(“In The Name Of Allah,

The Most Beneficent

The Most Merciful”)
STUDY REPORT OF DC SERVO MOTOR

A REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Technology

In

Electrical Technology

BY
Muhammad Adeel (19E2-113010)

Department of Electrical Technology

Preston University Faisalabad

2013-2014

\
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify Th at this Report entitled STUDY REPORT OF DC

servo motor. submitted by Muhammad Adeel Sarwar in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of
Technology degree in Electrical Technology at Preston University
Faisalabad is an authentic work carried out by him under my supervision
and guidance. To the best of my knowledge the matter embodied in the
report not been submitted to any other University/Institute for the
award of any degree or diploma.

PENNEL OF EXAMINERS
Assigned by:
____________________________
Internal Examiner:
____________________________
External Examiner:
_________________________

ABSTR

ABSTRACT

The DC servo motor has applications in automotive market in

applications ranging from heating and ventilation to power

mirror positioning. It is also in use in Industrial and Consumer

Markets for entertainment equipment, HVAC ventilation control

and myriad number of other applications. In all these applications,

either speed or position control of the DC servo motor is used.

In this Report, we have achieved DC servo motor using For a more

efficient speed control, closed loop control system of the servo

motor.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude and

sincere thanks to our respected Prof. Eng Toseef Abid for his

guidance, insight, and support he has provided throughout the course

of this work. We would like to thank all faculty members and

staff of the Department of Electrical Technology, Preston University

Faisalabad for their help throughout the course. We would specially

like to thank to my parents for their time and help with our project.
 Muhammad Adeel (19E2-113010)

Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction Of Servo Motor
1) The Servo System……………………………………8
2) Servo Mechanism……………………………………9
3) Servo Motor…………………………………….........14
4) Dc Servo Motor Model…………………………........17
5) Analysis of Armature Circuit…………………..........18
6) Mechanical Model of Motor…………………………19
7) Electrical Time Constant of a DC Servomotor……..21
8) Mechanical Time Constant of a DC Servomotor…...22
9) Control Aspects Of Servo Motor…………………….23
10) Applications…………………………………………...24
11) Local Speed Control Of DC Servo Motor…………...25
12) Running The Motor In Open Loop………………….26
13) Model Estimation…………………………...................33
14) Comparison Of The Open Loop Response Of The
Transfer Function And That Of The Motor………………43
15) Servo Motor Information…………………..................45
16) X-ray View Standard Servo Motor………...................46
17) SERVO RATINGS……………………………………47
18) SERVO SPEED……………………………………….48
19) SERVO TORQUE (Power)…………………………...48
20) SERVO POWER (4.5- 6.0 VDC)…………...................50
21) Servo Wire Code……………………………………….52
22) Servo Centering…………………………………...........53
23) How to Determine the Center Position……………….55
Automated Servo Center Position
24) Manual Servo Center Position - Steps……………….56
25) DC Servo Motor Performance Selection Guide……..58

26) Controlling The Servo Motor………………………...59

27) Suggestion to reduce noise in signals………………...59
28) Sample code for Servo and Motor control…………..60
29) Driver explanation……………………………………62
Chapter 2. Types of Servo Motor

31) Series motors…………………………………………70

32) Split series motors……………………………………71
33) Shunt control motor…………………………………72
34) Permanent magnet shunt motor……………………73
Chapter 3. Aplication of Servo Motor

35) Arc Welding Robot Automation Systems…………..74

Chapter 4 Conclusion

……………………………………………………………..95
REFERENCES…………………………………………….
The Servo System
A closed-loop control system is another name for a servo system. To

be classified as a servo, a control system must be capable of the

following:

1. Accepting an order that defines the desired result.

2. Determining the present conditions by some method of

feedback.
3. Comparing the desired result with the present conditions and

obtaining a difference or an error signal.

4. Issuing a correcting order (the error signal) that will

properly change the existing conditions to the desired result

5. Obeying the correcting order.
Servo Mechanism

A powered mechanism producing motion or forces at a higher level

of energy than the input level, e.g. in the brakes and steering of

large motor vehicles, especially where feedback is employed to make

the control automatic. servomechanism, automatic device used to

correct the performance of a mechanism by means of an error-

sensing feedback. The term servomechanism properly applies only

to systems in which the feedback and error-correction signals

control mechanical position or one of its derivatives such as velocity

or acceleration. Servomechanisms were first used in gunlaying

(aiming) and in fire-control and marine-navigation equipment.

Today, applications of servomechanisms include their use in

automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking antennas, celestial-

tracking systems on telescopes, automatic navigation systems, and

antiaircraft-gun control systems. In many applications,

servomechanisms allow high-powered devices to be controlled by

signals from devices of much lower power. The operation of the

high-powered device results from a signal (called the error, or

difference, signal) generated from a comparison of the desired

position of the high-powered device with its actual position. The

ratio between the power of the control signal and that of the device

controlled can be on the order of billions to one. All

servomechanisms have at least these basic components: a controlled

device, a command device, an error detector, an error-signal

amplifier, and a device to perform any necessary error corrections

(the servomotor). In the controlled device, that which is being

regulated is usually position. This device must, therefore, have some

means of generating a signal (such as a voltage), called the feedback

signal, that represents its current position. This signal is sent to an

error-detecting device. The command device receives information,

usually from outside the system, that represents the desired position

of the controlled device. This information is converted to a form

usable by the system (such as a voltage) and is fed to the same error

detector as is the signal from the controlled device. The error

detector compares the feedback signal (representing actual position)

with the command signal (representing desired position). Any

discrepancy results in an error signal that represents the correction

necessary to bring the controlled device to its desired position. The

error-correction signal is sent to an amplifier, and the amplified

voltage is used to drive the servomotor, which repositions the

controlled device. A typical system using a servomechanism is the

communications-satellite–tracking antenna of a satellite Earth

station. The objective is to keep the antenna aimed directly at the

communications satellite in order to receive and transmit the

strongest possible signal. One method used to accomplish this is to

compare the signals from the satellite as received by two or more

closely positioned receiving elements on the antenna. Any difference

in the strengths of the signals received by these elements results in a

correction signal being sent to the antenna servomotor. This

continuous feedback method allows a terrestrial antenna to be

aimed at a satellite 37,007 km (23,000 miles) above the Earth to an

accuracy measured in hundredths of a centimetre.

Fig 1.1
 FIG 1.2

Uses

Position control

A common type of servo provides position control. Servos are

commonly electrical or partially electronic in nature, using an

electric motor as the primary means of creating mechanical force.

Other types of servos use hydraulics, pneumatics, or magnetic

principles. Servos operate on the principle of negative feedback,

where the control input is compared to the actual position of the

mechanical system as measured by some sort of transducer at the

output. Any difference between the actual and wanted values (an

"error signal") is amplified (and converted) and used to drive the

system in the direction necessary to reduce or eliminate the error.

This procedure is one widely used application of control theory.

Speed control

Speed control via a governor is another type of servomechanism.

The steam engine uses mechanical governors; another early

application was to govern the speed of water wheels. Prior to World

War II the constant speed propeller was developed to control engine

speed for maneuvering aircraft. Fuel controls for gas turbine

engines employ either hydromechanical or electronic governing

Other

Positioning servomechanisms were first used in military fire-control

and marine navigation equipment. Today servomechanisms are
used in automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking antennas, remote
control airplanes, automatic navigation systems on boats and
planes, and antiaircraft-gun control systems. Other examples are
fly-by-wire systems in aircraft which use servos to actuate the
aircraft's control surfaces, and radio-controlled models which use
RC servos for the same purpose. Many autofocus cameras also use a
servomechanism to accurately move the lens, and thus adjust the
focus. A modern hard disk drive has a magnetic servo system with
sub-micrometre positioning accuracy. In industrial machines, servos
are used to perform complex motion, in many applications
Servo Motor

A servo motor is an electric motor with a built in rotation sensor,

they are needed for robotics. Say a robot moves its arm by turning a

servo motor, the motor would send information concerning the

degree of rotation on its axis back to the robot so the robot can keep

tabs on the position of its arm, so if something bumps its arm it will

know it and so-on.

Electric motors are the commonly used actuator in electromagnetic

systems of all types. They are made in a variety of configurations

and sizes for applications ranging from activating precision

movements to powering diesel-electric locomotives. The laboratory

motors are small servomotors, which might be used for positioning

and speed control applications in a variety of automated machines.

