to understand the language that surrounds us is a strong source of
motivation. From the youngest age, we are driven to make sense of the words
people around us are using. Learning a second language (l-z) can seem less
relevant in a first language ([r) environment, but English has become part of

12
A LOVE OF LANCUACE LEARNlNC?

people's lives all over the world, and there are opportunities to explore the
English around us wherever we are.
Of course, this does not mean exposing students to as much English as
possible, Lack of understanding can cause displeasure, and reading or
1istening in L2 may create negative associations if the student believes they
have understood little. Instead, we must draw attention to the English in our
environment selectively.

TtylhisG LanguagecoIlection
Ask students to fi nd objects arou nd their homes which bea r EngIish words.
They cou ld choose packaging with E nglish la belling (Store in a cool, dark place.),
cIothingwithslogansinEnglish(Livethelifeyoulove!),andsoon.Askstudents
to resea rch what they mea n, bring them into class, a nd teach their peers the
meaning.

Understanding texts
Carefully exposing students to new vocabulary is particularly enjoyable:
all learners feel little bursts of pleasure when the meaning of a sentence
suddenlybecomes clear. In fact, recent research has shown that
understanding new words in context produces a similar reaction in our
brains to eating good food, so we should encourage students to discover
new vocabulary in every lesson, However, the sense that students have of
gaining understanding of the world around them maybe less greatwhen
new words come from coursebooks, even if graded texts do reduce the risk
of failed understanding, so it is important to connect new vocabulary to the
realworld.

Trythis6 Wordoftheday
Start lessons with a word of the daythat has a topical relevance. For example,
you could write on the board performance on the day of the schooI concert, or
the word soaking on a wet day. Ask students to guess whyyou've chosen it.

TtyíhisG web connections


We ca n ma ke words from cou rsebooks seem more releva nt by q u ickly sea rch i n g
for them on line. When students query a new word in their coursebooks that ca n
be represented visua lly (e.g, escape), enter the word into a sea rch engine a nd
click on the 'images' ta b. Check the images a re a ppropriate, then ask students
to choose the picture that expresses the meaning ofthe word in the coursebook
most clea rly, To help them u ndersta nd how usefu l a word is, click on the ma in
res u lts ta b a nd have them record the word in their notebooks with a sta r rating
that indicates how many search results it gets.

2bn+ (*****)

t bn-zbn (****)

5oom-tbn (---)
z5om-5oom (*-)

13
Interest in language
One of the difficulties language teachers face is that their subject is often
considered a tool to help describe or express ideas, like a paintbrush would
be to an artist, rather than something to be learnt for its own sake. As lovers
oflanguage ourselves, we know that language can be a rich source ofinterest
and discovery, and where possible we need to draw students into this world.
We can do this by drawing attention to features of language beyond simple
meanings, such as how we express politeness through language or how
intonation can be used to add a further layer of meaning. As we do this, we
can develop interest by asking students whether the features of English they
encounter are also present in their L1.

Try this G Reacting to words


When students have read a text, askthem to choose a word ortwothatthey
like, as if they are selecting chocolates. They may select a word because it has a
nice sou nd, is used in an interesting way, or seems simila r to a word in their Ll.
Respond enth usiastica lly to their idea s a nd make selection s of you r own.

Trythis rF Explore politeness


Ask students to rewrite dia logue from the cou rsebook so that it has a similar
meaning but is no longer polite. For example:

Cood morning, can l help you? ) What do you want?

Yes, l'd like some orange juice, please. ) Cive me some orange juice.

Sorry. There is apple juice, but no orange juice. ) There isn't any orange
juice. Have apple juice.
Askthem to perform the dialogue with a flat intonation to reflect the written
changesthey've madetothe dialogue.Then see if theycan putthe politeness
back in. Fina lly, discuss which version is closest to the way they talk in their Ll at
home, schoo1,or in a shop.

TrythisG Comiconomatopoeia
Ask studentsto bring in any L1 comic booksthey have and tofind onomatopoeic
words (words which sou nd like the thing they describe , e.8. zoom, boom, crash,
woof). Write the English tra nslations on the boa rd and have students match
them totheir L1 equívalent, Alternatively,find some L2 comics online (bydoing

an image sea rch for comics) and ask students to translate the onomatopoeic
words into their L]. Now ask students to produce a sim ple comic strip of their
own using onomatopoeia in each frame.
!
gí űettíng ít rlgfif ,§ i*fi :1,1-;,1=r:;;.:;,1i ,

Again, students will gain added pleasure if they can display newly acquired
knowledge to other students. Posters are a particularly effective way of
doingthis,

14
A LOVE OF LANCUACE LEARNlNC?

Trythis G Word posters


ShowstudentstheposterinFiguret.tandexplainthatniceisanoverusedword,or
a 'cliché'. On the boa rd, write some words you think are overused, such asf ne, cool,
happy, big, OK, said, awesome, pretty, or invite students to suggest some. Have them
choose an overused word, Iook it up in a thesaurus (e,g. www.oxforddictionaries,
com/thesaurus), a nd choose ten or more synonyms. Ask them to prod uce their own
word posters for homework and decorate the cIassroom with them.

nlGe,
l

ls it or is it...

? l
FIGURE I. T Wor d p o ster f o r synorlyms

Pleasure in language
In addition to bringing cognitive gains, working with language can bring
great pieasure on an emotional level, especially when we do it with others.

§haring emotion
A great source of pleasure is the sharing of emotion, for example fearwhen
watching a horror fiIm togethe1 or fun when we share a joke. If we can
make using language a soulce of emotion, we maybe able to make language

l5
A LOVE OF LANCUACE LEARNlNG?

learning seem more rewarding. We might try to provoke emotional reactions


through play scripts, speeches, poems, and short stories, but there are also
simpler ways that busy teachers can do this, from humorous language drills
to simple games.

TrythisG Emotiondrills
Drillwords and phrases in a waythat communicates their meaning. Have
students say noisyloudly,hungryweakly,or crazy in a sillyway.Then have
students saythe words in an opposite way, saying crazyin a sensible tone,
for example.

Tsy this G Group storytelling


Afteryou've studied a set of vocabulary, divide students into groups of three.
Provide them with the fi rst sentence of a story. For exa m ple, if the vocabu lary set
is a bout fu rnitu re, sta rt with One day, Paolo was sitting on the sofa. Suddenly .,. .
lnstructthe group to continue tellingthe story, takingturns to add a sentence
with a new piece of targetvocabulary.

Try this G Word association


As a wa rmer or fi ller activity, have two students (A a nd B) sit opposite each other,
with a th ird acting as the referee. Student A thin ks of a word, then student
B th inks of a word associated with it, a nd so on in tu rn. The referee decides
whetherthe associations are strong enough.

Specia!efietts
Pronunciation activities are anotherrich source ofpleasure, as theycreate
a series of whatwe might consider'special effects'of language, including
rhyming and rhythm, that students tend to enjoy. Teachers of younger
learners are no doubt familiar with chants, rhlrming poems, and tongue
twisters, but we can also create similar 'special effects'when teaching older
learners.

TrythisG Backchaining
When teaching newvocabulary, revealwords backwards. Saythe last sound
and ask students to repeat it. Then add the preceding sound. Continue until
the whole word has been sa id. Then ask students to repeat the exercise q uickly
without you saying the sou nds. Th is will prod uce a series of rhym ing effects.
Using longerwords like lesson subjects is particularlyfun.
ll lful lad3l llad3il lolad3il la|oled3il /baI'oled3i/ (biology)
The effect will be greater if students backchain at speed, as this will create a fun
tongue-twister. Finally, ask students to write down the word, checkingforthe
correct spelling.

TrythisG Repeating to a metronome


On the board, write some short questions of threeto six syllables and some
responses of the same length thatyou'd like students to practise. For each
question/response,putamarkingoverthefirstsyllableandtheonethatcarries
the main stress (shown as a high vertical mark in the following examples).

16
A LOVE OF LANCUAGE LEARNlNC?

'What'syour'name?'Myname's'Julie,
'Where areyou 'from? 'l'm from 'France.

