Age of Empires 1720-1914

Major Essay Assignment

By Kell Retchford

Question: How did the Ottoman Empire change from a non-European Empire in the mid eighteenth
century into a European “Great power” by the beginning of the twentieth?

The Ottoman Empire, founded in the late 13 th century by Osman I and enduring into the 20 th, grew to
rule over vast regions of Asia and Europe and the many different ethnicities that inhabited them.
After the devastating defeat to the Hapsburgs at Zenta and the subsequent loss of central Europe in
1699 CE, the Ottoman Empire began a steady period of decline, marked by nearly continuous
warfare with foreign powers, particularly Russia, and intermittent rebellions among its own people.
In the mid-eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was still the largest political entity in Europe, but
was increasingly under threat from encroaching European interests 1. Some Ottomans began to see
that reform was necessary for the Empire to survive and that it was possible if the Ottoman Empire
could initiate absorption of the best European customs that had engendered the new European
supremacy2. The increasing penetration of ideas and contact from the West and further reinforced
this view. In the following centuries, both external and internal forces would drive the transformation
from being an Eastern Empire to becoming a European great power. The reform and the formation of
the modern Ottoman state was gradual and encountered much resistance in the Empire, however it
ultimately saw the transformation of the Ottoman Empire from a non-European Empire to a
European Great power.

The initial reforms made by the Ottoman state during the 18 th century were haphazard and often
obstructed by conservative reactionaries and a ruling class intent on protecting its vested interests.
They did too little in helping the Empire match the increasing might of the European states 3. A
notable reformer from the mid-eighteenth century was Mehmet Ragip Paşa, the Grand Vizer (1757-
1763) whose able administration managed to raise revenues, balance the budget and modernise the
navy. His results, however, did not last and were quickly forgotten upon his death. The Sultan from
1774-1789, Abdul Hamid I, was another reformer in the eighteenth century but like many others of
his time, promoted traditionalistic reform. His grand vizier, Halil Hamit Paşa lasting from 1782, until
his death in 1785, was the key driver of these reforms. This traditionalistic reform meant only military
techniques and weapons saw reformation while maintaining all other Ottoman customs and
structures. He did however make a significant change, in which he contracted large numbers of
foreign military advisors. The key change being they were no longer required to convert to Islam and
follow Ottoman dress and customs. This reform led to an ever greater European influence on the
Ottoman Empire. 4

1 Patrick K O’brien, ed., Oxford Atlas of World History Concise Edition, (New York, Oxford University
Press, 2002), 178.
2 Shaw, Stanford J. History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey Volume 1, (Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1976), 225.
3 Feroz Ahmad, Turkey; The Quest for Identity, (Oxford, Oneworld Publications, 2003), 23.
4 Shaw, History of Ottoman Empire 1, 247
Selim III came to be Sultan in 1789 and, amidst the intellectual and political upheaval of the French
revolution, soon began reformation. In 1972 he set up a reforming committee and initiated a series
of regulations which sought to end the social, political and administrative chaos of the Ottoman
Empire and to modernise its military5. The reforms, known as nizam-ı cedid (New Order in Turkish),
were still traditionalistic in a sense as they focused on the military and also sought to modify
previous structures rather than attempt more radical reformation. However, they were highly
significant reforms for the time and surpassed all previous attempts in scope. The military reforms
saw more efficient hierarchies established, men examined for ability and required to drill regularly,
wages raised and paid monthly and separated the administrative and military functions of all corps.
In addition, a new standing army, which became known as the nizam-ı cedit, was established with
European weapons, clothes, techniques and under the guidance of European advisors. 6 The reforms
also modernized the technical schools and scientific learning with ideas and techniques from the
West. In contrast to the military, the reforms to administrative, economics and social policies lacked
in scope and effectiveness and were as Stanford Shaw states, “piecemeal attempts to meet the old
problems in old ways”7. An example of this is seen with Selim III’s financial reforms where rather than
trying to solve the financial mess in which government officials are able to spend as much as they
desire, by creating a budgetary system, he merely reforms the scribal service by increasing standards
of honesty and efficiency by appointing based on ability. Selim’s reforms provoked a backlash
amongst the conservatives as anything seen as European or abandoning tradition was often branded
anti-Islamic. In 1805, a mutiny of the Janissaries and notables forced Selim III to halt reforms. A later
mutiny by auxiliary levies saw Selim disband his nizam-ı cedit in an attempt to appease the
conservatives. His indecisive appeasement approach marked his downfall as he proceeded to hand
all the power he possessed to the conservatives. Selim was soon imprisoned based on a fatwa over
his ‘illegal violations of tradition and religion’ and later killed on orders by the incoming conservative
Sultan Mustafa IV in 1808. His reforms, while not fully successful, none the less opened the way for
later reformers and further penetration of Western ideas into the Ottoman masses.

