UNIT C CHAP 16 CELL DIVISION, GENETICS, AND MOLECULAR GENETICS

CELL CYCLE MINI QUIZ STUDY NOTES

What are chromosomes?

- Genome – all the genes in a human, 2 copies, diploid in humans
- Chromosome – information, condensed chromatin (DNA)
- Gene – recipe on how to make a protein
- Base pairs – TA, CG (nitrogen bases)

Karyotyping
- Karyotype is a particular set of chromosomes an individual has
o Number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in a cell’s nucleus
- Cells arrested in metaphase (second phase in mitosis)
- Condensed chromosomes arranged in pairs on a screen
- Testing for certain congenital disorders such as Down Syndrome

- Extraction of chromosomes usually from blood, amniotic fluid, or tissues

- Cells are stained with dye and each chromosomes are different colours
- Chromosomes are placed on petri dish and then photographed, arranged in biggest to
smallest
- Most cells in body have identical chromosomal pairs
- Karyotyping usually done on white blood cells, lymphocytes

Cell cycle:
- Interphase = G1, S, G2
o Normal metabolic activities, duplication of organelles, DNA synthesis,
preparation for division in mitosis
- G1
o cell grows quickly, DNA is synthesized in G1
- Synthesis
o DNA in chromatin replicates to give second identical set of DNA, replicated
chromosome
 chromosome -> sister-chromatids
- G2
o Replication of DNA complete
o Energy reserves rebuilt
o Protein and other molecules manufactured
o Centrioles replicate and enzymes synthesized

Chromosome and Cell Division

- Mitosis
o Division of genetic material into 2 complete separate sets
- Cytokinesis
 o Division of cytoplasm and organelles into separate cells
- 2 daughter cells product

Cell division: necessary events

- Genetic information of parent cell must be replicated
- Replicated chromatin must then be condensed and organized as chromosomes
- One complete set of chromosomes must be divided into each of the two new nuclei
- Cell cytoplasm must divide to produce 2 complete daughter cells

Mitosis
- PMAT

Time for a phase:

- (number of cells in phase)/(total number of cells) x 1440 minutes

Interphase
- Genetic material in form of chromatin
- Sister chromatids

Prophase
- Chromosomes condense to look like X
- Centrioles move to opposite poles
- Spindle fibres attach to centromeres
- Nucleolus disintegrates

Metaphase
- Microtubules fight over centromere
- Chromosomes line up on imaginary metaphase plate

Anaphase
- Centromeres divide -> sister chromatids separate to opposite poles of cell
- Spindle fibres shorten
- Sister chromatids -> daughter chromosomes
- Each end of cell now has full set of chromosomes 46

Telophase
- Chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin
- Spindle fibres dissolve
- Nuclear envelope reforms

Cytokinesis
- Cytoplasm divides
- Animal cells -> cleavage
- Plant cells -> cell plate
Control of the cell cycle
- Regulatory signals: start and stop
- External factors influence
o Hormones
o Nutrients
o Contact with other cells

Checkpoints
- G1 to S
o Are your DNA suitable for replication (are they intact)
o P53 protein gene -> inhibits progression of cell cycle into S phase
o G0 -> phase where most cells are repaired or destroyed
- G2 to M
o Are your DNA properly and accurately replicated
- Metaphase to Anaphase
o Are all of your chromosomes aligned at the metaphase plate

Control of cell cycle

- Checkpoints involve enzymes (kinases and cyclins) to make them work

Other factors:
- Nutrients are necessary for division
- Growth factors (anchorage dependence)
- Crowded cells stop dividing (density dependent inhibition) to prevent cancer

Cell death and aging process

- Fixed number of divisions in lifetime
- Regulated by biological clock

Telomere
- Region of repetitive nucleotide sequences, protecting the end of each chromosome
from deterioration or from fusion with neighbouring chromosomes
o Gets shorter as organism ages

Abnormal cell division: Cancer

- Due to faulty genes or DNA mutations (damage or lack of p53 gene)
- P53 gene -> p53 protein -> DNA checking -> halts cell division
o Tumor suppressor gene

Cancer
- Carcinogens
- Tumor -> multiplication of cells
o Angiogenesis
 - No time for specialization, grows at accelerated rate
- Cancer cells do not have anchorage dependence
- Metastasis -> ability to spread to other areas
- Benign vs. malignant

Make notes on cloning and twins

Meiosis Basics
- Human sex cells have 23 chromosomes (haploid, n)
- Human body cells have 46 chromosomes (diploid, 2n)
- Egg and sperm (n + n = 2n) zygote
- Natural selection

Stages of Meiosis
- 2 rounds of PMAT
- Meiosis 1 -> replicated homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell
(separate homologous chromosomes, reduce the ploidy by half)
- Now have 2 haploid cells (each with 23 chromosomes that each are made of 2 sister
chromatids)
- Meiosis 2 -> separate sister chromatids -> becomes up to 4 daughter cells each with 23
daughter chromosomes -> cells are now haploid and remain haploid

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION AND GAMETOGENESIS MINI QUIZ STUDY NOTES

Spermatogenesis:
- Before birth
- Germ cells that divide into stem cells that divide mitotically to make spermatogonia
o Divides to generate primary spermatocyte and a cell that regenerates
spermatogonia
- At puberty, meiosis begins with one primary spermatocyte
- Produces 4 spermatids
- 46 to 23 (2n -> n)
- Primary spermatocyte is 2n, secondary spermatocyte is just n
- Meiosis I occurs with primary spermatocyte
- Meiosis II occurs with secondary spermatocyte

Spermatogenesis:
- Stem cells near edge of seminiferous tubule -> move inward to lumen -> epididymis

Oogenesis:
- Begins in female embryo -> production of oogonia
- Oogonia divides mitotically to produce primary oocytes -> begin meiosis I (stops in
prophase 1, 1-1) until puberty
- Two total polar bodies from meiosis II and fertilization
 - Every month after puberty -> 1 primary oocyte completes meiosis I -> stops in meiosis II
(2-2)
- Asymmetrical cytokinesis leads to 1 secondary oocyte and 1 polar body
- Another asymmetrical cytokinesis after meiosis II
- Secondary oocyte released from ovary into oviduct, is stuck in metaphase II until
fertilization

Differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis:

- Oogenesis involves asymmetrical cytokinesis
- Regeneration of spermatogonium
- Timing

Types of reproduction:

Asexual:
- Mitosis is key mechanism in genetically identical offspring

Sexual:
- Production of gametes via meiosis, there is fertilization between genetically distinct
parental gametes to produce genetically distinct offspring

Bacteria:
- Sometimes reproduce through binary fission -> DNA is replicated and each copy
distributed to each daughter cell
- Septum acting as a cleavage point
- Some bacteria able to reproduce (sexual) by a process called conjugation
o Sex pilus transfers genetic info to recipient cell and creates cells with new
genetic combinations -> genetically unique daughter cell that now undergo
binary fission to produce a new colony

Other reproductive strategies:

- Budding:
o Complete but miniature version of parent grows out from parent’s body
- Vegetative reproduction:
o Plants spread out from original organism by extending stems
- Fragmentation:
o Creation of a new plant from a fragment of a parent plant
- Parthenogenesis:
o Unfertilized egg develops into adult
 E.g. queen bees lay both unfertilized and fertilized eggs that develop into
worker drones and female worker bees respectively

Spores:
 - Spore is a structure that contains genetic material and cytoplasm surrounded by a
protective sheath or wall
- Wall protects contents until conditions are right which then will open and the organism
begins to develop
- Spores may be haploid or diploid
o Some organisms produce spores by meiosis; alteration of generations

Alteration of Generations:
- Sporophyte (2n) become spores via meiosis -> develops in gametophyte (n) via mitosis
-> which produces gametes via mitosis -> the gametes then fuse during fertilization and
form the sporophyte zygote (2n) via mitosis
o Sexual reproduction

Fern life cycle

- Haploid spores produced via meiosis grow into gametophyte via mitosis
- Gametes are produced via mitosis
- Fertilization with another gamete -> zygote -> mitosis -> sporophyte
 - The sporophyte is the dominant generation because it is visible

Moss life cycle:

- Same as the fern cycle but the gametophyte is the dominant generation

Conifers:
- The tree is the diploid sporophyte (2n)
 - The haploid gametophytes are microscopic structures within the male and female cones
of the tree
- The larger female cone produces single celled female gametophyte from a spore,
remains inside the spore producing structure
- The male cone produces the male gametophyte, released in pollen cast and dispersed
by the wind
- Fertilization occurs when pollen reaches female cone sperm
- the fertilized zygote forms a seed that is attached to the scale of the female cone
- sporophyte generation is dominant in conifers

Mosses and other nonvascular Ferns and other Seed plants

plants seedless vascular (gymnosperms and
plants angiosperms)
Gametophyte Dominant Reduced Reduced
Sporophyte Reduced Dominant Dominant
e.g. mosses (2n heads and n e.g. ferns (2nd leaves e.g. gymnosperms
furry stalks) and n (n microscopic
gametophytes female and male
under soil) gametophytes in
cones, sporophyte
stalks)

e.g. angiosperms (n
microscopic female
and male
gametophytes in
flower parts, 2n
sporophyte stalks)

Alternation in Sexual cycles

- some animal alternate between asexually reproducing and sexually reproducing phases
- phylum Cnidaria (e.g. jellyfish, sea anemones, corals)
- the life cycle is characterized by 2 distinct adult forms:
o non-motile polyp
o free-swimming medusa

Advantages of sexual reproduction

- genetic variation
- may lead to less adapted individuals if daughter organism is less suited to environment
- adaption mechanism
- less competition between genetically unique siblings
- pairing of chromosomes allow for chromosomal repair

Advantages of asexual reproduction

- quicker
- no second organism needed
- less energy required