'What areyou 'into? 'I'm into'dancing,


Set a metronome (sea rch on line for metronome) to a slow tem po a nd ask
students to say the excha nges to the rhyth m. Al low it to be com ica ly slow to
I

begin with. Divide the class into two grou ps so one ha lf 'converses' with the
other. Cradually increasethe speed of the metronome.

Mastery
Part of the fun of doing these kinds of drills is the challenge for students of
getting their lips and tongue around the sounds. Managing to do this - which
we might call mastery- is itself a source of pleasure. Learners of music or
art have the opportuniry to rehearse and practise their skills to the point
where they feel they've mastered them, but learners of a second language
rarely enjoy similar opportunities in an L1 context, because there are fewer
opportunities to practise communication. Preparing to perform chunks of
texts will give learners the sense of mastery.

Try thisG language performance


After students have engaged with a listening dialogue, divide them into 8roups
a nd invite each grou p to select a task from a set of 'performa nce' ca rd s based on

the dialogue script. Forexample:


r rap it
r perform it in the style of a silent movie (mouth words and mime)
r say numbers in place of words (tofocus on stress and intonation)
o read itwith an L'] accent
o read it with an exaggerated L2 accent
o personalize it by changing keywords
o act it out in a certain way (e.g. using angry or affectionate voices)
o perform it with slides/special effects,
Students ca n select a nother ca rd if they don'i like their fi rst one. lnvite them
to rehearse the dialogues and then perform them. Make surethat students
a ppla ud one a nother's performa nces, as mastery of a text will be a Il the more

pleasurable if others acknowledge their achievement.


§
gfl #eɧ§rrg §á r*g§:* Recording performances
Encourage students to record their performances of poems, songs, and other
texts, and upload them tothe school website or blog. This wíl}gives friends
and family members the opportunity to praise students.

The senses
Another advantage of the word poster (see page 15) is that this format
creates great visual impact. Young people today are used to vibrant screens
and moving images, and online text is often either richly illustrated or
presented in kinetic typography (animated text). Text on white pages can
look comparatively dull, but homework sheets can easily be made more
Ml§KOt.Ci hüYülE}.{

í\b 133 17
lE A toVE oa LANGuAGE LÉARNING?

stimulating with different fonts and backgrounds, and within the classroom
we can use colour, design, and even animated text to bring language to life.

TrylhisG Word art


Create a graffiti wall in the classroom by covering a section of the wall with
paper. Allow students to write up favourite phrases or words they have learnt
(e.g.from song lyrics), encouraging them to communicate meaning through
visua l effects as they do so. You nger lea rners may enjoy doing bu bble writing,
whereas older ones may be able to imitate graffiti styles (see Figure r,z).
Alternatively, encoura8e students to record vocabulary or copy out poems on
word processing softwa re, using different fonts a nd text sizes. Ask them to
explain their selections.

FIGuRE I.2 Examples ofbubblewriting and grffitiwriting

Trythis 6 Media-rich instructions


lf you have an interactivewhiteboard, present instructionstothe class (e.g.Take

o ut yo u r h o m ewo rk, p ea se,) u s n g the'tickerta pe' f u n ction so th at they move


l i

across the top of the screen, or copythem into a 'word cloud' maker (e.g. www.
word le.net) so that they a ppea r a5 bea utifu l word clouds.

Assotiations
Languages also bring learners pleasure (or displeasure) through the
associations they create, and these often relate to the cultures that use
certain languages. The more positive the associations learners have with a
culture, the more pleasure they'lI get from using its language. Many attribute
the recent populariry of Spanish as a foreign language, for example, to the
current popularity of Latin American culture. It is clearlyvery difficult to
control the associations students may have formed with a language, but we
can do offi best to encourage them to engage with other cultures.

TrylhisG Cultural engagement


-ifyou
co."across a cultural reference in the students'coursebook, encourage
them to research it fu rther on line. For example, they cou ld find out what a
per5on me ntioned in o ne of their cou rsebook texts is doing now (check they a re
real people first), orthey could add new details to a description of a place or a
festival they have read about.

18
A LOVE OF LANCUACE LEARNlNC?

The English language is no longer just associated with national cultures but is
also gaining exciting new associations withübrant online communities, for
example of gamers or music fans. Encouraging students to get involved with
online communities could also help them develop positive associations with
English. A student who gets 500 'likes' from English speakers for a blogpost
they've written is likely to consider learning English very rewarding.
However, it is vital that teachers are aware that the greater exposure
students have online, the greater their risk of internet abuse. In fact,
teachers can't actively encourage students to share files on public forums
because most file-sharing websites (e.g. YouTube) won't allow them to have
an account until they are 1B (13 withpermission from a parent/carer).
Yet asking o1der students only to use intranets or closely monitored virtual
learning environments won't help to increase their motivation.
One way of dealing with this dilemma is to give older students confidence
to engage with online communities safely, and to teach them how to
produce great content so that theywill have positive experiences of online
communities when they're ready to join them.

. ti*;, írcs ií l;{F+ j E-safety


Ensure students have proper e-safetytraining before uploading content to
any online envi ron ment. Areas you cou ld cover incl ude the'Cra nd ma ru le'
(don't post whatyou wouldn'twant Crandma to see), reporting and blocking
abusive users, using'restricted mode' (with filters), disabling and removing
the'com ments' function, res pond ing to persona l messages cautiously, and
using'private' and 'unlisted' options when posting videos.

Try this G Video tutorials


Ask students to prod uce a video tutoria l related to Iessons. |t cou Id be a bout how to
ilIustrate their lesson notes, or how to lea rn a new word so they will never forget it.
Cet students to ed it their videos with a n a pp on their mobile devices (if they
are aIlowed to usethem in cIass) such as iMovie (for iOS) orVideoShowLab (for
And roid). They cou |d s peed them u p so that they a re fu n to watch, a nd add a
musictrack usingVideoFX or a simiIar app.
Help them to record a short introd uction, e.g. Hi, guys. My name's ... and l'm going
to show you how to ... . l hope you enjoy ít. Don'tforget to'Iike'it!
Have students u pload their videos to the school's interna l fi le-s ha ring system,
a nd review each other's videos.

BHfu3"É*§sw*rÉ<gili=#, lntrinsicmotivation
, lntrinsic motivation has been discussed sincethe l97osand is considered
' the most effective form of motivation,
]
si nce it resu lts i n Ion g-lasti ng a nd
, self-sustainingeffort. In a language-learningsetting,theterm can aIso be
' used to describe students'willingness to engage with any activities without
: a reward being offered. In this chapter, however, we have discussed a part of
] intrinsic motivation that is particularly eIusive, namely an interest in foreign

, Ia nguages itself. This aspect of intrinsic motivation is even more valuable


l beca use it may motivate students to engage with la nguage study when
they leave the cIassroom.

19
Reflectin8 on the future

Most teachers would probably like their students to think about their futures
a little more often. If learners knew what they wanted to be doing in five
or ten years' time, they'd see the purpose behind their schoolwork and be
motivated to study, This kind of motivation is often called instrumental
motivation, and the more a student reflects on their ambitions and
associates them with the task ahead, the stronger this motivation will be.

The idealfuture self


Reflecting on the future has an additional benefit. Young people usually
imagine their furure self as being a more powerful and successful version of
their current self. So, just as reflecting on past mistakes can make learners
feel negative, reflecting on potential growth can help them develop a
positive self-image. This in turn will increase their expectation of themselves
and raise motivation, In other words, their future self will act as a positive
reference point, oí a behavioural guide.
For learners of English, the possible future self is a particularly attractive
one. The prospect ofaccessing global conversations and culture canplant
exciting ideas in their minds about the people they might become. However,
the present has such a strong hold on us that we sometimes lose sight of
the place we want to get to or the peIson we feel we can be. Encouraging
young people to reflect on their aims and their future lives can restore this
future focus and the motivational benefits that come with it. It's a good idea
to explore students' current motivations to learn English in order to raise
awareness of the need for a future self-guide.

TrythisG Reflect on motivation


Ask students to work in groups and discuss whythey are there in the classroom
learning English. Allowthem to work in their L1. You might hear ideas such as
the following:

we have to learn it in this school.


l want to understand what people are saying online.
|'lI need itforthe job lwantto do.