They are DC (direct current) motors. The armature is driven by an

external DC voltage that produces the motor torque and results in

the motor speed. The armature current produced by the applied

voltage interacts with the permanent magnet field to produce

current and motion. - (Modeling of DC Servo Motor)

The servo DC motor is basically a transducer that converts electric

energy into mechanical energy. The torque developed on the motor

shaft is directly proportional to the field flux and the armature

current. The dc servo motor servo motors are very expensive in

comparison to ac servo motors because of brushes and commutators

.These motors have relatively low torque to volume and torque to

inertia ratio, however the characteristics of dc motors are quite

linear and are easy to control.

With the development of rare earth magnet dc motors which have

high torque to volume ratio at reasonable cost. Advancement in

technology has also lead to brushless dc motors. quite popular in

high performance control system the sketch of the basic components

of dc motor is given in fig below. The non-turning part called stator

and has magnet which establishes a field across the rotor the

turning part. The magnet may be electromagnet or permanent one.

In electromagnet motor the stator has wire wound across and

current through winding called field winding. For a constant field

current if, the magnetic flux is constant; the flux can be varied by

varying the field current.

FIG 1.3
 FIG 1.4

FIG 1.5

DC Servomotor Model

FIG 1.6

Figure 1 depicts a generic model of a DC motor that includes two

windings; a stationary field winding on the stator and a second

winding for the rotating armature. This type of motor can

be controlled by varying either the field current or the armature

current. Most modern servomotors are somewhat different in

construction. The field winding is replaced with two or more

powerful rare‐earth magnets on the stator. Since the field strength

of these motors is constant, they can only be controlled by varying

the armature current In a permanent magnet motor the output

torque, , is directly proportional to the armature current,. The

constant of proportionality is referred to as the torque constant of

the motor and is represented by . The transfer function relating

motor torque to armature current can be expressed as follows:

Analysis of Armature Circuit

The armature current, can be expressed in terms of the applied

motor voltage ,by applying Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) to the

armature circuit in Figure . As with most windings, the impedance

of the armature can be represented by a resistive component, , in

series with an inductive component, The voltage, represents the

back Electromotive Force (back EMF). Most permanent magnet

DC motors can also operate generators. In other words, if the motor

shaft is rotating, a voltmeter connected across the motor terminals

will indicate a voltage that is proportional to the angular velocity of

the motor shaft, . This “generator phenomenon” occurs even when

the motor is operating in the normal manner (i.e., as a motor).

According to Lenz's law, the polarity of the induced back EMF

voltage, is such that it always opposes the applied voltage, The net

result is that a DC motor with no load (and in the absence of

friction) will reach a maximum steady‐state angular velocity

corresponding to the operating point where the induced voltage,

completely offsets the applied voltage,The back EMF voltage, can

be expressed as a function of the angular velocity of the motor The

back EMF constant, 􀜭􀜭, is often numerically identical to the torque

constant of the motor, (at least in the SI system of units). This is not

surprising since both terms are related to the geometry of the motor,

the field strength, and the length of wire moving through the

magnetic field. All three terms are constant in a permanent magnet

DC motor. An expression relating the armature current, to the

applied motor voltage, and the angular velocity of the motor

Mechanical Model of Motor

In order to complete the transfer function of the motor, a means

of relating torque to angular velocity must be found. This can be

accomplished by considering the mechanical model of the motor.

The torque generated by the motor accelerates the armature of the

motor as well as any additional load inertia on the motor shaft.

Some of the torque also goes towards overcoming friction. In order

to maintain a linear system model, only the viscous motor friction

will be considered for the time being. For a mechanical system

undergoing pure rotational motion, Newton’s second law states that

the sum of the applied torques is equal to the product of the mass

moment of inertia, and the angular acceleration of the body, In the

case of the DC servomotor, is equal to the sum of the mass moment

of inertia of the motor armature, and the load. The net torque

generated by the motor is equal to the motor torque, minus the

rotational viscous friction. The rotational viscous friction associated

with the motor is proportional to the motor angular velocity, where

is the motor viscous damping coefficient. Replacing the angular

acceleration of the motor with the rate‐of‐change of angular

velocity yields Assuming zero initial conditions.

Electrical Time Constant of a DC Servomotor

The electrical time constant of a DC motor, is an indication of how

long it takes for the current to develop in the armature winding for

a step change in the applied voltage. represents the steady‐state

gain and the time constant. The transfer function representing the

armature current The steady‐state gain is simply the reciprocal of

the armature resistance, This resistance determines the maximum

possible current through the armature. In the case of the motor

used in the laboratory (Pittman 9232S003), the armature resistance,

is provided by the manufacturer in the datasheet as 7.38Ω and the

armature inductance, as 4.64 mH. This yields an electrical time

constant, of 0.63 ms; a value which is also confirmed in the

datasheet. Since the maximum recommended motor voltage is 24V,

the armature current is limited by the armature resistance to a

maximum of 3.25A. The maximum motor power dissipation is

therefore 78W although this power level cannot be tolerated

indefinitely.

Mechanical Time Constant of a DC Servomotor

As demonstrated above, a DC servomotor can be modeled as a

second‐order transfer function. If the electrical time constant of the

motor is very small, it can be neglected and the motor can

be modeled as a first‐order transfer. Neglecting the electrical time

constant implies setting the motor inductance, to zero which yields

In the case of the motor used in the laboratory (Pittman 9232S003)

the various parameters are listed in the data sheet. They can be

summarized as follows:

 the armature resistance=7.38Ω

 the mass moment of inertia of the motor armature= 1.9× 10 -6

kg m2
 the motor viscous damping coefficient=1.8 × 10-6 N · m · s
 the back EMF constant=3.11× 10-2V/rad/s
 the torque constant of the motor=3.11×10-2N · m/A
 The mechanical time constant is listed in the motor datasheet as

14.4 ms. Given that the electrical time constant is 22.6 times smaller

than the mechanical time constant, it can be

Neglected in many applications and the motor can be effectively

modeled as a first‐order system. The no‐load response to a 24V step

input for both the second‐order motor model (top) and first order

motor model (bottom) are shown below for the motor used in the

lab.

FIG1.7

Control Aspects Of Servo Motor

An open-loop system has no feedback from the system being

controlled. This is sort of shoot and forget approach to control. An

input signal or value is provided and the controller commands the

system to go to a definite speed, whatever, and hopes that the system

responds accordingly. There is no information from the system

under control to show that it even got the command or acted upon

it. In a closed-loop control system there is feedback. If speed is being

controlled, a small amount of the current speed is provided back to

the controller, allowing it to adjust its commands as the system

responds to the commands. Likewise true with position.

The performance of a closed-loop system is partially a function of

the speed at which the feedback is returned to the controller. This

closing of the loop will always take a set amount of time, and the

longer that time is the less responsive the controller will be to fast

changing conditions. Depending on the performance requirements

of the application, either a closed-loop or open-loop control system

can be used to control motor position, speed, or other similar

application.- (Servo Motor Control)

Applications
In Automotive Market:

1. Power mirror positioning.

2. Power seats positioning motors.

3. Power door and trunk lock mechanisms.

4. Windshield wiper motors.

5. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) vent controls.

6. Power sliding door, sunroof, and convertible top actuators.

7. Headlight positioning and leveling actuators.

In Industrial and Consumer Markets:

1. Proportioning valves for gasses and liquids.

2. Paper and materials handling equipment.

3. HVAC ventilation control.

4. Entertainment equipment (powered, remotely controlled volume

controls for audio receivers and mixers)

Local Speed Control Of DC Servo Motor

For the local speed control of DC servo motor, the following steps
have been followed:
1. Running the motor in open loop
2. Model estimation
3. Comparison of the open loop response of the transfer function
and that of the motor
4. Designing the PID controller for the estimated model
5. Real-time execution of the system in closed loop, and comparison
of the open-loop and closed-loop responses
These steps have been explained in detail, in the following sub-
sections:
Running The Motor In Open Loop
When a system operates in the open loop configuration, the desired
input is fed into the system, using only the current state and the
model of the system. The system does not need a feedback from the
output, as it does not observe the output of the process that it
controls. As a result, an open loop system cannot engage in machine
learning. It can neither compensate for disturbances in the system,
nor engage in error-correction.
Open loop configuration is suited for systems where the relationship
between the input and the resultant state can be modeled by a
mathematical formula, and the load is predefined and fixed. For
example, for a motor driving a constant load, the desired speed can
be easily obtained in open loop by appropriately changing the input
voltage. But, if the load were unpredictable, the motor-speed would
be a function of the input voltage as well as the load. In such a case,
open loop control would not give satisfactory results.
Thus, an open loop system is used because of its advantages of
simplicity and low cost, where the use of feedback is not critical. The
Simulink model for running the motor in open loop is shown below:
FIG1.8
Blocks Used:

1. Signal Generator
2. Analog IP/OP
3. Scope

Analog Input Block

Select and connect analog input channels

Library

Real-Time Windows Target

Description
The Analog Input block allows us to select and connect specific

analog input channels to our Simulink model. After we add an

Analog Input block to your model, we can enter the parameters for
its I/O driver. The following procedure is used to configure

Advantech 1716 PCI card:

 Double-click the Analog Input block. The Block Parameters:

Analog Input dialog box opens

FIG1.9

 In the Sample time box, enter the same value you entered in

the Fixed step size box from the Configuration Parameters

dialog box, or an integer multiple of that value.