Up to the early 19 th century, the efforts at reform and modernisation had largely been unsuccessful
due to resistance from powerful conservative forces. In the early 19 th century, some key events
managed to curtail the power of these conservative forces. Napoelon’s invasion of Egypt and victory
over the Mamaluks and the subsequent massacre of Mamaluks in 1811 by Egypt’s new ruler
Mehmed Ali, had severely detracted from the power of the ϋlema (Islamic scholars and leaders) who
often relied on the Mamaluks for military support. This, coupled with the Janissaries loss of popular
opinion after the dastardly performance against the Greek uprising in the 1820’s and their following
revolt and ensuing elimination by Sultan Mahmud II, thus allowed rapid reform to transpire within
the Empire.8 Reform was also increasingly seen as vital, as the power of the European states
continued to grow and their influence expand. Following Mahmoud II’s elimination of the Janissaries,
the ‘Victorious Army of Muhammad’ was created to become a modern European style military force
capable of defending the Empire. In addition to the military reforms, new secular schools were

5 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Selim III", accessed October 30, 2012,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/533578/Selim-III.
6 Shaw, History of Ottoman Empire 1, 262.
7 Shaw, History of Ottoman Empire 1, 264.
8 Feroz, Turkey; The Quest for Identity, 27-28.
opened, in 1831 a medicinal college was created and the Ottoman Empire’s first newspaper was born
and a War College opened in 1834. The newspaper was especially important in creating new outlets
for discussion and public opinion among elites, even though it wasn’t accessible to the common
man. Newspapers and the entailing discussion and public opinion, while common in Europe, were
previously alien to Ottoman Society. Students and military officers were also sent to learn in Europe.
The new Ottoman military with its modern European education was the key proponent for later
secularism and was a major factor in the Ottoman Empire’s modernisation into a ‘European great
power’.9 It’s interesting to note that the military of modern day Turkey is still the key proponent for
stressing and protecting the secular nature of the country. These reforms and continuing
modernisation under Mahmud II’s reign paved the way for the era of greatest change in the Ottoman
Empire, the Tanzimat era.

The transfer of Western learning and technology and the birth of Modern science in the Ottoman
Empire was an essential aspect in its transformation to a European great power. Ottoman Scholars
were instrumental in making the transition to modern Western science. One of these scholars, who
was especially prominent and considered by some to be the pioneer of modern science in the
Empire, was Bashoca Ishak Efendi (1274-1836). His rapid and widespread translations of Western
scientific works into Turkish and his improvements to the education system can be considered as the
basis of intensive reform, of education and Ottoman sciences, made in the Tanzimat period 10.