Writetheir reasons on the board in two categories. On the left put ideas
connected with their current lives, and on the rightthose connected with their
futu re lives. lf some reasons cou ld relate ió both (e.g. the second reason a bove),
ask students to clarify. Now add the column headings My life now and Myfuture,

20
::,.
*§,F,LEeT:r§t€::,§r\i T=Fl€ :F'§T§R]É

Ask students which column has more reasons and why. Then ask which reasons
theythink are more exciting or important.

§eet#agetrigM ,,] k
:,Llsry,e*r;fe$b§{k*9stúdent§t*€*a§$ía€€th€fnl§,ÉfJe{t,qÉ*he*ffilü',e§.
,lFhiases,s*,{h,as,}ttl,wtr:t,ieeé,wáeí?ssa§,Will$vetherntltesensethát ,

ttriefa.r€:me+i€toréf+|dé]át§r8etstáte,,Where,pqssille;refer:t9:theiíf*ttrre " '

:,ambitiogstoa_e.gttwsn:tbel*a§b*í*r.ey*a'repr*senting1#,Énglls*rThi5;] .,,
1:appraa€h, átr59lflglps*e,§],akeftedbaekhia|i|*,sFec§tbut,be,sure ta+nly§ay
things you believe are possible.

Students canbest develop positive views of themselves as language users by


considering the many benefits that English may bring them, Websites that
sell English language courses are a good source ofideas.

Trylhis€ Researchthebenefits
Cive students a worksheet similar to the one in Figu re z.t, entitled Reasons to

learn English, with 6-ro shapes or spaces to write reasons in. Tellthem to type
the worksheet tit|e into a search engine, either d u ring c|ass or for homework,
and to open some of the links. lf necessary, students can use an Ll translation
of theworksheettitle, ortranslate English pages intotheir L1 bycopyingweb
add resses into Google Tra nslate.

Reasons to learn English

FIGURE 2.I Worksheet for benefits of learning Englislt

Then put students in groups to share their ideas. Have each group agree on their
five most exciting reasons and write up their ideas on the board. Students can
then make a class poster or display of the most popular ideas.

21
]E REFLECTING ON THE FUTURE

Students may end up with a list of benefits similar to the following, taken
from real advertising for English language schools:
a earnmoremoneythanyourpeers
b read 95o/o of academic research
c work in science, technology, or business
d watch foreign TV networks
e go to an international conference
f work in an international organization
g understand emergency instructions on planes, etc.
h impress your friends and family, just by speaking
i chat with 2.5 billion people.

such lists are seiling us nothing less than a vision of our future. The websites
and adverts where they are found use imagery and narratives to make these
visions even more powerful. could we also use the vehicle of advertising
to se11 English to students? If it's true that salespeople end up believing
their own sales talk, imagine what might happen if we turned students
into advertisers of English. Alternatively, to help students develop a more
personal, detailed view ofthe future, we could encourage them to reflect on
a rypical day in their future as an English speaker.

Try lhisG AdvertsforEnglish


Have students bring in printed adverts and askthem to identifywhatthey are
Promising. For exa m ple, a n advert for tra iners may im p|y that their own ers will
gain sporting success.Then ask students whattheywould promise a buyer if
they were selling E nglis h lessons to them. Have them create a n advert for E nglish
lessons, using images cut out from the adverts they brought in, or compiling
digitaI images on computers.Students then vote forthe most persuasive advert.

TrythisG Future diary r


Ask students to write a bout a typica l day in their futu re. sta rt by getting them to

choosefivethingsthey'd |oveto be ableto do one day using English. showthem


the list ofbenefts aboveto helpthem.Then givethem the example ofa future
diaryentry below. Have students identifywhich five items on the listthe author
of th is d ia ry entry chose (c, d, e, í a nd i). 5tudents then write their own futu re
d ia ry entry includ ing f ve ideas of their own.
My typical day (ten years in thefuture)

It had been a difficult day. l had attended a conference in Chicago with


5o computer game designersfrom around the world.The presentation l'd
given for my company wa; a success, but as l sat in my hotel and caught up
with the news on CNN Ifelt tired.Then the phone rang.I picked it up and
responded ín English, but it was only my mum.'ls that really you, cianni?'she
asked. 'Wow, your English accent is so good!'After she'd hung up, Ifelt better
and l decided to go down to the bar. l got chatting to a group of interesting
people workíng with a modelIing agency, and we decided to head out to see a
f lm at the local English language cinema. lt was a great evening.

22
REFL,E,CTIN€ oN TH,E FUTU.RE

g{tettíng ít fight Encouragingimaginativethinking


,lf }ou havelower-]evei students, consider doing imaginativethir+iting :

activities in their L:r first, The objective is to engage students in free,


i magi native thin kin g, a nd,havi ng to use their: Lz ra ay i m pede tlt is pfoÉcs§.
Sue h:activíties cotlld befollowed up with a translation tast i'n wh,ie h stud*nis
express their ideas in English.

Children of primary school age will probably feel comfortable talking about
what they're going to be 'when they grow up', but a class of teenagers may
feel a little self-conscious about revealing their inner ambitions. For older
classes, teachers could take a less direct approach, by encouraging students
to identify with other young people who have become proficient in English,
While teachers rarelyhave the opportunityto introduce students to an
L2 speaker who can be a role model, the internet can be a useful source.
For example, video logs (vlogs) on YouTube regularly feature non-native
speakers posting videos of themselves speaking in English,

Trythis€ language role models


Have students profi le a user of English that they admi re from their own L]
background. They might profile a vlogger (orYouTuber) from their country, for
exa mple, giving deta ils of where they work, what they v|og a bout, the la nguages
they use, how many subscribers they have, their most popular vlog, a quote, etc.
Alternatively, they could investigate a family member or a friend, discovering
how and when they became proficient in English, and how they use English now.
They could record an interview with them a nd share it with the class.
§
§ aetting it fight ldentifyingwith studerrts
lfyau're a,*o'fi-native speaker of Englísh, usingyourseff as a,rolemodel.can
be a goodway of helpingyoüí §tud:ents to identifywithycu,,andto,bel'ieve
tll-at sqecess i: pcssible,Talkabout whatyou wer* and,welen|t ab.le todo in
lngl ish at their age, focu si n g on thingsthatthey dc betterifi Fn you,e§,ú ld;

The'ought to' self


So far, we have focused on how learners can reflect on the person the}r
want to become, but social and cultural expectations can also influence
who we thinkwe oughttobe. For example, a student maywant to avoid
disappointing other people, particularly family members. In other words,
they may be motivated to become their 'ought to' self, not fTom embracing
a positive view of themselves but from fear that they may be a lesser person
than others expect.
As teachers, we do not wish to create a sense of fear or anxiety in our students,
butwe should be open to using the 'ought to'self as a souíce of motivation. A
focus on imaginary social encounters may help strike the right balance.

23
IE RrFL§cTlNG *N THE FuíuRE

TrythisG Futurediaryz
Ada pt the future dia ry t activity (see page zz) by asking students to write a mirror
image of the first diary entry, in which they don't speak English well. For example:

l was returning home after a meeting with colleagues at the small, local
compqny where Iworked. Iwas exhausted after a long and boring day.While
l was waiting at the bus stop, a young Australiqn tourist approached me
and asked if l knew of a local bar. l knew what they were asking but couldn't
find the words to respond.'Sorry, no help'was all l could say in English,
Disappointed, the tourist walked off...
.

You could then ma ke a copy of these and ask students to ceremoniously th row
the copies in the bin!

§f;efiímg §r rÉght §enqgingafixi€


Be careful notto add to ar_1{,pressure th*tstudents may already:f*elt* rneet
§űcial a+d culturalexpectations,,§iscusjion of the'oughtto'self shottld be
,
about explcring existing pí€55uí€5 mther than addi ng new one§; a ild shoül d

;:' ::1
j::;ffi ;:::::, ,, anothe r dimens io n of the, ou ght
to' selfthat should be possible to discuss quite safely, There are a variety of
adverts that can be used to explore this idea in a light-hearted way. Search
on YouTube for Should'ye 4one to Specsallers to bring up a list of adverts for an
optician's, in which people's eyesight has failed them with humoíous effects.
For example, there is one involving a shepherd who shears his sheepdog,
mistaking it for a sheep.