 In the Input channels box, enter a channel vector that selects

the analog input channels you are using on this board. The

vector can be any valid MATLAB® vector form. To select all

 sixteen analog input channels on the Advantech 1716 board,

enter [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16] or [1:16]

 If you want to use the first three analog input channels, enter

1,2,3
 From the Input range list, choose the input range for all of the

analog input channels you entered in the Input channels box.

The Advantech 1716 board has input range of 15V to -15V. If

you want the input range to be different for different analog

channels, you need to add an I/O block for each different input

range.
 From the Block output signal list, choose from the following
options:

 Volts — Returns a value equal to the analog voltage.

 Normalized bipolar — Returns a full range value of -1 to +1

regardless of the input voltage range.

 Normalized unipolar — Returns a full range value of 0 to +1

regardless of the input voltage range. For example, an analog

input range of 0 to +5 volts and -5 to +5 volts would both be

converted to 0 to +1.
 Raw — Returns a value of 0 to 2n -1. For example, a 12-bit

A/D converter would return values of 0 to 212 -1 (0 to 4095).

 The advantage of this method is the returned value is always

an integer with no round-off errors.

 Set Output data type to specify the type of data that the block

will output to the model.

 Click OK or Apply. –

Analog Output

Select and connect analog output channels

Library
Real-Time Windows Target

Description

The Analog Output block allows us to select and connect specific

analog output channels to our Simulink model. After we add an

Analog Output block to our model, we can enter the parameters for

its I/O driver. The following procedure is used to configure

Advantech 1716 PCI card:

1. Double-click the Analog Output block. The Block Parameters:

Analog Output dialog box opens:

 FIG 1.10 Analog Input Block Parameters Dialog Box

2. In the Sample time box, enter the same value you entered in the

Fixed step size box from the Configuration Parameters dialog box,

or an integer multiple of that value.

3. In the Output channels box, enter a channel vector that selects

the analog output channels you are using on this board. The vector

can be any valid MATLAB vector form. To select both analog

output channels on the Advantech 1716 board, enter [1,2] or [1:2]

4. From the Output range list, choose the input range for all of the

analog input channels you entered in the Input channels box. The

Advantech 1716 board has input range of 15V to -15V. If you want

the input range to be different for

different analog channels, you need to add an I/O block for each

different input range.

5. From the Block input signal list, choose from the following

options: Same as the Analog IP Block discussed earlier.

6. Enter the initial value for each analog output channel you entered

in the Output channels box. For example, if you entered [1,2] in the

Output channels box, and you want an initial value of 0 volts, enter

[0,0].

7. Enter a final value for each analog channel you entered in the

Output channels box. For example, if you entered [1,2] in the

Output channels box, and you want final values of 0 volts, enter

[0,0].

8. Click OK or Apply.
FIG . 1.11 Open loop response of the motor

Model Estimation

For the purpose of any form of analysis on a plant, be it designing a

controller for it, or studying its response, a convenient way is

modeling the plant. In the given case, from the open loop response

of the motor, it is seen that the output of the motor in open loop,

does not track the input. So, the motor needs to be run in closed

loop configuration. To design the controller for closed loop

operation, first, modeling of the plant has been done, as explained in

detail, in the following sub-sections. Transfer function modeling of

the plant is one of the methods. A transfer function (also known as

the system function or network function) is a mathematical

representation, in terms of spatial or temporal frequency, of the

relation between the input and output of a linear time-invariant

system. The transfer function that relates the input voltage and the

speed of the DC servo motor is a second order one, as already

proved in section 1. This transfer function can be estimated in

MATLAB using the following procedure:

The System Identification Toolbox comes in handy for this purpose.

The whole progress of the transfer function identification is

represented by a system identification tool session.

Step-1: Importing relevant data from the model to MATLAB

workspace:

To Workspace‖ blocks are used in the Simulink model of the plant,

for importing the following to MATLAB workspace:

a) The voltage input from the signal generator and

b) The speed output from the taco-generator of the plant (which is

obtained at the Analog Input block of the model)

FIG1.12 Simulink Model to get the system response.

The analog input and output blocks are set with values as shown

previously.

The model is then run, to import the voltage input and speed output

to the workspace.

Step-2: Starting a new session in the System Identification Tool

GUI, or opening a saved session: A new session can be started by

either typing ―ident‖ in the MATLAB command window, or by

selecting Start -> Toolboxes -> System Identification -> System

Identification Toolbox GUI in the MATLAB Desktop:

Fig 1.13: System Identification Tool

Fig 1.14: System Identification Tool Dialog Box

The data board contains rectangular icons which show the data

imported into the GUI. The model board contains icons which

represent the models estimated or imported into the GUI. Model

icons can be dragged and dropped in the model board into open

dialog boxes. The current session may be closed by selecting File ->

Close Session. This prompts to save the current session, if it has not

already been saved.

Step-3: In the ―Import Data‖ dropdown menu, select ―Time

domain data‖. The following window opens, where the name of the

input and output To Workspace blocks have been entered. Also,

depending on the starting time of the data in the data acquiesced,

the starting time is entered; and depending on the sampling time set

in the model of the plant, the sampling interval is entered.

Fig 1.15: Import Data Dialog Box

Step-4:

Click on ―Import‖. The following window opens, where the input

and output data from the model, have been imported into the data

board by the name of ―mydata‖:

FIG 1.16 System Identification Tool Dialog Box

Step-5:

In the Estimate drop-down menu, click on Process Models. The

following window opens, where the model has been chosen to have 1

zero and 2 poles, but no delay and integrator:

Fig 1.17 Process Models Dialog Box

The transfer function of the model, in abstract form, is also given in

the window on the top left corner.

Step-6:

Click on Estimate. The following window opens.

Fig 1.18 System Identification Tool Dialog Box
Step-7:
As shown in the above window, check Model Output. The

following estimate of the plant, is obtained in a new window

Fig 1.19: Model Output

Dialog Box
With the chosen configuration of 1 zero and 2 poles, and no delay or

integrator, as shown above, a best fit of 97.68% is obtained. This is a

satisfactory estimation. If the fit had been less than satisfactory,

then changing of the configurations would have been required.

Once, a satisfactory fit is obtained, the next and final step is

followed

Step-8:

The model which gives the most satisfactory fit, is dragged and

dropped from the model board into the To Workspace area. This

moves the values of Kp, Tz, Tp1 and Tp2 to the workspace, from

which, the corresponding transfer function is estimated.

For the fit of 97.68% shown above, the transfer function parameters

are:

Kp = 0.74153

Tp1 = 0.30208

Tp2 = 0.0012424

Tz = 0.039167
And the corresponding transfer function is:

0.02904 s + 0.7415

----------------------------

0.0003753 s^2 + 0.3033 s + 1

Comparison Of The Open Loop

Response Of The Transfer Function

And That Of The Motor

The Simulink block diagram for comparison of open-loop response

of the transfer function and that of the motor is shown on the next

page.
FIG 1.20: Simulink model for comparison of open-loop response of the transfer

function and that of the motor

The analog input and output blocks are se with values as shown

previously. And the transfer function block Is set with the transfer

function obtained in the previous sub-section.

Fig 1.21 Transfer function output

Fig 1.22: Plant output

From these results, it is seen that the transfer function‘s open loop

response is more or less, same as the open loop response of the

motor. But, neither open loop response successfully tracks the input

(or the reference) which is set as a square wave varying between -10

volts and +10 volts. This indicates the necessity of a closed loop

control system for the motor, so that the transfer function (and the

plant) output successfully tracks the reference. This is achieved with

the help of a PID controller, which has been described in the next

sub-section.