The Tanzimat era (1839-1876) was a time of sustained reform, in which old institutions were no
longer preserved, but were replaced entirely with new, often Western, models 11. The proclamation,
by Sultan Abdulmecit I, of the Imperial Rescript of the Rose Garden ushered in the Tanzimat era. The
goal of the statute was the modernisation of the empire, so as to strengthen it against the great
European powers. It stated “Full of confidence, therefore, in the help of the most high, and certain of
the support of our Prophet, we deem it right to seek new institutions to give the provinces
composing the Ottoman Empire good administration.” 12 The statute introduced reforms that
guaranteed rights for all, regardless of religion or race, established a regular system for the levying of
taxes and regular system for the conscription of soldiers. The guarantee for the protection of rights of
all Ottoman citizens was to further help bond the empire and gain the support of disaffected regions,
especially those of consisting of large non-Muslim populations. While the Imperial Rescript of the
Rose Garden was a set of aims of the Ottoman Empire rather than abstract principles, it still
embodied ideals born out of the French revolution and from the Declaration of the Rights of Man
and the Citizen, and thus took the Ottoman Empire a further step towards becoming a great
European power13.

9 Feroz, Turkey; The Quest for Identity, 28-29.

10 E. Ihsanoglu, “Bashoca Ishak Efendi: Pioneer of Modern Science in Turkey,” in Decision Making and
Change in the Ottoman Empire, eds. C Farah, (Missouri, The Thomas Jefferson University Press,
1993), 157.
11 Shaw, Stanford J. History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey Volume 2, (Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1977), 55.
12 Mustafa Reşid Paşa, The Imperial Rescript of the Rose Garden, 1839. Written proclamation,
Translator unkown, Boğaziḉi University, Ataturk Institute of Modern Turkish History.
http://www.anayasa.gen.tr/gulhane.htm (accessed 1/11/12)
13 Shaw, History of Ottoman Empire 2, 61.
Following the Crimean war (1853-1856), in which Russia was defeated with the help of the British
and French, the Ottoman Empire was inducted into the European Concert system and was
guaranteed its sovereignty and territorial integrity. However it was not considered a European state
in the eyes of the Europeans and hence was not granted equality. The threat from European power
and the increased separatism brought about continued reform from Ottoman leaders, born mostly
out of a desire for purely preserving the Empire. As Roderic Davison states “There was no aspect of
Ottoman life that did not require change if this objective were to be attained” 14. In 1856, the Sultan
unveiled a new royal charter to build upon the Imperial Rescript of the Rose Garden. The new royal
charter reinforced equality for all subjects of the Sultan and declared the continued goal of the
Empire to reform and modernise. The established Islamic view that the status, rights and duties of an
individual were attributed to their membership of particular religion was ended and a Western
secular concept in which ones status, rights and duties were a derivative of one’s citizenship and
allegiance to the Government of the Empire was promoted. 15 The administrative reform up to the
end of the Tanzimat era was focused mostly on removing corruption and further adopting and
adapting Western ideas. This advanced the process of Westernisation and secularisation and laid the
basis for a representative government.

The liberalisation reforms and the further integration of the Ottoman Empire into the world economy
had not succeeded in forming a commercial or industrial middle class like its Western counterparts.
In 1858 this was addressed with the land code in which was a further step towards allowing private
land ownership. Tribal leaders were settled and became landlords. Some prospered greatly selling
crops such as tobacco and cotton whose demand increased during and after the American civil war.
These highly successful landowners were to emerge as the new middle class in the early 20 th
century.16 The introduction of the telegraph and journalism coupled with greater contact with
Europeans led to the development of vocal public opinion. And as Roderic Davison articulates, Public
opinion “was a product of converging influences ranging from the oldest Muslim traditions to the
latest Parisian secular thought.”17 For the first time, Ottoman rulers had to take into consideration
public opinion of common people. The emergence of a prosperous and politically active middle class
was an essential step in the Empire becoming a European power.

The Western reforms and liberalisations of the Tanzimat era culminated in the development of the
first Constitution of the Ottoman Empire in 1876. It was created to limit the autocratic powers of the
Sultan but was soon dissolved only two years later by Sultan Abdulhamit II who proceeded to rule for
the next 30 years as a traditional autocrat. The First constitutional era none the less gave the people
a taste for European style governing. The increasing number of intellectuals, educated bureaucrats
and politically aware citizens produced by the new Western style secular schools were not just from
the ruling classes but also the lower classes. They became increasingly frustrated with the autocracy
of the Sultan as the problems of the Empire grew. They agitated for political change. The moment
came during 1907 when discontent and unrest erupted. The Sultan pre-empted the revolutionaries
by giving away most of his powers and recalling the 1876 constitution. While the Empire was now a

14 Roderic H Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire: 1856 – 1876, (Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton
University Press, 1963), 6
15 Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 8
16 Feroz, Turkey; The Quest for Identity, 32.
17 Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 9
constitutional monarchy with citizens enthused by the ideals of European style democracy, it
consequently deepened and polarized the views of the Empire’s inhabitants to a point where it as
Shaw states “the empire might have well blown up had this not been accomplished by events of
World War 1”.18 The empire, albeit deeply divided and fractured, had arrived on the stage as a
European great power and no longer the Eastern Empire of old and the foundations for the modern
Turkish republic were laid.

While many historians believe the greatest factor in causing change in the Ottoman empire was
external pressure, mainly from European powers, others propose that it was internal forces which
were fundamental for advancing change. Rifa‘at ‘Ali Abou-El-Haj states, “Quite the contrary: the
forces crucial in bringing change were internal, reflecting the interests of a section of the ruling class
which considered political change as advantageous to itself”. 19 However, European powers often
played a direct role in promoting reform. This can be seen most clearly in the Tanzimat era, where
the Tanzimat reformers relied on foreign embassies to keep up the pressure to Westernise and
prevent the reform from faltering, as there were no internal social forces doing this. 20 Both external
and internal factors played a role in initiating the transformation of the Ottoman Empire, however I
would argue that the Ottoman Empire would have certainly continued in its medieval form without
the continued European pressure and that it was European induced upheaval and influence that
primarily instigated social, military, political and economic change in the Empire.

The Ottoman Empire met key problems from the mid-eighteenth century onwards by a gradual
process of reform and modernisation. The forces that instilled the change were both external, such
as European influence and pressure, and internal, such as motives among the ruling class of self-
preservation and advantage. The process of modernising often met reactionary resistance from
conservative religious forces and members of the old order, such as the Janissaries; however key
events often curtailed and suppressed the resistance. The gradual reform influenced by Western
ideas and the measured adoption of European models in politics, military, economics and society and
the secularisation of the Empire, ultimately transformed from a non-European Empire to that of a
Great European power.

Bibliography:

Ahmad, Feroz. Turkey; The Quest for Identity, Oxford, Oneworld Publications, 2003.

Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Selim III", accessed October 30, 2012,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/533578/Selim-III.

E. Ihsanoglu, “Bashoca Ishak Efendi: Pioneer of Modern Science in Turkey,” in Decision Making and
Change in the Ottoman Empire, edited by Ceasar Farah, 157-168. Missouri, The Thomas Jefferson
University Press, 1993.

18 Shaw, History of Ottoman Empire 2, 273.

19 Rifa‘at ‘Ali Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State - The Ottoman Empire from Sixteenth to
Eighteenth Centuries, (Albany, State University of New York Press, 1991), 71-72.
20 Feroz, Turkey; The Quest for Identity, 33-34.
Farah, C, ed., Decision Making and Change in the Ottoman Empire, Missouri, The Thomas Jefferson
University Press, 1993.

Mustafa Reşid Paşa, The Imperial Rescript of the Rose Garden, 1839. Written proclamation, Translator
unkown, Boğaziḉi University, Ataturk Institute of Modern Turkish History.
http://www.anayasa.gen.tr/gulhane.htm

O’brien Patrick K. ed., Oxford Atlas of World History Concise Edition, New York, Oxford University
Press, 2002.

Rifa‘at ‘Ali Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State, The Ottoman Empire from Sixteenth to
Eighteenth Centuries, Albany, State University of New York Press, 1991.

Roderic H Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire: 1856 – 1876, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton
University Press, 1963.

Shaw, Stanford J. History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey Volume 1, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1976.

Shaw, Stanford J. History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey Volume 2, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1977.