TtylhisG 5hould've learnt more Engtish


Show students a 'Should've gone to Specsavers'advert and have them translate
the stra pline into their own la nguage. Expla in that you'd like them to create an
advertfor learning English, with the strapline Should've learnt more English,in
which something unfortunate happens because someone doesn't know enough
English. To illustrate, show or d raw the following signs and ask students to
decide what might happen if someone didn't understand them:
o stand on the right (on an escalator)
. Push/Pull (on a door)
o Formaldress (on an invitation)
o Do not disturb (on a door)
o Warnin8: guard dog (on a gate)
Cive them time to prepare their adverts, encouraging them to include simple
dialogues in speech bubbles,
Another approach to exploring the 'ought to' self is to look at our future
selves from a different perspective. One way to gain this perspective is to
imagine comments that people might make about us in the future. This is a
trick that has been used by motivation guru Daniel Pink in his One Sentence
Project, a very simple but wonderfully effective idea.
REFLECTIN6 ON THE FUTURE

TrylhisG One sentence project


Find video of the One Sentence Project showing you n8 people read ing
a YouTu be
sentences in the third person, such as He wqs a very patientfather. Ask who
the you ng people m ight have been ta lking a bout (themselves from a futu re
viewpoint). Then ask students to imagine what they d like others to say a bout
them in thefuture. Here are some examples:
He always helped others.
Her ideas helped change the world.
She flew with her own wings.
She saved many lives.
He made people laugh.

Correct their sentences if necessa ry, then video the class as they say them a nd u pload
the video to the school website or blog if you have pa rents'/ca rers' perm ission. Then

ask them to discuss how English can hel p them become that person.

The present selt


It can be very difficult to keep our future self-guides in mind when
confronted with day-to-day realities that seem to contradict them. In
particular, our present level of attainment can weaken the belief we have
in our ideal future self. Teachers therefore need to find a way of connecting
students' current views of themselves with their idealized views. One way
to do this is to help them visualize the journey towards their ideal and
encourage them to imagine how they are going to arrive at their destination.

Trythis G A success story


Ask your students to choose one thing they wou |d like to be able to do with
English. lt could be a wild ambition, such as publishing a novel in English, or a
more concrete one, such as entering un iversity. Write up these q uestions a nd ask
them to ma ke notes.

What progress have you already made?


What exactly will need to happen to help you achieve the goal?
How willyou feel when you have achieved it?
How willyour life change as a result?

Then tell students to imagine they have achieved their goal and an article about
them is appearing in the newspaper. Askthem towrite a newspaper headline
abouttheir5ucce55,fiveyearsinthefuture,e,g.Boy, 18,publishesfrstnovel in
English.rhen have students write an article forthe headline, explaining howthe
achievement happened. Encourage them to share ideas on howto make their
stories more realistic.
A moment of weakness or laziness in the present may also encourage us to
believe that our stronger future self is an illusion. It's therefore important
that teachers try to stop students falling into habits that wil1 cause them to
Iose sight of their future self-guides. Very often this will mean encouraging
them to give up current pleasures in the interest of greater pleasure in the
future, which in psychological terms is called delaying gratification. This

25
RÉFL§CTIN6 ON THE FUTURE : . , ,

temporary sacrifice is easier when witnessed by others, and so reflecting on


it can be a useful class activity. We could even reflect on how our future self
might view our sacrifices.

Trythis G 'Thankyou'from the future


Ask students whattheywould preferto be doing now ratherthan being in class.
They might suggest p|aying football or video 8ames. Now have them write a
tha n k-you letter from thei r future self to thei r present sel{ tha n king them for
their sacrifice. Have students read each other's letters.

Reinforcing future se!f-guides


A further potential barrier to helping students embrace their future self will
be the lack of teaching time available. Teachers can't dedicate hours of class
time to strengthening students'images of their future. We must therefore
find ways to create reminders of these future selves. We could also take steps
to linkthe future orientation theme with something students see regularly,
such as wa1l space or coursebooks.

TrythisG Constantreminders
Displayany letters,future-self stories, and'oughtto'postersthat students
create. Wa l l displays cou ld be created u nder inspi ring head ings such as Ou r
future has begun! or students could keep letters from their futu re selves inside
their exercise books.

TtylhisG Personalizing the contents page


Have students d iscuss what they wa nt to do with E ngl ish (e.g. socia ize, follow
l

instructions, travel, etc,);they may be able to draw on ideas included in the


futu re d ia ry t activity (see page zz). Write their ideas on the board, then ask them
to look at the contents page oftheir coursebook and identify pages or lessons
that they th in k will be most usefu l to them. Encou rage them to circ|e those
references on the contents page or label them with smileyfaces.This will help
students bu ild u p a pictu re of how the progra m me of study will contribute to
their vision s. Note stude nts' choices a nd, wh e n you teach a lesson that they h ave
expressed a particular interest in, invite them to contribute a personal lesson
objective or suggest how the materia l might be ta lored more to their needs a nd
i

expectations.
Reflect on the future self
The image of oneself as a proficient Lz speaker is often reíerred to as'the
ideal Lz setf', Focusing on the future self is a simple idea, but one that draws
together several of the im portant ideas in motivation theory that involve
long-term purpose of ideals:
o belief that English will help us achieve something (instrumental
motivation)
o desire to belongto a community of language users (integrative
motivation)
o an increase in our asses:ment of personal value (self-worth)
r an ability to keep sight of personalaims (relf-regulation).
Researchers suggest that reflecting on thefuture self will be mo:t
motivating if we also consider the'nightmare'future too, in which we failto
ach ieve learni ngobjectives.
Zoltán Dör:nyei, a proponent ofthefuture-self idea, and ]ill Hádfield have
developed a teaching programme to he|p develop this future orientation in
students, includingvisualization techniquesto helpthem reflect on their
future (see lJsefu!Webítesfar Zo|tá n Dörnyei's website). HoweveI simple
activities wíth outputs that can be viewed repeatedly will also be of benefit,

2l
I

Seein8 progress

In the preüous chapterwe discussed the importance of having a dream


to aspire to, but we have to enjoy the ptoec§§ of achieving our dreams if
we are goingto workforthem. Let's reflect on doing ajigsawpuzzle,fot
example. If we simplywanted the pictuíe, we wouldn't spend hours putting
the pieces together - we'd buy a poster! It's the pleasure of taking the small
stepstowards completing it that makes us maintain our commitment.
Unfortunately, progress in language learning is not as steady and
manageable as it is for jigsaw enthusiasts, but it is the teacher's job to make it
as similar as possible.

Setting goals
We can introduce a regular sense of achievement bybreaking down the
language-learning process into a series ofgoals. Ifthe goals are discussed
and agreed, they become more valuable, since others can witness a learner's
achievements, increasing their pleasure in learning. The agreement also
adds a sense of obligation, appealing to the'ought to'self, discussed in
Chapter 2. Furthermore, ifgoals are arranged in a planned sequence,
learners gain a sense of progression as they achieve them.
But what should the goals be? A common type are performance goals,
where learners attempt to demonstrate their ability to perform at a certain
standard, usually by passing an external assessment like those offered by
Cambridge English. These assessments are often motivatingbecause they
are widelyvalued, and the perceived value of a goal increases motivation.

However, performance goals are regularly criticized. Firstly, students


may only be encouraged to work on them when assessments draw near.
Also, motivation may drop if learners fail to achieve a certain level or,
equally, when theymanage to do so. Note that using a programme of
regular tests such as the Trinity GESE suite can help limit these problems
by ensuring that success or failure is followed by a fresh challenge or
opportunity. Finally, performance goals can lead to students comparing
themselves to each other if given indiscriminately to all class members,
which may demotivate weaker students. Allowing students to 'opt in' to
tests where possible, or setting different performance goals for each student,
may prevent this happening.

28
SEEtNC PROGRESS

é
6fl Seátíng f€írÉ Optional
iÉ testin3
Offer externa l tests to stude nts periodica lly (if you r school allows th is), but
avoid makin g them corn pu lsory. l n stead, encoura ge demotivated students
to pa rticipate by saying you believe they ca n do well (if that is the case), a nd
, let others sígn up if they wa nt to. l nviting stude nts to take the exa m on a n

individual basis will prevent class mernbers making comparisons.