Servo Motor Information

A servo is a mechanical motorized device that can be instructed to

move the output shaft attached to a servo wheel or arm to a

specified position. Inside the servo box is a DC motor mechanically

linked to a position feedback potentiometer, gearbox, electronic

feedback control loop circuitry and motor drive electronic circuit

FIG 1.23

FIG 1.24

X-ray View Standard Servo Motor

A typical R/C servo looks like a plastic rectangular box with a

rotary shaft coming up and out the top of the box and three
electrical wires out of the servo side to a plastic 3 pin connector.
Attached to the output shaft out the top of the box is a servo wheel
or Arm. These wheels or arms are usually a plastic part with holes
in it for attaching push / pull rods, ball joints or other mechanical
linkage devices to the servo. The three electrical connection wires
out of the side are V- (Ground), V+ (Plus voltage) and S Control
(Signal). The control S (Signal) wire receives Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) signals sent from an external controller and is
converted by the servo on board circuitry to operate the servo.
R/C Servos are controlled by sending pulse width signals (PWM)
from an external electronic device that generates the PWM signal
values, such as a servo controller, servo driver module or R/C
transmitter and receiver. Pulse Width Modulation or PWM signals
sent to the servo are translated into position values by electronics
inside the servo. When the servo is instructed to move (Received a
PWM signal) the on board electronics convert the PWM signal to a
electrical resistance value and the DC motor is powered on. As the
motor moves and rotates the linked potentiometer also rotates.
Electrical resistance value from the moving potentiometer are sent
back to the servo electronics until the potentiometer value matches
the position value sent by the on-board servo electronics that was
converted from the PWM signal. Once the potentiometer value and
servo electronic signals match, the motor stops and waits for the
next PWM signal input signal for conversion. A pulse width signal
(PWM) of approximately 1.5 mS (1500 uS) is the "neutral" position
for the servo. The servo, neutral is defined to be the point where the
servomotor has exactly the same amount of potential rotation in
the counter clockwise direction as it does in the clockwise direction.
When the pulse width signal (PWM) sent to a servo is less than 1.5
mS. the servo moves some number of degrees counterclockwise
from the neutral point. When the pulse is greater than 1.5mS the
servo moves some number of degrees clockwise from the neutral
point. Generally the minimum pulse will be about 1.0 mS and the
maximum pulse will be 2.0 ms with neutral ( Stop)
movement at 1.5 Ms R/C servos run on 5 volts DC but they often
work with voltages V-, V+ between 4 and 6 volts DC power, near
1 Amp of current. (Torque load on the servo arm determines amps
and can be from 200 mA to 1 Amp depending
on moving or holding force the servo needs for position)

SERVO RATINGS
The most common details available on a servo are its speed and

torque rating. Nearly all servo packages are listed

with brand name, model name/ number, speed, and torque output at

4.8 volts and 6.0 volts. Some information about

metal, plastic gears or ball bearings may also be listed.

SERVO SPEED
60 Degrees
Servo Speed is defined as the amount of time ( in seconds)

that a servo arm attached to the servo output shaft will SERVO

move from 0 to 60 degrees

.
SPEED
Note: The lower the time (Seconds) the faster the servo

60
can move an attached wheel or arm.Servo Speed is measured by the

amount of time (in seconds) it takes a 1 inch servo arm to sweep left

or right through a 60 degree arc at either 4.8 or 6.0 volts. A servo

rated at 0.22 seconds/60 degrees takes 0.22 seconds to sweep through

a 60 degree arc. Some of the fastest servos available move in the

0.06 to 0.09 second range. In some servos, faster speeds may

lower torque available.

SERVO TORQUE (Power)

Servo Torque is defined as ounce-inch (oz-in)

The total push / pull power a servo can apply on

a 1" servo arm when moving.

Servos have a certain amount of torque (strength) that is SERVO

generally proportional to their size. Servos come in all kinds of

TORQUE sizes, strengths and weight. Torque is the measurement of

force given over a distance. For most servos in the USA, torque is

16 oz-in on 1" measured in oz-in (force in ounces times inches, or

arm = 1 lbs lift 1" Arm ounce-inch). Servo Torque is measured by

the amount of weight (in ounces) that a servo can hold at 1-inch out

on the servo output arm in the horizontal plane, again at either 5.0

or 6.0 volts to see when the servo stalls as it tries to lift the weight

horizontally. The reported result is a measurement like this:

Servo XYZ = 100 oz/in. @ 6.0 V. That means that Servo XYZ
is capable of holding 100 ounces using a 1 inch output arm

without excessive deflection at 6.0 input volts. To convert oz-in

to kilogram-centimeters (kg-cm) just divide by 13.9

Examples:

Servo-A has 42 oz-in of torque

Weight 42 divided by 16 = 2.63 pounds of force on a 1" servo arm

(16 Ounces) Servo-B has 2.5 oz-in of torque 2.5 divided by 2 = 1.25

pounds of force on a 2" servo arm 16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lbs)

Servo-C has 36 oz-in of torque 36 divided by 4 = 9 pounds of force

on a 4" servo arm

Note:

If you need to know how many pounds a servo can push or lift on a

1" servo arm, divide the oz-in by the number 16. Different sized

arms can be used. Use the length of the arm and divide the oz-in

value by the arm length

SERVO POWER (4.5- 6.0 VDC)

Servo Power is defined as the amount of DC Voltage needed to

operate a Servo without damage. Servo operate from 4.5 to 6.0 volts

DC. At the higher voltage servos tend to be faster and sometimes

stronger, but can heat up faster when stalled or in a hold position

with stress forces against the servo output shaft. Some servo

controllers require a separate power source from the control source

to deliver the higher 6.0 Vdc. The current drain (Amps required)

depends on the torque being put out by the servo motor and can be

in excess of one amp if the servo is stalled under load. It is best to

calculate 1 Amp per servo when figuring power supply needs for

most servos

4.5 to 6.0 Voltage

Servo Connector
(S)Si
gnal=Yellow(PWM Signal)
(+) 5 Vdc = Red
(-) Ground = Black
FIG 1.25

9-12 Vdc to +5 Vdc Converter

7805 Voltage Regulator

10 uF Capacitor

Heatsink

Servo Wire Code

 FIG 1.26

Servo Type Positive (+) Signal (S) Negative (-)

Cirrus Red White Black

Futaba - J Red Whit Black

e

JR Red Orange Brown

Hitec
Red Yellow Black

Airtronics Red White Blac

k
Servo
Airtronics– Z Red Blue
Black

Red White Black

Fleet
GW Red Orange
Brown

Centering
R/C servos are usually mechanically stopped from moving at full

rotation. They have limited rotation through a mechanical, plastic

block on the internal gearing and can rotate about 90 to 180 degrees

or less only. Servos are unable to continually rotate and usually

can't be used for driving rotating wheels. A servos precision

positioning makes them ideal for robotics and animatronics, since

servos are self contained with control loop circuitry, drive circuits,

servo position, speed control, and are very easy to control by an

external device such as a electronic servo controller board used in

animatronic character and robotic applications.

Servos are dynamic devices that when instructed to move position,

will actively move to hold the position, If for example a servo is

instructed to move in the clockwise position and an external force is

present and pushing against the servo such as a mechanical linkage,

the servo will resist being moved out of that position or continue

to try and move to the instructed position, even if the servo arm is

incorrectly placed on the motor shaft, until powered off. It is for this

reason that every servo output arm or servo wheel used should be

placed into the neutral position before instillation into your project.
Setting the servo arm or wheel to the neutral position prevents

stress to the servo motor, damages to the electronics and provides

wider movement ranges and angles for operating the mechanical

linkages connected to the servo arm or servo wheel.

FIG 1.27
How to Determine the Center Position
Automated Servo Center Position

There are several ways to do this:

( See Servo Checker Operation Guide )
The best and easiest way to set a servo's center position is to connect

the servo to a servo checker or tester. There are several low cost

servo checkers worth purchasing and having in your tool box if you

plan to work with servos. To use a Servo Checker simple set the

Servo Checker to its automated center position and let the

controller move the connected servo to center. If the servo arm is

pre-attached, you may have to remove the servo arm on top of the

servo shaft and re-position it back onto the servo shaft center point.

The servo is now ready for instillation.Once centered place the servo

arm on top of the servo shaft, secure it with servo screw and install

the servo as needed or carefully remove the servo arm from the

servo if not needed for instillation. Do not move the shaft at this
point, if it moves, simply repeat the above procedure to find the

servo center again.

Manual Servo Center Position - Steps:

Carefully place one of the servo arms or wheel onto the servo shaft,

mark a reference line through(across) the servo arm or wheel center

point. Slowly and carefully rotate the servo arm or wheel by hand as

far to one side as it will go, do not force servo arm / wheel. Mark a

line on the servo base where the servo arm or wheel reference line

stops. Slowly and carefully rotate the servo arm or wheel by hand to

the opposite position, as far to one side as it will go, do not force

servo arm / wheel. Should travel about 180 degrees. Mark a line on

the servo base where the servo arm reference line stops. Rotate the

servo arm back to 90 degrees between the two end reference line

positions (A,B) marked on the servo base. You may have to remove

the servo arm on top of the servo shaft and re-position it back onto

the output shaft to get the center point if the arm is off center

position. This should put the servo arm close to center position.
Carefully remove the servo arm from the servo if not needed for

instillation or place the servo arms on top of the servo shaft, secure

it with servo screw and install the servo as needed. Do not move the

shaft at this point. If it moves, simply repeat the above steps to find

the servo center again.

Torque Nominal Moto Motor Current Order Numb

Volts r Inertia Cont. at
RPM Stall
Cont. Peak lb-in- Kg- Amp
sec2 Cm
Stall 2
lb- Nm lb- Nm
in in
1.8 0.21 13 1.4 50 3500 0.0003 0.35 2.1 MT-2240 ACYAN
1.8 0.21 13 1.4 30 3000 0.0003 0.35 3.4 MT-2240-BCYAN
3.1 0.35 19 2.1 50 3500 0.0005 0.54 3.4 MT-2250-ACYAN
3.1 0.35 19 2.1 30 3000 0.0005 0.54 5.5 MT-2250-BCYAN
6.2 0.71 44 4.9 100 2800 0.0016 1.84 2.8 MT-3353-BLYAN
6.2 0.71 44 4.9 50 2000 0.0016 1.84 5.1 MT-3353-DLYAN
8.8 0.99 59 6.7 100 2800 0.0024 2.75 3.8 MT-3358-BLYAN
8.8 0.99 59 6.7 100 5000 0.0024 2.75 6 MT-3358-CLYAN
11.2 1.27 75 8.5 100 2800 0.0033 3.67 4.9 MT-3363-BLYAN
11.2 1.27 75 8.5 100 4000 0.0033 3.67 6.3 MT-3363-CLYAN
12.5 1.41 45 5.0 100 3000 0.007 7.91 5.5 MT-4050-ALYBE
12.5 1.41 45 5.0 100 4500 0.007 7.91 7.9 MT-4050-BLYBE
21.5 2.43 72 8.1 100 1500 0.011 12.43 5 MT-4060-ALYBE
21.5 2.43 72 8.1 100 2300 0.011 12.43 7 MT-4060-BLYBE
28 3.16 125 14.1 100 1500 0.014 15.82 6.2 MT-4070-ALYBE
28 3.16 125 14.1 100 2300 0.014 15.82 9.2 MT-4070-BLYBE
40 4.52 185 20.9 100 1500 0.024 27.12 9 MT-4090-ALYBE
40 4.52 185 20.9 100 2300 0.024 27.12 13 MT-4090-BLYBE
30 3.39 130 14.7 150 2200 0.014 15.82 6.1 MT-4525-BTYCN
30 3.39 130 14.7 150 3200 0.014 15.82 9.2 MT-4525-CTYCN
30 3.39 130 14.7 150 4400 0.014 15.82 12 MT-4525-DTYCN
40 4.52 190 21.5 150 1400 0.021 23.73 5.7 MT-4535-ATYCN
40 4.52 190 21.5 150 2200 0.021 23.73 8.3 MT-4535-BTYCN
40 4.52 190 21.5 150 2700 0.021 23.73 11.2 MT-4535-CTYCN
40 4.52 190 21.5 150 4500 0.021 23.73 16.4 MT-4535-DTYCN
50 5.65 250 28.2 150 1700 0.028 31.64 8 MT-4545-ATYCN
50 5.65 250 28.2 150 2300 0.028 31.64 10.6 MT-4545-BTYCN
50 5.65 250 28.2 150 3300 0.028 31.64 15.7 MT-4545-CTYCN
58 6.55 283 31.8 150 1500 0.035 39.55 8.5 MT-4555-ATYCN
58 6.55 283 31.8 150 2100 0.035 39.55 12.1 MT-4555-BTYCN
58 6.55 283 31.8 150 2900 0.035 39.55 15.3 MT-4555-CTYCN

DC Servo Motor Performance Selection Guide

Controlling the Servo motor

The signal that controls the servo motor in this example is given by

series of pulses (Figure 1) with a period of 200 ms or 5 Hz and the

duration depends on the required direction. For most servo motors,

pulses of 1 ms represent a 0 degree turn, and 2 ms represent a 180

degree turn, but it can vary. This information shall be specified in

the data sheet of each servo motor and can be tested by trying

different PWM signals. To send the signal by software, the MCU

must generate a PWM signal with a duty cycle of 0.5% to 1% and a

period of 200 ms. It is recommended to elaborate a function that has

a position parameter and sets the servo motor to the desired

position to simplify the code (as implemented in the example code

for this document).

Suggestion to reduce noise in signals

When elaborating PCBs or designing circuits involving motors that

consume large amounts of current, it is useful to separate

completely signals with high and low current within the hardware.

For PCBs, signals such as motor outputs, analog ground and power

supply voltage should be with wide area and low resistance and it is

recommended to use heat sinks to prevent some components from

melting. Another useful tip is to capacitate as much as possible

important analog signals, in order to reduce noise caused by the

motor or long wires. It is essential to connect capacitors to all steady

state pins or signals vulnerable to noise (and power supplies).

Sample code for Servo and Motor control

System Architecture

The drivers (Figure 5) are implemented for the

MPC560xB to control a servo motor and a DC

motor. In the following sections, a detailed

explanation of each function on the medium and

low level drivers is given:

• High level

• Main motor control algorithm (high level

program done by user)

• Medium level

• Servo motor driver (Driver_Servo.c and

Driver_Servo.h)

• Main motor driver (Driver_Motor.c and

Driver_Motor.h)

• Low level

• ADC driver (Driver_ADC.c and Driver_ADC.h)

• eMIOS driver (Driver_EMIOS.c and

Driver_EMIOS.h)

• SIU driver (Driver_SIU.c and Driver_SIU.h)

• Initialization:

• Driver_MPC5604B.h

FIG 1.28 Software Architecture-APIs distribution

Driver explanation
Medium level drivers
Function vfnSet_Servo Sets the servo motor to a position
relative to the maximum and
minimum values established. For
example, if a reading in SAIC has a
value of 10 as a minimum because
less is invalid, and a maximum of
510, then a call to vfnSet_Servo
(260,10,510) sets the servo motor
exactly at the middle,and
vfnSet_Servo(10,10,510) sets the
servo motor to the left (all left
possible).
Parameters • u16Position: The desired position of the servo motor, with
relative values to the minimum and maximum values.
• u16MinVal: The minimum value possible for u16Position (if
u16Position is equal to u16MinVal then the servo motor turns all
the way left).
• u16MaxVal: The maximum value possible for u16Position (if
u16Position is
equal to u16MaxVal then the servo motor turns all the way right).
Return Null

Function vfnInit_Servo Initializes the MCB counters for

both the servo motor and the main
motor modules and the OPWM
channel for the direction pin of the
servo motor (and its respective SIU
pin initialization).
Definitions involved for SERVO_CTRL The eMIOS channel used for the
signal
both functions for servo control.
SERVO_CTRL_PCR The pad number of the signal for
servo control used for pad
initialization in SIU.
SERVO_MIN_US The value representing a 0 degree
turn in the wheels controlled by the
servo motor. This value is in
microseconds,and is the width of
the 20ms-period signal pulse which
determines direction.
SERVO_MAX_US The value representing a 180
degree
turn in the wheels controlled by the
servo motor. This value is in
microseconds, and is the width of
the 20ms-period signal pulse which
determines direction.
All the drivers are explained in detail in this section.

SERVO_MCB_CHANNEL The eMIOS channel used as

Modulus
Up Counter Buffered which is the
counter for the servo signal. This
means that the counter must have a
20ms period.

……………………………………………………………………………

Functions on Driver_Motor.c

Function vfnSet_Motor_Forward Sends pulses to the motor

vfnSet_Motor_Reverse equivalent to the percentage
vfnSet_Motor_Stop parameter u16Perc. It is
polarized normal (forward) or
reverse depending on the
function, and for motor
stop, IN1 and IN2 control
outputs are turned to 5V to
stop the motor from the
H Bridge.
Parameters • u16Perc; with a 100 being 100% power (Vcc), 0% is GND,
and 50% is equivalent to a clock signal with 50% duty
Return • u16Get_Feedback_Current; Returns the current consumed
by the motor by reading an ADC port.
Function vfnSet_Motor_Velocity Sets the motor forward to a
desired velocity by increasing
the PWM signal (more duty)
to the motor if the measured
velocity is too slow or by
decreasing the PWM signal if
the measured velocity is
too fast. It works with a
proportional integral
algorithm.
Function vfnRead_Period If a SAIC scan is done, this
function replaces the last
value of i32Period with the
period measured, else it does
nothing. i32Period is in micro
seconds and represents the
time it takes to the back
wheels to give one revolution
because
the signal the SAIC scans has
a rising edge each time the
 wheels give a complete
revolution. From this variable
velocity can be measured:
Velocity = Circumference of
wheel /
i32PeriodThis function must
be called frequently in case
the SAIC scan is done, and if
it
is called long after the SAIC
scan is done, it will lose
precision. It also checks if an
overflow occurs in the MCB
so that the i32Period variable
is increased by the time to
overflow (period of MCB).
Also, to measure the period
accurately, it has to know if
the MCB had an overflow,
to sum the corresponding
value to the i32Period counter,
so each time it has an
overflow, this function takes
care of adding the variable.
Function vfnInit_Motor Initializes the GPIO pins for
the direction of the motor, the
OPWM channel for the
enable pin of the motor (and
its respective SIU pin
initialization), the analog pin
for the ADC scan of the
current, and the SAIC
channel for the velocimeter
(and its respective SIU pin
initialization).
Definitions involved MOTOR_MCB_CHANNEL The eMIOS channel used as
Modulus Up Counter
Buffered which is the counter
for the motor signal. This
means that the period of the
counter will be the period
of the motor PWM signal.
MOTOR_IN_1_PIN The GPIO pin used for logic
output IN1, which is a control
signal for the H Bridge
controlling the motor.
MOTOR_IN_2_PIN The GPIO pin used for logic
output IN2, which is a control
 signal for the H Bridge
controlling the motor.
MOTOR_EN The eMIOS channel used for
the signal of Motor Enable for
the H Bridge controlling the
motor.
MOTOR_EN_PCR The pad number of the signal
of Motor Enable used for pad
initialization in SIU.
MOTOR_SENSE_CH The ADC channel used for
current feedback of the motor.
VELOCIMETER The eMIOS channel used for
the signal of the
Velocimeter,input that
measures the speed of the
wheels.
VELOCIMETER_PCR The pad number of the signal
of Velocimeter used for pad
initialization in SIU.
MAX_CURRENT Number equivalent to the
current consumed when
feedback pin returns 5V.
CIRCLE The measure of the
circumference of the wheels in
nanometers.
CONTROL Control and delay are
constants used in the
proportional integral control
unit of
speed. The constant Kc is 1/
(CONTROL* DELAY), where
CONTROL is the
proportional constant, and
DELAY is the
number of times the program
waits to execute the code
(executes 1 of DELAY times).
DELAY
THRES and THRES2 These threshold constants
define a threshold of
maximum and minimum
speed where the motor starts
up fast or stops to get to the
desired speed quickly.
……………………………………………………………………………

Low level drivers Driver_ADC.c

Function vfnInit_NormalConversion_Ad Initialize ADC in scan mode,
c Configure ADC clock to 32
MHz, set an ADC Channel
from a channel type as a
Normal Conversion, and start
conversions by setting
NSTART to 1.
Parameters • u8ChannelType: The type of
the channel (Precision,
extended or external) defined
in Driver_ MPC5604B.h as
ADC_CHANNEL_
TYPE_tag.
• u32Channel: The ADC
channel
used for convertions defined in
Driver_MPC5604B.h as
ADC_CHANNEL_tag.
Return Null
Function u16Read_Adc Checks for the last ADC
conversion to be complete,
reads the value of the
conversion, scale the read
value in a range from 0 to
Maximum Value and returns
the scaled value.
Parameters • u8Channel: The channel used for ADC. Channels appear in
Driver_
MPC5604B.h.
Return • u8MaximumValue: The maximum possible value for the
result. It is the value returned if a 10 bit conversion returns
1023.
…………………………………………………………………………..

Driver_eMIOS.c

vfnSetup_Emios_0 and vfnInit_Emios_0 Enables eMIOS clock, configure prescaler to

generate 4 MHz eMIOS clock, enables global
time base, enables Freezing channel to freeze
them when in debug mode. Also enable eMIOS
counters to start pulse generation and
processing.
vfnInit_Emios_0_Mcb Defines eMIOS channel as Modulus up
counter buffered with the selected period,
configure prescaler to produce 1 MHz
time base. The parameters of the function are
the following: u8Channel: eMIOS channel to
be configured as Counter (0,8,16,23,24).
 u16Period: Sets A register to establish period
in clock pulses.
vfnInit_Emios_0_Opwm Defines eMIOS channel as positive OPWM
with time base corresponding to the counter
bus B, C, D or E and establish its raising and
falling edge.
The parameters are the following:
• u8Channel: eMIOS channel to be configured
as
OPWM.
• u16A: Sets A register to establish leading
edge.
• u16B: Sets B register to establish trailing
edge.
vfnInit_Emios_0_Saic Defines eMIOS channel as SAIC with time
base corresponding to the counter bus B, C, D
or E. Allow channel freezing and set required
polarity.

vfnSet_Duty_Opwm Establish Duty Cycle in counter pulses for an

eMIOS channel.
The parameters are the following:
• u8Channel: eMIOS channel configured as
OPWM.
• u16Duty: Sets B register to establish trailing
edge (register A is set to zero).

vfnSet_Duty_Perc_Opwm Establish Duty Cycle in a percentage for an

eMIOS channel.
The parameters are the following:
• u8Channel: eMIOS channel configured as
OPWM.
• u16DutyPerc: Duty cycle in a percentage (0
100).
• u16McbChannel: eMIOS channel used as
counter bus time base.

u16Read_Saic Returns the value of counter when SAIC flag

occur for a
channel of EMIOS module, if the reading is
not ready of between
minimum and maximum parameters, then it
returns 0.
The parameters are the following:
 • u8Channel: eMIOS channel configured as
SAIC.
• u16MinVal: Minimum accepted read value.
• u16MaxVal: Maximum accepted read value.
u16Get_Counter Returns the counter value of the MCB of the
channel selected
when the function is executed, it has a channel
parameter
which determines the MCB channel.
Returns the fixed period value of the MCB of
u16Get_Period_Mcb the channel selected.
It has a channel parameter which determines
the
MCB channel.

SIU is the module that assigns functions to the physical pins. These

drivers were implemented because there are many functions each

pin can have, so there are pad configuration register values for each

pin (refer to MPC5604BCRM Reference Manual available from

https://www.freescale.com ).

Driver_SIU.c

vfnInit_Emios_Output_Pad Initializes and assigns a pin as eMIOS, and for

output purpose.
vfnInit_Emios_Input_Pad Initializes and assigns a pin as eMIOS, and for
input purpose
vfnInit_Adc_Pad Initializes and assigns a pin as ADC for input
purpose.
The following functions are not part of the SIU but GPIO, yet both are used to control pad
configuration.
vfnInit_Gpio_Out Initializes and assigns a pin as GPIO for
output purpose.
vfnSet_Gpio Sets the value of the pin initialized as GPIO to
the parameter value u8Val which can be 0 or 1
 (0V or 5V).
Parameter u8PcrVal which is the SIU pad configuration
register value for a pin selected
………………………………………………………………………….

Setup.c

vfnDisable_Watchdog Disables the watchdog by clearing the

vfnInit_Peri_Clk_Gen
vfnInit_Modes_And_Clock
vfnInit_All
watchdog enable.
Enables peripheral set 3 and divides by 1 the
system clock.
Initializes the general modes RUN0, and for
ADC, SIU, EMIOS, and clock, with PLL to 64
MHz.
Calls all the functions in this file. This is the
only function of Setup.c required to be called
in the main file.

Driver_MPC5604B.h

This file has no functions, and contains only useful definitions that

relate modules and make easier the programming. Includes an ADC

channel selection masks, pad configuration register values for ADC

channels, pad configuration register values for eMIOS channels and

pad configuration register values for GPIO. An example to know

when to use them is the following: #define PCR_EMIOS_0_1345

/*PC13*/ This means that Channel 13 of eMIOS 0 can be assigned

to port C13, and the value that the SIU uses to assign that pin is 45

(which is the pad configuration register for that pin). For a complete

reference on how these registers are defined, please refer

to the MPC5604BCRM available from https://www.freescale.com.

 Types Of Servo Motor

Unlike large industrial motors, dc servomotors are not used for

continuous energy conversion . The basic operating principle is

same as other electromagnetic motors . Design, construction and

mode of operation are different. The rotors of this kind of motor are

designed with long rotor lengths and smaller diameters . They have

large size than that of conventional motors of same power ratings .

There are various types of dc servomotors which are – series

motors, split series motors, shunt control motor and permanent

magnet shunt motor. We will now discuss these types of dc

servomotors in brief.

Series motors
The series motor has a high starting torque and draws large current

.Speed regulation of this kind of motor is poor . Reversal can be

obtained by reversing the polarity of field voltage with split series

field winding (i.e one winding for direction of rotation). This method

reduces motor efficiency to some extent .

 FIG1.29

Split series motors

Split series motor are the dc series motor with split-field rated with

some fractional kilowatt . This type of motor can operate as a

separately excited field-controlled motor. The armature is supplied

with a constant current source. Split series motor has a typical

torque-speed curve . This curve denotes high stall torque and a

rapid reduction in torque with increase in speed. This results in

good damping.

FIG 1.30
Shunt control motor

FIG 1.31

DC shunt type servomotor is not different from any other dc shunt

motor . It has two separate windings – field windings placed on

stator and armature winding placed on the rotor of the machine .

Both windings are connected to a dc supply source. In a

conventional dc shunt motor , the two windings are connected

inparallel across the dc supply . In case of a servomotor , the

windings are supplied with separate dc source.

Permanent magnet shunt motor

Permanent magnet shunt motor is a fixed excitation motor where

the field is actually supplied by a permanent magnet . Performane is

similar to armature controlled fixed field motor that we are going to

know in the next section.

Arc Welding Robot Automation Systems

Robot automation systems are rapidly taking the place of the

human work force. One of the benefits is that this change provides

the human work force with the time to spend on more creative

tasks. The highest population of robots is in spot welding, spray

painting, material handling, and arc welding. Spot welding and

spray painting applications are mostly in the automotive industry.

However, arc welding and material handling have applications in a

broad range of industries, such as, automotive sub-suppliers,

furniture manufacturers, and agricultural machine manufacturers.

The number of arc welding automation robot stations is growing

very rapidly. The two most common stations are the GMAW (Gas

Metal Arc Welding) station and the GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc

Welding) station. These two stations are the most common because

they are so well suited to robot systems. Typically, a robot arc

welding station is comprised of a robot, a robot controller, arc

welding equipment, a work clamp and motion devices to hold work

pieces accurately in position (considering heat deformation), robot

motion devices to move around the robot for a larger working range

and better weld positions, sensors, and safety devices. A typical arc

welding robot station is illustrated in Figure

FIG1.33

A Description of the System Components

The Robot and the Controller
A robot is programmed to move the welding torch along the weld

path in a given orientation. The robot is typically comprised of a

large number of links and linkages, which are interconnected by

gears, chains, belts, and/or screws. The majority of industrial robots

are actuated by linear, pneumatic, or hydraulic actuators, and/or

electric motors. Most of the high-end robots currently use AC servo

motors which have replaced the use of hydraulic actuators and,

more recently, DC servo motors. AC servo motors are essentially

maintenance free which is very important in industrial applications.

In an arc welding robot system, the torch is attached to the wrist of

the robot which has two or three axes of motion. As technology

develops, however, there is less application for a robot with a two-

axis wrist motion. In the case of three-axis motion, the motion is

composed of yaw, pitch, and roll, similar to the human wrist. The

robot has the most effective motion when the center point of the

wrist is aligned with the center line of the upper arm. A robot with a

three-axis lower arm and a three-axis wrist will permit the torch

action that is necessary for a complicated three-dimensional welding

process. The torch can satisfy all the angle requirements, such as,

the work angle, the transverse angle, the travel angle, and the
longitudinal angle. Important factors, when considering

manufacturing performance are the frequency of failure, the mean

time between failure (MTBF), the average time for repair, and the

time for robot replacement. Also, with regards to system design,

important issues are the robot work envelope, the reach of the robot

tip, the number of joints (i.e., the degrees of freedom), the travel

velocity, and the repeatability, accuracy, and resolution of motion.

The controller is the brain of the robot arc welding system. This is

because the controller stores the robot programming and arc

welding data, and performs the necessary computations for robot

control, typically by a high-speed microprocessor. The controller

provides a signal to the actuators and the motors by programmed

data and position, speed, and other information obtained from

various sensors. The controller is now integrated to govern not only

the robot but also any peripheral devices, such as manipulators.

When the system is required to weld a work piece that has a

complicated geometry, the simultaneous coordinated control of the

integrated controller is inevitable. Memory backup devices, such as,

a floppy disc drive, are recommended for storing important data as

a safeguard in the event of a break down with the controller. In the

case of a power failure, or some other unforeseen event, storing the

data from an absolute resolver,or encoder, in controller memory will

ensure that the robot can restore the programmed position without

returning to the zero configuration.

The Welding Equipment (Power Source)

The welding equipment generates power to generate the arc for

welding. One of the most important characteristics is stability of

power. It is recommended that the welding equipment generates a

short arc with less spatter for a good welding quality even at high

speeds.The arc sensor detects the current value so that the power

source can supply the correct amount of power to the wire feeder,

which then controls the wire feeding speed. The wire feeder has

wheel rollers to advance the wire. Some feeders have four rollers

speed sensors for more accurate wire feeding by push-pull action.

Also, a wire feeder with shorter length to the torch is better in terms

of a response time. Therefore, a good location for the wire feeder for

a robot system is at the end of the upper arm of the robot. A slender

welding gun is better for maneuverability but, in case of a collision,

sufficient strength must be guaranteed. It is also necessary to ensure

that the torch is equipped with shock absorption devices such as

springs. It is also important to have a cooling system (a circulating

water, in general) to protect the torch against heat deformation. All

the connections for welding, such as, electric power, the wire, and

the coolant are usually integrated into one cable unit. It is

recommended that the cable unit be as short as possible for a

quicker response and a better reliability.

Manipulators
A robot has a limited working range and accessibility, therefore, in

many cases a manipulator has to be considered. A manipulator is a

device holding the work piece and is moved around (typically with

linkages) for better access and welding positions. The advantages of

a manipulator include:

(1) A manipulator can easily be moved around the work piece for

the best welding positions.

(2) A manipulator can reduce the variation in the lead and the lag

angles of the tip.

(3) Welding can be performed in a stable flat welding position by a

synchronized and simultaneous control of a robot and a

manipulator.

(4) Any hard-to-reach positions can be accessed more easily.

(5) A manipulator increases the working range of a fixed floor

mounted robot or an inverted robot. In general, a robot can

maintain a better flat welding position which will produce a better

deposition and, thereby, reduce any repair work by the cooperation

with a manipulator. This also makes possible higher welding speeds

and, thereby, an increase in productivity. There are two types of

actuation systems for manipulators; namely, the indexing type

system, and the servo-controlled system. The indexing type system is

for economic models and is commonly actuated by pneumatic and

AC motors. This type of system is usually controlled by signals for

target position with constant speed. The servo-controlled type

system is for speed and direction. This can be an expensive system

since it has a complex structure with servo motors, worm gear

reducers, and encoders or resolvers. However, the servo-controlled

type system has higher accuracy and variable speed control in both

directions of rotation. Errors are compensated for by feedback

control. Various types of manipulators, depending on the types of

motion and the degrees of freedom that are required, are shown in .

Several examples of rather simple one-degree-of-freedom

manipulators are shown inFIG

 FIG1.34
shows more sophisticated manipulators for higher maneuverability,

but with an associated higher cost. In selecting the best type of

manipulator, it is important to consider control types, load carrying

capacity, and working environment. Also, repeatability, accuracy,

mechanical configuration, and degrees of freedom are important

issues that should be considered.

FIG1.35

A decision on the type of control depends on the

condition of the weld that is required. In terms of

the load carrying capacity, not only the mass or

weight of the work piece, but also the moment

caused by the off-center distance of the mass

center of the work piece must be considered. For

example, a work piece with a mass of 227 kg and

an off-center distance of 50mm is equivalent to a

work piece with a mass of 1135 kg and an off-

center distance of 10mm. Typically, the load

carrying capacity is evaluated at a distance

between 76–152 mm. For purpose of illustration,

Fig. 4 shows a plot of the load carrying capacity

against the offcenter distance of the mass center

of a work piece.

FIG1.36

Sensors
Sensors collect information from the robot, peripheral devices, and

process and transfer this information to a controller. In arc welding,

it is critical to consider deformation from high heat input and,

therefore, a closed loop control with a sensor is necessary. Also, in

an automatic welding system the errors caused by manufacturing

tolerances of manipulator and work pieces have to be considered.

Various types of sensors for robot arc welding Stations are

available, see Table 1, and the right type must be chosen depending

on the application.

Sensor type Sensors

Contact type Mechanical Type - Roller Spring.
(Weld seam tracking) Electromechanical type:
1) Two probes across the seam line.
2) A probe in the seam line.
Electric control type with probe.
Non-contact type A. Physical type:
(Various Purposes) 1) Acoustic – arc length control.
2) Capacitance – distance control.
3) Eddy current –seam tracking.
4) Induction – seam tracking.
5) Infrared radiation – penetration control.
6) Ultrasonic – penetration and weld quality.
7) Magnetic – detecting electromagnetic field.
B. Through-the-arc type:
1) Arc length control (arc voltage).
 2) Weaving with electric measurement
(GTAW, GMAW).
C. Optical/vision (image capture and process):
1) Vision sensors.
2) Laser sensors.
3) Opto-electric sensors.

A Contact Type Sensor. A Non-Contact Type Sensor.

Optical systems for guiding a weld seam. Figure 6 shows a system that
will detect an upcoming weld joint. This sensor may be used for grooves
such as V and J, lap joints, fillet joints, butt joints, or corner joints.
However, since it is located near the torch there is a limitation in access.

Optical System for Guiding a Weld Seam.

The system in Fig. 7 is used for detecting minor changes of the joints

that lie ahead. This system can be used for thin welds and at high

speeds. The system is good for lap, fillet, or butt joints. However, it
is important to note that there is the possibility of a collision with

the work piece.

A Sensor for Detecting Minor Changes of Upcoming Joints.

Track, Gantry, Column, and Peripheral

Equipment
When a work piece is too large for the robot workspace, or a robot

cannot reach some welding points, peripheral devices such as a

track, a gantry, or a column should be considered. These devices

have advantages of expanded work space, flexibility, and increased

productivity. Also, it is possible that a robot may work on a multiple

of work pieces and, thereby, increase the arc time. For efficient use

of these devices, it is advantageous to provide all the axes of the

system (including the robot and peripheral devices) with

simultaneous or synchronized control function. The standardized

and modularized system may be chosen based on load carrying

capacity, stability, accuracy and repeatability, and the maximum

number of axes that the controller can handle. However, the

productivity proven by practice is the most important criteria.

A Track. To increase the working range, the robot is mounted on a

track as shown in Fig. .The track also this provides flexibility for the

future consideration of the size of the work piece.In addition, a

track is useful when the breadth of the pieces is less than 1 meter

and a travel

distance greater than 1.5 meter is required. Most common work

pieces for track application are automotive panels, rear axles,

tractor frames, bed and furniture frames, window frames, container

doors, and computer racks. For increased arc time and productivity,

the concept of one robot with multiple work stations is used. This is

also illustrated in Fig.

 A Robot Mounted on a Track.

A Gantry. A gantry is a steel structure where the robot is suspended

and inverted. Using a gantry, a robot can weld work pieces of

different sizes. A very large work piece can be welded with multiple

robots suspended on a single gantry or multiple gantries. Figure

shows two robots suspended from a gantry (i.e., a grinding robot

and a welding robot) working on a double station manipulator.

Two Robots Suspended from a Gantry.

A Column. A column is developed from the concept of

modularization. While the track moves in a single horizontal

direction, the column may fix the robot or move the robot in a

vertical direction and a horizontal direction. A column occupies less

space in the plant and makes possible efficient utilization of the

space. Also, the wirings of welding wire, power and signal cables

may be placed in a duct inside the column to avoid unnecessary

exposure. As shown in Fig. , a robot suspended from a column may

have better accessibility and weld position than a floor mounted

robot. There are stationary (fixed), traveling, rotary, and

rotary/traveling types of columns.

A Robot Suspended from a Column.

Welding Fixtures. Manufacturing a welding fixture requires experience

and know-how. A designer should have a profound knowledge of

tolerances of work pieces before and after welding. Also, a designer

should obtain information from experienced welding experts. The

geometry of a fixture is based upon the geometry of the work piece and

the clamping device of the manipulator. The fixture should guarantee a

good welding position and should be protected against heat, smoke, and

spatter. Figure shows an example of a welding fixture.

An Example of a Welding Fixture.

Safety

An arc welding robot system should be on a firm foundation so that any

vibrations will not produce a shaking effect on the system. Also, the

emergency switch button (with colors of yellow and red) should be

located at a position that is easily accessible. The switch should stop the

robot without shutting off the power. There should also be a safety fence
to protect the work force from spatter and arc flash. Figure 12 shows a

complete system of a safety fence. For safety, the robot operator should

have a rigorous training on robot speed, working range, emergency

stopping, and functions of teach pendant. The training should also

provide the operator with the opportunity to become familiar with the

robot system. While designing the robot system, sufficient time for

system modification and operator training is indispensable. Also,

obstacles inside the working area of the operator should be

eliminated and the system should be designed so that the welding is

perfomed at a safe distance from the operator. For this purpose, a

manipulator should be designed with dual stations with safeguards so

that the operator can work safely on loading and unloading. This will

also increase productivity. After the system is designed, installed, and

tested, all the detailed information in the design process should be

documented and transferred to the operator.

Important Functions of an Arc Welding Robot

The Robot Program

(A) Programming Method. First generation robots were programmed by

manual operation.

However, in modern technology, there are four common methods for

robot programming; namely:

(i) Programming by a Teach Pendant. The operator uses a dedicated

teach pendant for robot teaching and program editing. Teaching is

carried out for the tool center point (TCP) and the LCD display panel is

adopted for menu guide. It is easy to use but restricted in application and

extension. A teach pendant (such as the one shown in Fig. ) is the most

popular device in robot programming

A Robot Teach Pendant.

(ii) Programming by Manual Lead-Through. A well trained welding

expert will hold the holder near the torch and program by manual lead-
through. This was common in first generation robots, however, in

modern technology, this is only used for spray painting robots.

(iii) Programming by a Robot Language. The robot is programmed by a

program language using a monitor and a keyboard. There exist several

command, motion, and operation level languages. Commonly used

robots can take advantage of a broad range of motion level languages.

The operation level language only describes the final goal of the

process, and the sequence of motion and data are generated

automatically. This programming method still remains very much in the

research stage.

(iv) Programming by a Simulator. A graphic simulation is performed

and it is translated into the language of the robot. This is also referred to

as off-line programming.

(B) Welding Data. Welding data is special data of parameters that are

used for the welding process. The welding data is composed of start

data, main data, end data, and weaving data. Figure 14 shows an

example of welding data.

Conclusion

The tutorial was able to cover everything I had hoped it would

and we had success in controlling servos which was our main purpose &

goal. I will have more projects coming which use servos so you can see

how they fit into projects which are doing many things at once.

Having now gone over how to control DC Motors & Servo

Motors I'll be able to move onto stepper motors in a future tutorial. So

for those of you who have been waiting to see it, a stepper motor tutorial

is in the works & coming.

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930,225, Aug. 9, 1909.
5) Jump up ^ IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 1996, pg 74
6) Jump up ^ G. W. Younkin, Industrial Servo Control Systems - Fundamentals and Applications
- Second Edition, Taylor and Francis, 2007.
7) J. D. Lane, “Robotic Welding,” IFS, 1987.
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Company, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1994.

9) N. S. Seo, “Modern Manufacturing Processes,” Dongmyungsa, Korea, 2002

10) P. F. Ostwald, and J. Munoz, “Manufacturing Processes and Systems,” John Wiley and
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Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA, 1992.
12) J. J. Craig, “Introduction to Robotics, Mechanics and Control,” Addison Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA, 1989.
13) K. S. Fu, “Robotics,” McGraw-Hill International Book Company, Inc., New York, 1987