An alternative approach is to use competence-based assessment, where


students aim to acquire specific skills rather than reach a certain level of
performance. These skills are often called learning goals and maytake the
form of a list of 'can-do' statements that students tick off. The statements
can also be tied to external systems of validation. The Council of Europe,
for example, provides a very specific list in the document entitled Common
Europ ean Fr amew ork of Reference for Languages : Learning, Teaching,
Assessment (often shortened to 'CEFR') . Here is an example of one subiist of
competences for speaking:

Sustained monologue: Describing experience (A2)

Can te1l a story or describe something in a simple list of points.

Can describe everyday aspects ol his/her enrlironment, e.g. people,


places. ajob or study experience.

Can give short, basic descriptions of events arrd activities.


Can describe plans and arrangements, habits and routines, past
activities and personal experiencer.

Can use simple descriptive language to make brief statements about


and compare objects and possessions.

Carr explain what he,/she likes or dislikes about something.


rllwv. co e. intl lan g-C EFR

TEXT 3.I SpeakingcompetencesforA2

Trythis G Learning goals


Provide each student with a list of lea rn ing goa ls for the CEFR level match ing
you r sylla bus, Store the lists in the classroom a nd ta ke them out period ica lly,

asking students to tick offwriting, reading, and listening competences based on


'pass' grades you have awa rded for related skills assign ments. For spea king, ask
them to record specific tasks and to listen back to their recordings. lnvite them,
or a partner, to decide if their performance meets the'can-do' criteria or if they
should try again.

With younger learners, competence lists can be adapted around simple


topics that the learners can identifirwith more easily, such as'my school'or
'the weather'. For example, the descriptor Can describe everyday aspects of
his/her environment mlghtbecome 1con describe my classroom and appear
under the heading'My School'. Many schools in Europe combine this with
biographical information in a document known as a European Language
Portfolio.
29
lE 5tÉfNGPRöGRE§s

S*áɧrlgí*rs§§af §trategies for atfi íevement,


Make sure altgoals ar€ atcornpánied bystrategies forachievingthem, even
if theyseem like simpletasks, Do this by addingthe word'effeetively'to a
lea rn in g goa I a n d provid in g three_ simple stmtegies fcr students to bea r n i

mind:
, l'm goin§ to de*cribe an
everit.efie€tively, byl
r usin8 the past simple tense ,
. ilsíng sequence adyerbs, such as.next
:

, . §aying what l tiked/dis}iked about it. ' ,

Th is wi trl motivate students beca.use theywi ll the n know how to' ach ieve
Succe5s.

Short-term goal§
Goals stir us into action more quickly if they are short term. It is also easier
for learners to imagine how theywill achieve smaller, short-term goals
which, in turn, increases their expectancy of achievement.
Learning vocabulary proüdes a particularly rich opportunity for
short-term goal setting, and many teachers can set talgets such as 'one
word a da/. Most vocabulary items have been classified at CEFR levels
(go to wvuw.englishprofile.org), so students can have the satisfaction
of knowing that their word knowledge is helping them achieve certain
StandardS,

Try this€ Targetword labels


ln each lesson, have students select a word or phrase from their coursebooks
that they'd like to use outside class, a nd write it on a sticky la bel. For exa m ple:

l'm gonna sa1

LucK1 1ou!

ioda1

Ask them to stick the la bel on someth ing they bring to school every day, a nd to
remove it only once they have used the word/phrase outside of class. ln the next
lesson, check who has removed their label and askthem to explain howthey
used the word/phrase. Students could collect'used' label in their exercise books,

TrythisG Avoiding c!ichés


Ask students to ma ke a list of c|ichés that they shou ld avoid in spea king or
writing (e.g. nice), or put up posters with 'banned'cIichés on the walls. Reward
students with praise when they use an appropriate alternative,
We should also note that regular atte mpts at achieving goals help learners to
stay committed to the task, since they can experiment with new strategies if
they are unsuccessful the first time. The abiliry to attempt a new 'high score'
in a game, for example, can make the activity quite addictive.
§:E{lN6 FROGR,E55

§C*rt§nE §t r§gkt }llgh'rcare*


,lf
studentsáre allawedto,use'rnobile,deviees in class, let the,nr play laqguage:
learning games with hígh seore features {tng| isív Varabu l ary Buitd.tr ftam

Míracle Fr;nB*x is a good exámple} at.theend pf }essans wfien theyive


wor.'ked we l, oí e ncou ra ge them t* play the ga mes outs ide,of classl A5 k
.,, ."
l

thenr,frómtimetctime,]ifthqt'vebeatentheirh1gh*córe5. .

Successfully memorizing a word, or realizing that we've started to use a


word that was once new to us, can be very rewarding. Unfortunately, many
students fail to embrace this opportunity for pleasure, perhaps because they
don't record words in a way that makes self-testing possible, or because
the prospect of memorizing a word before being able to use it isn't very
appealing.

Trythis G Word cards


Ask students to make a set of word cards that can be used to test vocabulary.
On one sid e, they write the word, the word stress a nd pron u nciation, a nd the
part of speech, e.g. noun, verb, etc, On the other side, older students can write a
defi nition whileyounger students can draw a picture. Onlinetools such asthose
athttps://quizlet.com can be used to make digitalword cards.
§
§ Getting ít úght self-testing
Makes*reyou givestudentsthe]s,uppgr* the},.áeed í;help:them record new
,words,appropriately. §et aside elars:time tó
:do this gnd for sétf.tesling,

Memorizing boxful of word cards or a long list of vocabulary, however, can


a
be a daunting prospect. Students need to feel that they are gaining mastery
over the words and committing them to memoíy. Marking words as 'learnt'
in some waywill give them a sense of control and progress. Older students
might do this by ticking or highlighting words, while younger students may
prefer colouring.

TrythisG Word pictures


Ask you nger students to write new words into segme nts of a pictu re that
you've provided, e.g. bricks in a picture of a castle or leaves on a tree. When a
student has made progress by demonstrating that they have learnt one of these
words, allow them to co|our in the segment forthis word. For example, you
might req uire them to reca ll the words successfully in a test, identify them in
a storybookyou're readingtothem, or usethem in a sentence.


§ Cetting ít t§ght,Rttoráli§1erfirlrgrde,,:,,:,,
,:,.

'r*ai*eiiáiáóften'á |ifilé toa read}rtá decla,te words liearnt';,,so,design


s}istems,that,allowthemta réturfi,t§,éld'words. Thrycould wrjtevoeabularyl
1[ea rnt'
o,n word ca rd s:that they Éan: moúe,frorn a'new word' box to a box
a,nd báeko if neceriary, A[ternatívely;a'simpíes}stem for s,howingtowwe 11, ,

they|ve learrrt words{e,g,,one'tíck= lra* retalf ltatturatel§t|N§.ticks,+l'm


í/s;J?g jfJ wíll help them think carefully befoleticking. ,

31
lE S]E,aJN6 ,PR§6R'f S5

Dlfitulty
A final point to consider when setting goals is difficulry. Goals are more
motivatingwhen theyrepresent a challenge, even if some students respond
to challenge more than others. If students simplypro8ress from one
competence to the next or one word to another within a given proficiency
band, they may not get a sense of growing accomplishment. However, with
grammar learning especially, it is possible to Struclure even short-term goals
to reflect rising degrees ofchallenge,

Trythis G Degrees of challenge


Set students a sequence ofgoals for each language structureyou teach and
assess whether they've reached each one. U se th e fo l lowi n g seven sta ges.
(Examples of how students might achieve each goal have been added forthe
present perfect structure in l've never drunktea.)
t Order the words (naeflffi< l've never ...)

z Produce forms accurately (M<tea l've...)


3 Make substitutions to change meaning (l've always preferred coffee.)
4 Recognize it (in the coursebook, in conversation)
5 ldentify opportunities to use it (in response to the question Do you like tea?)
6 Pronounce it naturally (put stress on never andtea)
7 Change meaning with stress and intonation (shift stress to lor drunk)

§C*r#ng i* ru§§rt §tretehíng rttld€nt§


Encourqge students tosel.ect:theirown aims ftorn as€guen{e likethe o:ne
above. Asyou monitorthem, drawtheir atte ntion to where they are,inth*
se{i}€nt€aÉd enco*ragethe,ffit§ajrnfQrth€ ae.Xt,stage, : ,, ]] ,

Progress orientation
The idea of constantly aiming for small, measurable improvements needn't
only apply to goal setting. It can also be part of a general orientation of
lessons to help students notice progress. The strict grading oflanguage that
we find in some courses can seem frustrating for students who want to see
rapid skills development. The freedom to learn more challenging language
can restore a sense of control and interest. It may also allow them to acquire
language that they feel might impress others.

gfl§effí*g §t r§g*t*' Ad**nta*lan§§i§.


lf students naticeJanguage above,their }eveJ,,perhags-a§,,tt+ey,,,[isteR ts ascag
úf:watcfu a fitm, donltditeourage,th*mfroffi,l€*rftiÉ$it- espei*}|},et+*ttks of
1anguage'thateán be,mernorized,simBly5§f,h }*'E}tr.:rt4atf*lÉa7a*iryg.T§ll
'studÉl]t§thatit's a hi§herlevel of rn#istr;.butthat youthinktttcyshould:tryl,
it out!

Teachers might then try to break away from the staged development of
language over long cycles in favour of a more vertical progression, as
illustrated in Figure 3.2, in which learners extend simple structures they
alreadyknow.

32
5ÉElNG, PRo6FE§§

student level
ffi
ffi
FIGuRE 3.2 Stagedandverticallanguage development

In this approach, the role of the teacher becomes one of guiding or


mentoring students to help them achieve greater impact with their words.
The emphasis on improving text can either be adopted through separate
activities or integrated with the coursebook, as the following activities
illustrate,

TrythisG Skeleton writing texts


Tell the class to imagine they a re writing a postca rd. Write up a few basic
sentences, invitingthem to contribute details such as whothey are writing to,
where they a re, etc.

HíPaul,
l am writing to you in a café in Paris. l am drinking some juice. Paris is lovely,
You can visit lots of galleries ,., ,

Now invite students to discuss in groups whatthey can add to improve the text
(adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, etc.) and invite groups to come to the board
and make changes in turn.

r l'm writing to you in a delightful café in the centre of Paris, where |m happily
drinking some peach juice. This city is so lovely and you can visit a lot of
interesting galleries .., ,

Provide another skeleton textfor studentsto rewrite in pairs or groups.

TrythisG Language makeover


When you next come across a language'function'in a coursebook
(e.g. 'a pologizing'), elicit voca bu la ry a nd p h ra ses that students a lready know
(l'm sorry) and writethem on the board. Then extend or improve the sentence,
using ideas from the coursebookand students'wider knowledge.You could
elicit words and ph rases that they might use in their own la nguage a nd ask
them to tra nslate the words a nd phrases usi ng Coogle Tra nslate. They cou ld try
strengtheningthemeaning(l'msosorry),extendingthephrase(l'msosorryfor
hurting you), or adding a phrase (l'm sorry,l didn't mean to), Deal with additions
r
l as lexica l ch un ks rather tha n teach i ng the gram mar.
This orientation towards progress can be strengthened by setting objectives
r
for every piece ofwork a student does.
l

33

l
I
!- sEElN6 PRoGRE55

§
6fl**etSmg íÉff€e* ianguage,objectlves
Make sure every piece of writtenwork is accompanied,b5lclear,,achievable
language objectives; forexanrple, ask'students t+:ilncludéfive,adjeetives.
youcould alsaseta,rse,gaf;veobjeetiveto;iwidaparticulartypicalmistake.
Thjs wi1l provideyou with something positiveto say aboutyourst*dents'
language progress each'tirfietheycomplete a piece of written,work.

Owning progress
Students will gain a greater Sense of progress if we give them regular
opportunities to improve their work and demonstrate improvement.
Learners can best do this through ongoing projects or collections ofwork
that they can access whenever they like, and show to their parents/carers or
peers. This is one of the ideas behind the learning portfolio.

TrythisG Leatning portfolios


Have students store their work in a folder or in a sha red online a rea, where they
ca n u pdate it as often as they l ike. They m ight add a diary or blog expla in in g
what they were trying to achieve with each piece of work. For example, if they've
recorded themselves giving d irections, they cou ld write a bout how they were
trying to use the imperative or prepositions of place, and identifythe CEFR'can-
do' statement they've ach ieved.

Allowing students to keep self-assessment tools with them, such as the list
of CEFR'can-do'statements, will also give them control overwhen and how
frequently they assess their progress, The seven stages of learning a grammar
structure, discussed on page 32, could also be turned into a self-assessment
too1.

Tryth|sG Achievement ladder


Cive each student a copy of an 'achievement ladder'grid (see Figure 3,3) to keep
in the back of their exercise books. The gra mma r structures a long the bottom
row should be the structu res you pla n to teach over the coming term. Allow
students to colour in ortickthe relevant boxes on the grid whenevertheyfeel
they have achieved the level of ability indicated on the laddertothe left,

34
shift stress

pronounce structure

Recognize structure

5ubstitute words

Prod uce words accu rately

FI GuRE 3. 3 Achiey ement ladder for dffirent grammar structures

Keeping portfolios and self-assessment sheets allows sfudents to look back


and reflect more regularly on their achievements. Reflecting on past effort in
particular can make people more committed to learning and underline the
fact that the progress they make in performance assessments is the product
of hard work, reinforcing the idea that their actions bring results. Finally, to
emphasize that students are responsible fortheir achievements, we should
not only note their progress but also congratulate them on it.

TrythiscF unit certificates


Asyou finish each unit or module, ask students to complete a certificate for
themselves. Th is could encou rage them to reflect on vocabulary, functions, a nd
other skiIls they've acq u ired. Ma ke templates ava ila ble on the school intra net or
print out b[ank certificates. Then students ca n do the following: com pare their
certificates; photograph them and sharethem on social media pages; upload
them to online portfolios or profiles; or displaythem on walls.

35
I- §É§lN6, PRo§REs5

Module z certificate
Between tt-zB iopiembor

The student O\ena üomot of class 4,A


discovered the new words
hill, {ield

and used them when she


,tho
wroto aboul counlryaido.

she also learnt information about


rainforastg in English

and how we buy-train 1i.K9,t5

in English.

FIGuRE 3.4 Example unit certificate

§Crrr'*g ít ríght Assessment parties


When students are ticking offcornpetences.or lookíng backthrough
portfolíos, create a party atraosphere with m,usie o,r refreshrnetts, fo,r
example. Reinfcree student achievernentb} offering a class reward, such as
the opportunityto choose a songorWatch a video clip

ljtfhythiswarks ttrl$, Recording progre55


Seeing progress towards goals is essential because it gives learners a
sense of self-efficacy - the belief in their potentia l to ach ieve. Th is will
raise their expectation of achievement and bring pleasure to the Iearning
experience itselí motivating further study. Seeing pro8re55 is particularly
importantforthose learning a skill because it can be difFcultto notice
general improvements in skills performance. Learners often report having
reached a 'platea u' in their development, despite their efforts. Tools that
helpthem notice little improvements can therefore provide much-needed
rea5surance.Self-efficacywiIlbestrongerstillif learnersareabletoattribute
their successes to their own efforts, through keeping records of work and
pro8reSS.
The effects of goal challenge and of short-term (proximal) goals can be read
about in the research of Edwin Locke & Cary Latham, and of Albert Bandura,
respectively. For information about performance vs learning goals, read the
work of Ca rol Dweck (see IJ sefu l we bsites section).

36
Motivatin8 specific
behaviou rS

When we say our students are unmotivated, what we usually mean is that
they are not motivated to engage in learning behaviour. If we asked them
to play football or chat with friends, motivation may reappear. In fact, they
may also be generallywilling to engage in learning behaviour, but just not
now. There is a big difference between making students disposed to learning
English and getting them to do it right away. So, in addition to motivating
our students to learn English, we need to think about how to bring students
to the 'action' stage of learning. To do this, we must be clear about the kind of
behaviour we want students to engage in,

Learner behaviour
Awareness
Students need to know which actions and actiüties will help them learn
before they can motivate themselves to perform them. This may be an
obvious point, but some students might have the impression that simply
tuTning up to class or copying a friend's answers into their exercise books is
an adequate learning strategy. It's therefore worth exploring good learning
habits as a class activity.

TtythisG Learning habits


Tell lea rners that being an effective lea rner will req u ire them to th in k in a certa in
way, do certain things, and engage regularly with other people. Drawthree
circles and askthem to think ofthings for each categorythat Ianguage learners
must do. See Figure 4.t for an example.

THlNK DO oNa^Ge
Quasiion ihingt TaVv/Yevi*o noIol Lislon/?oad in únglish

FIGuRE 4. I Example diagram of differentlearninghabits

37
|- MoTIVATI N6 §PEc] rlc BEHAvío,u R§

TrythisG Target behaviour posters


You can use a list of good learning habits for a further activity. Have students
thin k of some 'opposite' behaviou rs (e.g. remain silent, ignore new words) a nd
design a 'Learning English Dos and Don'ts' poster. Encourage them to order
behaviours with the most importantfirst,

§Cu#ing ít #ght Owning behaviour


Asking students to produce a list of good behaviouts themselves will prevent
itfrom seerning }ike a list of classroom rules, This is essentíal because we,are
far rnore likelyto engage in behaviours that we havethought of ourselves.

Tools for learning


Many learning behaviours can be supported by the use of physical objects.
Objects that we can put in fTont of us, pick up, and use may attíact our
attention more easilythan instructions or guidance onwalls, and may
remind us to practise the good behaviour associated with it. Secondly,
having certain tools available can make some behaviour mole likely. For
example, students often avoid checking work because they dislike spoiling
their neat writing with corrections, so correction pens or erasers and soft
pencils can promote this behaviour.
Young people also love to use different tools, so theymaybe more motivated
to engage in learning when they have the opportunity to use a range of
equipment. In the case of 'thinking' and 'engaging' behaviours, we may need
to be imaginative in thinking of objects that can support them.

TrylhisG Learningkits
Inaddition to the standard classroom equipment that students will hopefully
have access to (pens, mini dictionaries, highlighter pen5, etc.), encourage them
tothink ofother learningtoolstheycould create and to keepthem in a box, For
example, they might decidethey should have:
o a rectan8le of card -for covering text when self-testing
o a reader - a graded book in E n glish to read wh ile waiting for the next task
to begin
. a'newwords'box-an empty boxto keep newwords/flashcards in
o a' lpy hole'- acoin-sized hole in a square of card to use when reading to help
focus on specific words (e.g. when looking for errors in a piece of writing)
. a party blower-to interrupt and contributeto a discussion activity
o a dice or home-made spinner-to use in speakin8 8ames.

§
§ CettingítrígíetToolsforthejob
For each }earning task, ask students to decide which tools th,ey are goíngto
need, To avoid distraction, askthem to put awaytoals thatwill not be useful.
Foí homework assignments, include a list of lrequired'topls atthe top of
the sheet.

38
M§+ l V*Tt l*§.,5,F E,€]F l,f '.8 E HA!{}.i].U::R§ :. ] ::: . :]

Assessing behaviour
One of the reasons why students maybe less motivated to engage in learning
behaviour is that teachers don't always demand to see it. Consider how
activities that maybe seen as unpleasant, such as exercise or dieting, are far
easier to keep up if we have someone to watch us do them and congratulate
us on our efforts. Yet in class We tend to give most attention to assessing
outputs of learning, rather than to the processes that lead to them. For
example, we frequently set students speaking tasks rather than encourage
them to initiate a conversation, or we may design a listening task rather
than have them attend to language of their ornm accord. In doing so, we
are signalling to students thatsimplyfollowing instructions is the route to
learning and that good learner behaüour has little value. We can strengthen
good learner behaüour by designing classroom activities that aim to assess it.

Try this G Learning behaviour presentation


Ask students to prod uce a video or presentation a bout their lea rni ng ha bits at

home.They might include a clipfrom theirfavourite English TV programme,


discuss their favourite English book, or introd uce a person they speak to i n
English. Cive positive feedback on the learning behaviours they demonstrate.

TrythisG Noticingbingo
Have students choose a docu menta ry to watch, a bout a to pic they've been
studying. As k them to create a list of five la ngu age structu res they have stud ied
recently (e.g. comparative adjectives). Studentsthen watch the documentary
and tick offthe structures when they notice them, writing down the example.
The winner is the one who notices the most. Take the l ists in a nd check that
they've written the structu res accu rately.

TrythisG Freeconversation
Sittwo students opposite each other and give a third a stopwatch. Cive the pairtwo
minutes to start and contin ue a conversation of their choosing, The third student
should stop the watch when the pair are u nable to keep a 'real' conversation going.
Share any pa rticuIarly successful opening gambits thatyou overhear.

There are also opportunities to díaw attention to learning behaüour during


feedback.

§a"rring ít right Feedback


Éocus feed'back, an,*rc tetravia*r, fea.rn ers ar*acoPtirrg.,lfst*dents, perf+rrn,
wi.ll,]Frais*:the,mlóithé aCtions they took, e,g. Áil'flroié núies,hav{rea{}Jt ',"
éxpa*dedyaúrv.oea:balá,6tltf theydo:le*í
-
1];;*ktli€ílrw}]átth€y,cú§ld:do. '
i§]frlpfsvcthe Wafthey,learn.lf]p§§sible,,als.kthefn tüiorreet:mi§ia,ke; usíng
t-he,target,behavi.eu,r,le,g;by.tréoFlt]€,gp,a,mi§spelt:,Wql,djn,ádjctisllarY,,,:

Rewards
Reward systems are a familiar way of strengthenin8 positive learner
behaüour. Some argue that they can undermine intrinsic motivation,
but this depends on how they are perceived. Ifthey are seen as a way of

39
MóTIVÁTtNC sPEcl Flc BEHA1ll0URs

controlling students'behaviour, or as an end in themselves, theymight


reduce intrinsic motivation. However, these perceptions shouldn't develop
if students have a say in organizing the reward system and if they clearly
understand the value of the behaviour being rewarded. In addition, rewards
can proüde reassurance that a learner is going about things in the right way,
a gentle reminder if they're not, and evidence that their efforts are being
appreciated.

Trythis€ Token systems


Use tokens, in the form of points, in k stamps, or gold stars, a nd add them to a
record sheet or cha rt to reward students. with older learners, allow them to set
u p th e token system (a l so known as toke n econ o m i es), d ecid i n g wh at the to ken s

shou ld look like, what they wiIl be awa rded for, at what stage in the lesson the
credits will be given out, and even who wiIl award them.

§
§ Gettíreg §t #gfut Learnel-centred rewaíd§
Civecertain students responsibilityfarawardingcreditfor positíve learning
behavíouts,Train your helpersto be g€nerüu§ in their ínterpretation of target
behaviour atfirst, but astime goes on encourage them to be stricter. Let
them decide how credit points should be traded in too. Forexamp[e, they
might like to trade points_far:time spent playjng Engtish language computer
games atthe end ofthe week,

Association with íeward


As we saw in Chapter 1, pleasurable association is a key aspect of motivation:
learners feel well disposed to activities they associate with enjoyment and
resentful of doing those they don't. However, although token systems may
motivate by offering pleasurable rewards, they don't create a direct link
between learningbehaviour and pleasure. When there is no opportunityto
gain rewards, students may give up this behaviour,
Admittedly, many of the learning behaviours identified in this chapter
aren't especially enjoyable and may stop learners experiencing pleasure.
For example, asking questions creates uncertainty, speaking in English puts
communication at risk, and stopping to look up words or take notes delays
completion. Even the way we describe some learning activities, such as
'testing yourself', can evoke negative associations.
§
§ űetting it rigkt Avoidingtriggerwords
Avo i d sayi n g wcrd s trigger negatíve associatio.ns, e.g. t c ke n ote s,
th at rnay
n e m a úze tb i s il sL' u s e a d i ctio n 6 ry,,Try ta pa ra phrase with wprd s that h ave
a mcre positive fee,l, e.g. let's wút*some ideas dawn, Can yau get ít rigtst
witho ut l aoki nq at 1ta u r notes ? Let'sfi n d a ut what t hat mea n s. .

It is important, therefore, to make the learning behaviour itself pleasurable


so that students will form positive associations with it. The reason for
including the party blower and spy hole in the learning kits activity (see
page 38) is that they may help students to associate learning behaviours with
fun. The principle of linking learning behaviour with positive associations
lies behind a recent idea, known as temptation bundling, put forward by

40
MöTtVATl NG 5PEclFlc BEHÁVtoU R5

the behaüoural economist Katherine Milkman. This idea suggests that


we should do something we like ('temptation') at the same time as doing
things we dislike, 'bundling' good and bad. For example, we could watch our
favourite TV programme while exerting ourselves on the rowing machine. In
this way, we may begin to feel positive towards the 'bundle' as a whole.

Try lhis G Temptation bundles


Have students list their favou rite activities, e.g. listening to music, watching
TV, eating crisps, etc. Next to each one, stude nts write down a good lea rn ing
behaviou that they cou ld en8a8e in at the sa me time, e.g. iste n i ng to m usic :
r l

reading;watching TV: looking up words; eating crisps: making notes. Students


could also create and share selfies or other photos of themselves doingtheir
temptation bundles. Encourage students to vote on theirfavourites.

*ÍC*#ingr'Ér€íu* Musitptayer
Consider allgwing students tü u5e per§§nal music player§ when performing
learning behaviouls independently in class, such a§ note"táking or revising.
Alternatively, play some music on speakers (see e hapter 6 for djscussion on
backgrcund m.usic). This will help create associations with pleasure.

We can also introduce elements of play and competition when learners are
engaged in learning behaviours, such as using dictionaries, by adapting
popular games to further increase associations with pleasure.

TrythisG Running dictionary dictation


Ada pt the popu la r'ru n n ing d ictation' activity nto one for memorizi
i ng word s
a nd defi nitions, Put photocopies ofdictionary pa8e5 either at the front ofthe
c|assroom or on wall outside, and mark severaltarget words and definitions with
a

a highlighter. One student in a pair reads the ta rget words and retu rns to report
them to their partner, who writes them down.The fastest pairto finish writingthe
wordscorrectlyarethewinners.Thepairscanthenswaprolesforasecondround.

Trythis€ Simon says


Agree on a simple instruction and an action for each of the learning habits on
pa1e 3]. For exa m ple: instruction - ask a q uestion; action - ra ise you r ha nd,
Practise by calIi ng out instructions a nd aski ng students to do the correspond i ng
actions. Then tell students they must on ly do the actions if you say 'Simon says'
before ca lling them out. Students who ma ke mista kes m ust leave the ga me. Let
winnerstake overthe role of calling out instructions.

Modelling
The point of the game 'Simon says' is that the leader can often trick us into
performing an action by doing it themselves. This is because our brains have
a mirroring System that encourages uS to copy the behaviour of other people,
whether it's a smile, a 8estuíe, or a dance move.
We can take advantage of this system in a number of ways. Perhaps the
simplest is to use photographs or videos. Many learning behaüours (see
each of the learning habits on page 37) can be illustrated quite easily. For

41
MoTlVATl Nc sPEcl Flc BEHAV|oU Rs

example, we could illustrate asking a question with a picture of raised hands.


By surrounding students with images of good learning behaüours, we
increase the likelihood they'll adopt them.

TrylhisG Positive behaviour screen saveí


Ask the class to choose a positive learn ing behaviou r from the 'Learn ing English
Dos and Don'ts'poster (see page 38) and totake a photograph ofeach other in a
pose that illustrates the behaviour. Alternatively, search for a seIection of images
online forthem to choose from. Make a collage of theirfavourites using one of
the manyfree collage maker websites and use it as a screen saver on the class
computer. Ma ke it availa ble to older students so they ca n use it as a screen saver
or background on their own electronic devices.

§Srrri*gí"É,,"€É€É cool photos


Asking students to selecttheír own photos is preférable because they
gravitate,towards images of young people theythink are cool. This is
impcrtant because the br*in's mirroring systern works most effectively when
we are obselving someone we either like or look upto.

Of course, instead of photos we can also use videos. These give students
more detail about the target behaviour, and watching someone else get
pleasure or improve their self-esteem from doing something can really
encourage them to'have a go'.

Trythis G learning models


Have students search for online video guides to learning behaviours, posted
by young people. Topics might incl ude'how to ta ke notes' or'my book
recommendations'. Alternatively, make some of your students the learning
models. Ask a smaIl grou p to see you after the lesson a nd invite them to become
lea rn ing models for the week, For exa m ple, suggest that one keeps a reader
with them, ortakes great c|ass notes. Keep their role a secret and see if their
behaviour catches on.
VVtrile teachers may not be part of their students' social groups, it is still
important that they model target behaviours. Teachers are normally
positioned at the front of the class in averyvisible position. If theyperform
the behaüours expected from theií students, it can encourage students to
mirror them and remind those with limited attention capacity of what they
should be doing. If nothing else, it will show that teachers are not asking
students to do something theywouldn'twant to do themselves.

§C*Xuug;erl,ryXe §ettínganexample
Try oecasionallyto act likt a learneryou.rself Pretendthat some knowledge
is newtoyou and dcthíngsyoufiexpect.studentstodo, such as looking
up words or asking questionstoyoul,seliYou coufd also share information
about }earníng behaviouryou engage in ouisideihe class, te}ling students
aboutthingsyou read or lesson vocabularythatyou heard being used,for
example.

42
Another advantage of teachers acting as learners themselves (or sharing
online video guides to learning behaviours) is that they can show students
how toperform learningbehaüour. Learners have to be able to visualize the
steps involved in a task before they can motivate themselves to do it. This
is particularly important for habits of thought, such as question formation,
whichteachersmaYneglecttodemon"'u'"'
.. ,, ,, :::.::].,:: :::_].:, ,,: --:,.

§setting ít ríg§et Asking questions


T.rytoelicitque:Jionsabolttlangu ge.,initeadcfa,slelngt!9m,Farex*$19,1 ;. ,,;,
write on the b,oard twg sentences that r,evea|the dlfférenee,bétW€e.nftiú+ ,,, ,,,,,

words or structure§ and:suidie,s*tldentltowar*s,a,ieá+ninglquÉ:tió_p_..,


T§e titrettcwer is a tall b'uilding- ,
, -,.

-Everestisaver!hígh66untain,' 1 1, 1,
These sentences cauld elicítthe }earning ques*ion,l1l#fi61]5{figld.]Fl€ner:::]::: :: .,]
,between!tall|*nd,hig1l'?
, :
'' , ,, .'''.,.
,.

It's worth noting that a habit, by definition, is something that demands no


motivation at all.If teachers can stimulate good learning behaviour regularly
enough in class for it to become a habit, they may reduce the chance of
motivation becoming an issue. This is a huge 'if', but shifting the teaching
focus from language to behaviour would be a step in this direction,

Whythisrxorkr Changing behaviour


When we discuss changing behaviour, we often draw on the ideas of
behaviourism. Ea rly behaviou rists thought that the behaviou r we enga8e
in is the result of associations with pleasure or displeasure developed from
experience. Cha ngi n g lea rn i ng behaviou r therefore req u i red the teacher to
play a dominant role in class, giving out rewards and strict punishments.
Many now believe the ideas of behaviourism have limited use in education.
Cognitive psychologists a rgue that we cha nge behaviour by eva luating
ou r activities in response to feedback a nd decidi ng whether it helps us
achieve our goals. Underthis model,theteacher's role is primarilyto
provide opportunities for assessment and feedback. Howevel the emphasis
behaviourists placed on the qualityof experiences and the development
of habits should not be overlooked. Ratherthan simply handing out study
skills worksheets from time to time, teachers need to ma ke the proced u res
for learn ing centra l to lessons so that they ca n be seen as rewa rding a nd
familiar.The methods associated with behaviourism may have become
outdated, but its emphasis on behaviour hasn't,

43

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen