J U N E 2 0 1 7 • VO LU M E 69, N U M B E R 6 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

Capital-Efficient
Subsea Solutions
Production Tree
Lead time: 12 months Unified Controls
Lead time: 12 months
Pump
Wellhead Lead time: 18 months
Lead time: 6 months
Manifold
Lead time: 18 months
Connection System
Lead time: 6 months

Redefine economic viability with a new

approach to subsea production.
The OneSubsea portfolio of standardized designs supports streamlined processes, documentation,
and manufacturing to deliver integrated production systems that enable achieving first oil as soon
as 24 months after contract award.
Customized to your field architecture, these capital-efficient solutions help you maximize recovery
from new fields to transform deepwater economics across the life of the asset.

Find out more at

onesubsea.slb.com/standardization

© 2017 Schlumberger. All rights reserved. 17-OSS-273292

CONTENTS
Volume 69 • Number 6

14 SPE: WEATHERING THE DOWNTURN

SPE’s Chief Financial Officer Steve Byrne provides an overview of
SPE’s operational adjustments made in response to the downturn
while adhering to its commitment to serve and benefit members.
18 GUEST EDITORIAL • WHY CAN’T WE APPLY
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES MORE OFTEN
TO VERTICAL WELLS IN MATURE FIELDS?
The best approach for applying advanced technologies to
vertical wells is to define exactly what you want to accomplish
in a given well.
30 MAJOR ALASKAN DISCOVERIES PROMOTE
GREAT EXPECTATIONS
In the most drilled part of a mature, onshore basin, an operator
found a field with more than a billion barrels of oil and others are
following suit. They have learned how to find oil in formations
that long frustrated explorers, but profitable production remains
a challenge.
A drilling rig on a gravel island in
34 WITH NEW RIG SOFTWARE, AUTOMATED DRILLING the shallow waters of Smith Bay off
IS EASIER TO EMBRACE the North Slope of Alaska where
A new software for drilling rigs that is compatible with all types Caelus Energy made a discovery
with huge production potential
of existing operating systems has opened the door to the wider
and development challenges.
adoption of automation technology in North America’s shale Source: Caelus Energy.
exploration programs.
38 CAN AUSTIN CHALK EXPANSION LEAD TO REVIVAL?
Drilling interest is growing in the Austin Chalk formation as
companies use the latest unconventional development methods
in hopes of opening a new chapter in the historic US play. DEPARTMENTS
42 GETTING MORE FROM FRACTURING WITH DIVERSION 6 Performance Indices
Increasingly, hydraulic fracturing designs use mixes of particles to
temporarily plug perforations taking in most of the flow to ensure 8 Regional Update
a more even, productive stimulation. 10 President’s Column
16 Comments
48 PERMIAN, BAKKEN OPERATORS FACE
PRODUCED WATER CHALLENGES 20 Technology Applications
Several methods are being used to handle the increased demand 24 Technology Update
for produced water handling in hydraulic fracturing activities amidst 26 E&P Notes
rising costs. 66 SPE Events
52 MANAGEMENT • CHEMICAL EOR— 90 People
A MULTIDISCIPLINARY EFFORT TO MAXIMIZE VALUE 91 Professional Services
To achieve an increase in incremental oil recovery at the lowest total 92 Advertisers’ Index
cost of ownership, a multidisciplinary and integrated approach is
vital to managing technical, regulatory, and economic challenges.

An Official Publication of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Printed in US. Copyright 2017, Society of Petroleum Engineers.
 Sli c kli n e / C oil e d T u bi n g I n t e r v e n ti o n s

Sli k P a k ™
Pl u s S e t ti n g S y s t e m

W ell I n t e r v e n ti o n s R e q ui r e
Fl e xi bl e S ol u ti o n s
A n y i nt er v e nti o n s ol uti o n n e e d s fl e xi bilit y. T A M’s s ol uti o n s c a n b e
d e pl o y e d o n c oil e d t u bi n g or wir eli n e.
O ur Sli k P a k ™ Pl u s i s a 2¹艠 8 i n. O D a s s e m bl y wit h a b att er y- p o w er e d
m e m or y s y st e m t h at c a n b e u s e d t o r u n i n fl at a bl e p a c k er s or bri d g e
pl u g s fr o m 2¹艠 8 i n. t o 1 4 ½ i n. O D o n sli c kli n e or el e ctri c li n e. A n y of
o ur i n fl at a bl e pr o d u ct s c a n b e r u n o n c oil e d t u bi n g.
E xcellence at the Wellsite ® T h e s e fi el d- pr o v e n s y st e m s h a v e b e e n u s e d w orl d wi d e i n a p pli c ati o n s
f or t e m p or ar y or p er m a n e nt pl u g- b a c k, r e c o m pl eti o n s, w ell h e a d c h a n g e
o ut, w ell a b a n d o n m e nt, s c a b li n er s, a n d w ell i nt e grit y t e sti n g.

w w w.t a mi ntl. c o m

T A M- 2 1 8 _ Sli k P a k _ F ull P g A d _ J P T _ 5- 1 2- 1 7-r e v.i n d d 1 5/ 1 2/ 1 7 2: 3 3 P M

 Mohawk Energy
Recovering
your Wellbore
TECHNOLOGY FOCUS
MetalPatch™ restores integrity in a
single trip solution.

54 COILED-TUBING APPLICATIONS MetalPatch seals off the problem

Alex Crabtree, SPE, Senior Adviser, Hess Corporation area with minimal loss of inner
diameter, providing maximum
55 Custom-Designed Coiled Tubing Leads to Success in Extended-Reach production and wellbore access.
Operations

58 Systematic Coiled-Tubing-Efficiency Improvement Reduces MetalPatch applications include:

Operational Time • Perforation shut off
• Connection / Collar leaks
62 Coiled Tubing With Real-Time-Measurement Tools Helps Overcome • Parted casing
Stimulation Problems • Casing corrosion
• Leaking or failed sliding sleeve
64 MATRIX STIMULATION • Lateral re-completion
Frank Chang, SPE, Petroleum Engineering Consultant, Saudi Aramco

65 Novel Coiled-Tubing Perforation Technique and Stimulation in Carbonate

Gas Well

68 Monitoring of Matrix Acidizing by Use of Resistivity Measurements

70 Cryogenic-Fracturing Treatment of Synthetic-Rock With Liquid Nitrogen
Parted Casing
72 WELLBORE TUBULARS
Robello Samuel, SPE, Technology Fellow, Halliburton

73 What Vacuum-Insulated Tubings and Casings Bring to Thermal Wells

75 Improving Casing Integrity by Induction Brazing of Casing Connections

Available Q4, 2016

ThruPatch Packer
77 Collapse Analysis of Perforated Pipes Under External Pressure

80 EOR OPERATIONS
Stephen Goodyear, SPE, EOR Deployment Lead, Shell

81 Challenges During Surface-Facility-Project Implementation for a Full-Field

Polymer Flood

84 Optimizing the Use of Miscible Injectant at the Greater Prudhoe Bay Fields Re-Frac Zone
86 Overview of Carbon Dioxide Injection and Water-Alternating-Gas
Sensitivity

Depleted Zone

www.mohawkenergy.com

The complete SPE technical papers featured in this issue are available
free to SPE members for 2 months at www.spe.org/jpt. Mohawk Energy
expanding the limits
 S OF T W A RE

RE ALI ZE T HE FIEL D
OF T HE F U T U RE
Fore Site delivers ield- wide intelligence
™

to maxi mize production.

T h e F or e Sit e pr o d u cti o n o pti mi z ati o n pl atf or m tr a n sf or m s
d at a i nt o p erf or m a n c e b y i nt e gr ati n g p h y si c s- b a s e d m o d el s
a n d a d v a n c e d a n al yti c s. Wit h t o ol s f or e v al u ati n g tr e n d s,
pr e di cti n g f ail ur e s a n d pi n p oi nti n g i s s u e s a cr o s s t h e a s s et,
t hi s s e c ur e pl atf or m e n a bl e s y o u t o r e d u c e o p er ati n g c o st s
a n d pr o d u c e m or e.

M e et t h e i el d of t h e f ut ur e t o d a y at w e at h erf or d. c o m / F or e Sit e.
© 2 0 1 7 W e at h erf or d. All ri g ht s r e s er v e d.

F or e Sit e _ 2 0 1 7 _ A d v erti s e m e nt.i n d d 1 4/ 1 0/ 1 7 5: 5 0 P M

 SPE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
OFFICERS
2017 President
Janeen Judah, Chevron
2016 President
Nathan Meehan, Baker Hughes
2018 President
Darcy Spady, Broadview Energy
Vice President Finance
Roland Moreau, ExxonMobil Annuitant
REGIONAL DIRECTORS
AFRICA
Adeyemi Akinlawon, Adeb Konsult
CANADIAN
Cam Matthews, C-FER Technologies
EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
Joe Frantz Jr., Range Resources
GULF COAST NORTH AMERICA
J. Roger Hite, Inwood Solutions
MID-CONTINENT NORTH AMERICA
Chris Jenkins, Independent Energy Standards
MIDDLE EAST
Khalid Zainalabedin, Saudi Aramco
NORTH SEA
Karl Ludvig Heskestad, Aker BP
NORTHERN ASIA PACIFIC
Phongsthorn Thavisin, PTTEP
ROCKY MOUNTAIN NORTH AMERICA
Erin McEvers, Clearbrook Consulting
RUSSIA AND THE CASPIAN
Anton Ablaev, Schlumberger
JPT STAFF
Glenda Smith, Publisher
John Donnelly, Editor
Pam Boschee, Senior Manager Magazines
Chris Carpenter, Technology Editor
Trent Jacobs, Digital Editor
Anjana Sankara Narayanan, Editorial Manager
Joel Parshall, Features Editor
Stephen Rassenfoss, Emerging Technology Senior Editor
Stephen Whitfield, Senior Staff Writer
Adam Wilson, Special Publications Editor
Craig Moritz, Assistant Director Americas Sales & Exhibits
Mary Jane Touchstone, Print Publishing Manager
David Grant, Digital Publishing Manager
Laurie Sailsbury, Composition Specialist
Dennis Scharnberg, Proofreader
SOUTH AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN
Anelise Quintao Lara, Petrobras
SOUTH, CENTRAL, AND EAST EUROPE
Matthias Meister, Baker Hughes
SOUTH ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Salis Aprilian, PT Badak NGL
We have the
SOUTHWESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Libby Einhorn, Concho Oil & Gas
superpower
WESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Andrei Popa, Chevron
to see inside
TECHNICAL DIRECTORS
DRILLING
your well.
Jeff Moss, ExxonMobil
HEALTH, SAFETY, SECURITY, ENVIRONMENT, And like all good
AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Trey Shaffer, ERM
superheroes, we’ll be
MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION right there when you
J.C. Cunha
COMPLETIONS
need us.
Jennifer Miskimins, Colorado School of Mines VISURAY’s revolutionary VR90®
PRODUCTION AND FACILITIES downhole X-ray diagnostic service is
Hisham Saadawi, Ringstone Petroleum Consultants now available in Europe, the Middle
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AND DYNAMICS East, and North America. In the North
Tom Blasingame, Texas A&M University Sea, our groundbreaking technology
DIRECTOR FOR ACADEMIA has been qualified by a major operator.
Dan Hill, Texas A&M University Wherever your well and whatever its
AT-LARGE DIRECTORS condition, you can count on us to see
what’s happening and deliver quality
Khaled Al-Buraik, Saudi Aramco
Helena Wu, Santos Ltd. images 100% of the time. A quick call
to us is all it takes to put your well
back into operation. You save time and
money, while VISURAY saves the day.
The Journal of Petroleum Technology® magazine is a
registered trademark of SPE. visuray.com
SPE PUBLICATIONS: SPE is not responsible for any
statement made or opinions expressed in its publications.
EDITORIAL POLICY: SPE encourages open and objective
discussion of technical and professional subjects per-
tinent to the interests of the Society in its publications.
Society publications shall contain no judgmental remarks
or opinions as to the technical competence, personal
character, or motivations of any individual, company, or
group. Any material which, in the publisher’s opinion,
does not meet the standards for objectivity, pertinence,
and professional tone will be returned to the contribu-
tor with a request for revision before publication. SPE
accepts advertising (print and electronic) for goods and
services that, in the publisher’s judgment, address the
technical or professional interests of its readers. SPE
reserves the right to refuse to publish any advertising it
considers to be unacceptable.
COPYRIGHT AND USE: SPE grants permission to make
up to five copies of any article in this journal for personal
use. This permission is in addition to copying rights grant-
ed by law as fair use or library use. For copying beyond
that or the above permission: (1) libraries and other users
dealing with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) must VISURAY ION
pay a base fee of USD 5 per article plus USD 0.50 per X-RAY VIS
page to CCC, 29 Congress St., Salem, Mass. 01970, USA
(ISSN0149-2136) or (2) otherwise, contact SPE Librarian
at SPE Americas Office in Richardson, Texas, USA, or
e-mail service@spe.org to obtain permission to make
more than five copies or for any other special use of
copyrighted material in this journal. The above permis-
sion notwithstanding, SPE does not waive its right as
copyright holder under the US Copyright Act.
Canada Publications Agreement #40612608.
 PERFORMANCE INDICES

WORLD CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION+‡ HENRY HUB GULF COAST NATURAL GAS SPOT PRICE‡

THOUSAND BOPD
6
2017
O PEC OCT NOV DEC JAN 5 USD/million Btu
Algeria 1350 1350 1350 1340 4
Angola 1618 1698 1668 1668
3
Ecuador 552 544 544 536
Gabon 200 220 220 200 2
Iran 4200 4220 4280 4300
1
Iraq 4565 4645 4685 4565

MAY

JUN

JUL

AUG

SEP

OCT

NOV

DEC

2017
JAN

FEB

MAR

APR
Kuwait1 2960 2970 2970 2830
Libya 550 580 620 678
Nigeria 1988 2023 1888 1923
Qatar 1507 1527 1527 1487
WORLD CRUDE OIL PRICES (USD/bbl)‡
Saudi Arabia1 10590 10640 10540 10020
UAE 3196 3226 3226 3066
Venezuela 2190 2180 2150 2100 2017
SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
TOTAL 35466 35823 35668 34713
Brent 46.57 49.52 44.73 53.32 54.58 54.87 51.59 52.31

THOUSAND BOPD WTI 45.18 49.78 45.71 51.97 52.50 53.47 49.33 51.06

2017
NON-OPEC OCT NOV DEC JAN
Canada 3893 4135 3968 4107
WORLD ROTARY RIG COUNT†
China 3780 3915 3949 3855

Egypt 492 491 491 490

Mexico 2136 2104 2067 2208 2017

REGION OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
Norway 1766 1785 1706 1660
US 544 580 634 683 744 789 853
Russia 10826 10832 10830 10733
Canada 156 173 209 302 342 253 108
UK 781 968 982 989
USA 8785 8863 8775 8835 Latin America 183 181 184 176 179 185 182
Other2 13509 13452 13592 13137 Europe 87 97 99 98 107 94 91

TOTAL 45968 46545 46360 46014 Middle East 391 380 376 382 382 386 389

Africa 77 79 78 79 77 80 89
Total World 81434 82368 82028 80727
Asia Pacific 182 188 192 198 196 198 205

INDICES KEY
TOTAL 1620 1678 1772 1918 2027 1985 1917
Numbers revised by EIA are given in italics.
+
Figures do not include natural gas plant liquids.
1
Includes approximately one-half of Neutral Zone production.
2
Additional annual and monthly international crude oil production statistics WORLD OIL SUPPLY AND DEMAND‡
are available at http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/.
† Source: Baker Hughes.
‡ Source: EIA.
MILLION BOPD 2016 2017
Quarter 2nd 3rd 4th 1st

SUPPLY 96.34 97.02 98.22 97.02

DEMAND 96.13 97.63 97.67 96.70
Supply includes crude oil, lease condensates, natural gas plant liquids, biofuels, other liquids,
and refinery processing gains.

6 JPT • JUNE 2017

 Land Drilling
Packages

Four tailored packages are available to

accommodate a range of pressure control,
hookload, and horsepower requirements.

Maximize drilling efficiency with a comprehensive solution.

Improve the return on your investment with tailored land drilling packages, which combine best-in-class
drilling and pressure control equipment with services that help operators find new ways of optimizing
their drilling operations.
From the BOP to the top drive, from the mud pump to the roughneck, our integrated drilling solutions
ensure continuous, reliable drilling performance—all in one complete package.

Find out more at

cameron.slb.com/drilling

Copyright © 2017 Schlumberger. All rights reserved. 17-DRL-260704

 REGIONAL UPDATE
AFRICA
Z BP has discovered natural gas in the
North Damietta offshore concession block
in Egypt’s East Nile Delta, the company’s
third discovery in the block. The Qattameya
Shallow-1 exploration well, in which BP
has a 100% interest, was drilled to a total
depth of 6,434 ft in water depth of 354 ft.
“This latest discovery confirms our belief
that the Nile Delta is a world-class basin,”
BP Chief Executive Bob Dudley said on
26 March. The well is 37 miles north of
Damietta city in the northern part of
the country. The company produces
approximately 40% of Egypt’s gas.
ASIA
Z Petronas’ floating liquefied natural gas
(FLNG) facility PFLNG SATU loaded its first
cargo at the Kanowit gas field offshore
Miri in the state of Sarawak, Malaysia, on
3 April. The facility is the world’s first to
8 JPT • JUNE 2017
begin commercial FLNG operations. The
cargo was loaded onto the LNG carrier
Seri Camellia, which was expected to
set sail for a South Asian market. “This
accomplishment effectively demonstrates
Petronas’ proven technology and capability
of adapting a conventionally land-based
installation to a floating LNG facility, a
game-changer in today’s LNG business
landscape,” Petronas President and Group
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Datuk Wan
Zulkiflee Wan Ariffin said. Operated by an
onboard team of 145 crew members, PFLNG
SATU has an LNG processing capacity of
1.2 million metric tons/yr.
AUSTRALIA/OCEANIA
Z Shell said it will drill 161 new gas wells
at its Queensland operations by the end of
2018, helping to secure its ongoing promise
to supply 10% of the country’s gas market
demand. The drilling will not affect exports
from the company’s Queensland Curtis
LNG plant. Shell’s announcement came a
week after Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull
met with the company and gas producer
ExxonMobil to discuss how to increase
supplies to offset a predicted market
shortage within 2 years. Eastern Australia
has experienced power blackouts and
brownouts over the past year, and growing
LNG exports have led to soaring gas prices
for manufacturers.
EUROPE
Z Hurricane Energy reported that it believes
the Greater Lancaster Area is a single
hydrocarbon accumulation, which would
make it the largest undeveloped discovery
on the United Kingdom Continental Shelf.
Operations on the 205/23-3A Halifax well
were complete with the well leading to
an oil discovery, the company said. Initial
data analysis also indicated that the well
is linked to the Lancaster field and forms
a single large hydrocarbon accumulation.
Preliminary third-party analysis of the well
shows a “very significant” hydrocarbon
column of at least 3,792 ft within the
basement rock and it extends well below
the local structural closure, Hurricane
said. Following discussions with the
UK Oil and Gas Authority, the company
said the well has been suspended with
future possibilities of deepening and/or
further testing.
MIDDLE EAST
Z Qatar Petroleum (QP) is planning a new
development in the offshore North field,
ending a 12-year ban on new projects so
it could assess the effect of its extraction
rate on the giant reservoir it shares with
Iran. The patch, in the southern section of
the field, will have a capacity of 2 Bcf/D,
or 400,000 BOE/D, and should start
production in 5 to 7 years, President and
CEO Saad Sherida Al Kaabi told reporters on
3 April. The North field and the connected
South Pars field in Iran constitute the world’s
biggest reservoir of nonassociated gas. QP
was quicker to exploit it, but Iran has begun
to catch up.
NORTH AMERICA
Z Eni said its recent discovery offshore
Mexico would hold more than the
800 million bbl of oil it originally estimated.
“This is an important find and we’ve found
new layers of good light oil that make us
think there’s more,” CEO Claudio Descalzi
said at an industry conference on 29 March.
The company said earlier in March that its
Amoca-2 well in the Bay of Campeche had
found “meaningful” oil reserves. With the
exploratory project, Eni became the first
international operator to drill a well in Mexico
following the 2013 reform that opened the oil
sector to foreign investors.
SOUTH AMERICA
Z Shell has opened a treatment plant
for shale oil and gas in Argentina’s Vaca
Muerta shale play, one of the world’s largest.
The plant has the ability to process up
to 10,000 B/D of oil from the company-
operated Sierras Blancas, Cruz de Lorena,
and Coiron Amargo Sur Oeste blocks.
Investment has been increasing in the
Vaca Muerta in recent months, following a
national government agreement with labor
unions to lower costs, the clarification of
price supports by the national government,
and a provincial government agreement to
stabilize taxes. JPT
 RISK AND REWARD
Climate Change and SPE
Janeen Judah, 2017 SPE President
In early April, the shipping lanes along
the coastlines of Newfoundland and
Labrador, Canada, were quite congest-
ed, but not with tankers. This area of
Canada—often called “Iceberg Alley”—
was filled with 450 icebergs, floating
south. This overabundance appeared
suddenly; the US Coast Guard reported
the increase from 37 to 450 icebergs in a week.
What is the cause? Scientists disagree. Some state that rising
temperatures caused by global warming triggered this massive
iceberg jam. Others say that it could have been caused by a
violent windstorm in St. John’s, Canada, a few weeks earlier.
In either case, the “bergy water”—the term used by the
Canadian Coast Guard in its ice bulletin—has officials believ-
ing that the number of icebergs this year will eclipse last year’s
total of 687.
Opinions regarding climate change—is it real or not—are
polar opposite. There are just as many people who passionate-
ly believe it exists and needs to be slowed as those who do not
believe it exists.
Typically, SPE does not take positions on political or con-
troversial matters. We are a society that disseminates techni-
cal knowledge for the upstream segment of the oil and gas in-
dustry. But this concern is so prevalent globally that last year,
the SPE Board of Directors formed a climate change task force
to identify “key aspects of climate change and public percep-
tions of climate change.” This group also was charged with de-
veloping a strategy for SPE’s response and recommending any
actions that the society should take.
The board also requested that recommendations developed
by the task force avoid any approach that could be construed
as lobbying or political advocacy, as neither is consistent with
SPE’s role and status as a not-for-profit organization.
The task force worked diligently for nearly a year studying
climate change policies such as the Paris Agreement, which was
developed at the 21st annual Conference of Parties. Population
growth and economic development are driving increased need
for and access to energy, so the Paris Agreement is expected to
bring change over the course of this century. It has the potential
to usher in new opportunities for SPE members through deploy-
ing carbon dioxide capture, use, and storage (CCUS), further ac-
celerating natural gas as an option to coal, changing the infra-
structural load as natural gas becomes an essential component
To contact the SPE President, email president@spe.org.
10
of a more flexible power generation system, and pushing oil
into new markets as it is displaced from some of its current uses
(such as transportation).
Based on these expected changes, the task force proposed
that SPE adopt a climate change strategy that maximizes align-
ment with SPE’s mission and vision, while positioning us to ex-
pand the mission and vision should the landscape change this
century. The twofold strategy includes ensuring the inclusion of
SPE technologies and practices that may help address climate
change while meeting the growing energy needs of the world.
The second component is to take the necessary steps to inform
SPE members about climate change issues and their connection
to what members do, the technologies they know and apply,
and the partnerships and communities to which they belong
or could belong.
Using the power of SPE to support our members, the activi-
ties that SPE can take include:
◗ JPT articles that identify public policy developments
related to climate change and associated public
perceptions that could impact our ability to deliver our
mission
◗ Case history knowledge sharing that promotes energy
efficiency in oil and gas E&P
◗ Knowledge sharing to promote reduction of planned and
unplanned emissions and releases in E&P operations
◗ Knowledge sharing about physical risks associated with
changing climate and successfully managing those risks
◗ Supporting development of CCUS technology and
practices to use within and beyond the E&P industry
◗ Discussing new technical opportunities for members
related to climate change
Of course, SPE already is actively involved in some of these
steps. The strategy further enables us to broaden our suite
of activities.
Lastly, the task force reviewed the positions of other profes-
sional organizations, including most of our related engineering
and geoscience organizations, and discovered a wide range of
approaches on climate change. For example, some organiza-
tions offered high-level assessments on climate science while
others offered only policy guidance. A third set had neither
assessments nor guidance.
Since SPE does not have a focus on assessing climate sci-
ence or guiding policy, the task force recommended that we
not develop a public position statement on climate change. At
JPT • JUNE 2017

its meeting in March, the SPE Board of Directors accepted the
task force’s recommendation.
The board approved the success plan created by the task
force. The success vision for the recommended SPE climate
change strategy states that:
◗ The Paris Agreement calls for “a balance between
anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by
sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this
century” (net-zero), which will require significant input
from the energy sector.
◗ SPE puts its technical resources behind achieving a net-
zero emissions world while continuing to capture the
value (more than energy) provided by oil and gas.
◗ SPE events and publications should include technical
content relevant to the achievement of a net-zero
emissions world.
◗ The recommended strategy aligns with SPE member
interests.
◗ SPE’s climate change strategy will drive a multiyear focus
that includes technologies, skills development,
knowledge sharing, and partnerships, which will be
represented in near- and long-term action plans.
◗ SPE provides its members with information needed to
understand the issue of climate change and the
interconnectivity of their roles, technologies, and
partnerships in this context.
◗ SPE pushes the thinking of what is possible with regard
to research and development to address technology
gaps.
◗ SPE promotes technologies and practices that help
address climate change while meeting the growing
energy needs of the world.
As SPE president, I am satisfied with the task force’s find-
ings and recommendation. I believe that these action points
12
Icebergs floating south in the “Iceberg
Alley” near Goose Cove, Newfoundland.
Source: Getty Images.
are both creative and doable while also being meaningful and
reliable. These recommendations dovetail nicely with the sus-
tainability messages of my SPE president predecessor, Nathan
Meehan. If you heard him speak or read his JPT columns, you
know that his common refrain was that as engineers we must
“improve people’s lives,” and the key ways Nathan listed are
minimizing methane emissions, reducing/eliminating flares,
focusing on energy efficiency and conservation, ensuring well-
bore integrity, reducing our surface footprint, and eliminating
oil spills. In other words, he espoused that we can go about our
business as petroleum engineers but with a “commitment to
doing the right job and getting that job done right.”
I, too, have a special concern about operating in a safe and
environmentally responsible manner, and I have written on
these topics a few times in this space. For example, in my
November column, “To be Leaders of Integrity, We Must Earn
Trust,” I explained my viewpoint that small-footprint opera-
tions save money. And, in a time when concern about use of
fossil fuels is growing in North America and Western Europe,
our past actions affect our social license to continue to operate.
People are concerned about our approach to sustainability and
the potential for climate change.
SPE is not in the business of making or establishing policy
change. But I believe our decisions and actions as engineers
can make a positive influence on our world. As I speak to SPE
members worldwide, I usually end my presentations with a
NASA image of Earth at night. First World nations are bright-
ly lit with electricity while other regions, primarily Africa, are
largely in the dark. We have so much work to do to bring en-
ergy to everyone, but we must do so wisely. I like to tell people
that in addition to my engineering degree from Texas A&M
University, I have a law degree, too. But lawyers don’t solve the
world’s problems; engineers do. We can engineer a better and
brighter future for generations to come. JPT
JPT • JUNE 2017
PROVEN
Friction
i i Breaking Technology
The XRVG3 is Thru Tubing Solutions’ third generation extended reach
vibratory tool. The innovative design allows this friction breaking tool to
outperform when others fall short.

With no moving parts or elastomers, the XRVG3 is the shortest, most

reliable extended reach tool on the market. The choice is clear!

Competitor
r1 Competitor 2

No Moving Parts 9
No Elastomers 9 9
Compatible with Anti-Friction Beads 9 9
Fully Gas Compatible 9
Unlimited Temperature Range 9
Compact, Rugged Design 9
Wide Range of Flow Rates 9 9 9
Low Differential Pressure 9 9
Compatible with Unfiltered Fluid 9 9
For more information on the XRVG3,
contact us at ttssales@thrutubing.com.

Our Service Makes The Difference

www.ThruTubing.com
 GUEST COLUMN

SPE: Weathering the Downturn

Steve Byrne, Chief Financial Officer, Society of Petroleum Engineers

When oil prices began to fall rapidly in While a few member during ATCE. The costs had increased
the last half of 2014, the impact was significantly. The Board modified the
quickly felt in all of SPE’s programs. Our way in which regional teams are select-
magazines were affected first by a reduc- programs have been ed for the finals at ATCE and reduced the
tion in advertising as companies reduced costs being borne by SPE for this pop-
their marketing budgets. Training course reduced or modified, the ular program.
attendance was next as companies cut On the events side, industry layoffs
back training and travel. Conference essential services we affected many of the volunteers who
and workshop participation declined as plan our events, putting more work
travel was constrained, and technical provide to members are in the hands of staff. SPE reduced the
programs for conferences were affect- number of workshops and forums, and
ed as authors were unable to present reduced or eliminated the exhibits at
their papers. Participation in exhibitions unchanged. some smaller conferences. Larger con-
held up for a while as many companies ferences may have had smaller exhibi-
honored commitments that had already through harder times. As it became clear tions, but SPE made every effort to give
been made, but subsequent rebooking that the industry was facing a “lower for the exhibitors good exposure to attend-
of exhibits declined. It quickly became longer” situation, we recognized that we ees and tailor the venues to the expected
apparent that all of SPE’s main programs needed to adjust our operations to fit level of activity. Staff worked to reduce
were going to be suppressed as long as industry conditions. costs associated with putting on events
prices remained low and would likely When oil prices were high, SPE ini- without negatively affecting the experi-
trail the recovery of prices on the way out tiated a number of new member pro- ence of attendees.
of the downturn. grams. One of our first steps was to As we worked to reduce expenses, it
Understanding that SPE could not examine these newer programs to deter- was necessary to make some very pain-
continue to operate in a business-as- mine whether they could be paused until ful decisions about one of our largest
usual fashion, the Board of Directors conditions improved, or reduced in expenses—SPE staff. During previous
and senior staff began examining the some manner to improve their econom- industry downturns, SPE had managed
impact to SPE and options for adjusting ics. This effort quickly spread to lon- without a layoff. But the growth over the
operations to the downturn. SPE is very ger-standing programs as well. Changes previous decade and the rapid decline
fortunate to have financial reserves to made to PetroBowl are an example of the left us with no choice but to undertake
smooth the impacts of the economic fluc- type of action taken by the Board. The a reduction in force. Over the course
tuations common to our industry. During program had grown the number of teams of 2015 and 2016, we reduced staff by
the years of high prices, we were able to involved, and SPE was covering the travel 32%. This brought SPE’s staffing back to
build a reserve fund and invest it to see us costs for many teams to attend the finals 2009 levels.
We have reviewed every SPE program
and reduced or eliminated many that are
Steve Byrne is SPE’s chief financial officer and director of business
not essential to SPE’s mission. Through-
services, responsible for global financial reporting and
out this process, our focus wasn’t solely
consolidation of SPE; treasury and investment services; facilities
management; and coordination of the global audit and on cutting back. Even as we were trying to
consolidation of all SPE legal entities. Before joining SPE, Byrne reduce costs to better align with econom-
was controller for ThinkSpark, an Oracle database and consulting ic conditions, we launched our Members
firm. Prior to ThinkSpark, he worked for Arco for 16 years where in Transition toolkit, increased online
he held various financial and tax positions in US operations as well webinars, offered free attendance days
as in the international division. He received his BBA degree in accounting and finance
from Texas A&M University and is a certified public accountant. (Continued on page 29)

14 JPT • JUNE 2017

p opl
po d
The power of our resources means
nothing without the energy of our
people. Their focus and expertise make
our energy more dependable, more
sustainable, and more useful.

We are looking for experienced

petroleum engineers and geoscientists
to join our team.

Apply now.

www.aramco.jobs/jpt
 COMMENTS EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Bernt Aadnøy, University of Stavanger

Syed Ali—Chairperson, Consultant

Tayfun Babadagli, University of Alberta

Shale Sustainability William Bailey, Schlumberger

Mike Berry, Mike Berry Consulting

John Donnelly, JPT Editor Maria Capello, Kuwait Oil Company

Frank Chang, Saudi Aramco

Simon Chipperfield, Santos

Public and government concern over unconventional oil and gas Alex Crabtree, Hess Corporation

production continues. Hardly a month goes by before anoth- Gunnar DeBruijn, Schlumberger
er study into the potential health effects of shale production is Mark Egan, Retired
launched or a public hearing is conducted regarding the impact Mark Elkins, Retired
of a project on the local landscape.
Alexandre Emerick,
For example, last month the Southwest Pennsylvania Envi- Petrobras Research Center
ronmental Health Project opened a public health registry to Niall Fleming, Statoil
track and analyze the impact of shale gas development on peo-
Ted Frankiewicz, SPEC Services
ple living near wells, pipelines, and other infrastructure. That followed the release of a
Duke University study that concluded that hydraulic fracturing in the Marcellus Shale Stephen Goodyear, Shell

did not pollute groundwater in West Virginia but that wastewater spillage contami- Omer M. Gurpinar, Schlumberger
nated some surface water. Many of the reports and studies are drawing similar con- A.G. Guzman-Garcia, Retired
clusions—that hydraulic fracturing poses little or no risk but that contamination can Greg Horton, Retired
occur during the transportation or treatment process.
John Hudson, Shell
Shale oil and gas development has certainly changed the world order in these com-
Morten Iversen, Karachaganak Petroleum
modities, from OPEC strategy and commodity prices to global import/export patterns.
The US, with abundant gas still depressing prices, is becoming an exporter of lique- Leonard Kalfayan, Hess Corporation

fied natural gas rather than an importer. Shale oil is largely responsible for the low oil Thomas Knode, Contek Solutions
prices of the past 2 years, turning the US into the world’s “swing” producer, a position Sunil Kokal, Saudi Aramco
Saudi Arabia once held. Industry resiliency amid low oil prices led to slashing of ser- Marc Kuck, Eni US Operating
vice company costs, operational efficiencies, and high-grading of properties. As ser-
Jesse C. Lee, Schlumberger
vice costs now begin to rise, profitable production in a world of USD 40–60/bbl oil will
Douglas Lehr, Baker Hughes
require further innovation.
But the industry also continues to face regulatory challenges based on environmen- Silviu Livescu, Baker Hughes

tal concerns. Maryland has recently followed New York in legislating against hydrau- Shouxiang (Mark) Ma, Saudi Aramco
lic fracturing. A new book, Sustainable Shale Oil and Gas: Analytical Chemistry, Geo- John Macpherson, Baker Hughes
chemistry, and Biochemistry Methods by Vikram Rao and Rob Knight argues that Stéphane Menand, DrillScan
this type of policymaking is hampered by inadequate data, which in turn is caused by
Graham Mensa-Wilmot, Chevron
shortcomings in analytical techniques. The authors describe new cost-effective analyt-
Badrul H. Mohamed Jan, University of Malaya
ical methods for detecting fugitive methane as well as particulate matter and volatile
organic chemicals, including a portable shoe-box-sized mass spectrometer with per- Zillur Rahim, Saudi Aramco

formance approaching that of a laboratory machine. Eric Ringle, FMC Technologies

The last line of the book states, “That which cannot be measured, cannot be regulat- Martin Rylance, BP plc
ed or otherwise controlled or exploited.” They apply this reasoning to improving the Robello Samuel, Halliburton
economics of recovery as well. The book discusses analytical methods to illuminate
Otto L. Santos, Retired
the unconventional reservoir, including a fascinating method using DNA sequencing to
Luigi A. Saputelli, Frontender Corporation
characterize reservoir rock through examination of microbial populations.
The book lays out how analytical chemistry, geochemistry, and biochemistry play Sally A. Thomas, Retired

prominent roles in hydraulic fracturing and that they are central to the three tenets of Win Thornton, BP plc
sustainable production: protecting the environment, protecting the well-being of local Xiuli Wang, Baker Hughes
communities, and profitability. Mike Weatherl, Well Integrity
Innovation has been a necessity for survival in the low oil and gas price market, and
Scott Wilson, Ryder Scott Company
continued innovation will result in an industry resilient to future unexpected challeng-
Jonathan Wylde, Clariant Oil Services
es. And the authors contend that that innovation and production is achievable in envi-
ronmentally responsible fashion. JPT Robert Ziegler, Weatherford

To contact JPT’s editor, email jdonnelly@spe.org.

16 JPT • JUNE 2017

 Stormy weather, seasoned team:
It’s time to make optimal decisions
about your reservoirs

More than ever, it is time to make the right decisions: develop production in the
short term, increase reserves, improve economics, update Field Development
Plans, implement adequate IOR/EOR strategy, prepare for the rebound.
Make sure your decision is supported by the best available expertise. Contact Beicip-Franlab.

• Green and brown field development • Multidisciplinary expertise at its best:

• Production enhancement - Geology
• Reserves, resources - Geophysics
• Clastics/carbonates, non conventional - Reservoir engineering
• IOR/EOR - Production engineering
• Optimal economics

Beicip-Franlab Headquarters
232, avenue Napoléon Bonaparte - BP 213
92500 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex - France
Phone: +33 1 47 08 80 00 - Fax: +33 1 47 08 41 85
Email: info@beicip.com

www.beicip.com
 GUEST EDITORIAL
Why Can’t We Apply Advanced Technologies
More Often to Vertical Wells in Mature Fields?
Rob Hull, Director, Global Technical Solutions, Halliburton
When I started working in the oil and gas For example, vertical injection wells
business in the 1970s, we spent a great can be refractured using more advanced
deal of time designing vertical wells. The diversion technology, ultimately extend-
horizontal well was by and large a far- ing the life of the well or even potentially
fetched idea on everyone’s wish list— adding more reserves. Or we can accu-
the capability to have a completion go rately apply acid in a vertical well to estab-
through the sweet spot was almost too lish better communication with a reser-
good to be true. Fast forward to 2017 and voir. Such applications  are now part of
we are now drilling horizontals every- the mature field landscape, but the wide-
where, surpassing drilling times again spread adoption of newer technologies
and again. often moves at a glacial pace.
But what about vertical wells, are we The second factor is cost. We know that
not still drilling those? The answer is the application of advanced technologies
“Yes, we are.” From 2011 to 2016, the can prolong the life of mature fields, but
industry drilled 117,624 vertical wells in it has to be done cost-effectively. Mature
the United States while, in that same time fields are exceptionally cost-sensitive,
frame, it drilled 84,200 horizontals. and any high-dollar application must
The fact is, vertical wells still have sev- yield acceptable returns: You are not
eral key applications: They are typically going to pump an expensive chemical into
used as the preliminary wellbore in explo- a well for a 0.5% return—it just does not
ration, production, and acreage delinea- make sense.
tion, and can be used for infill drilling, Looking ahead, the well intervention
injection, and disposal. market for mature fields will be demand-
So, can we not apply advanced tech- ing more and more of our attention. By
nologies more often to mature vertical 2019, it is expected to be in the range of
wells? We can, but two factors need to be USD 13 billion per year globally.
considered when doing so—technology So, what is the best approach for apply-
and cost. ing advanced technologies to the vertical
First, embracing advanced technolo- wells in mature fields?
gies. Some energy and production com- The first step is defining exactly what
panies lead the way in innovation while you want to accomplish in a given well—a
others are more risk-adverse. Regardless, clear objective sharpens the focus of what
new technologies are consistently being you will need to get there. The strategic
developed, refined, and eventually adopt- approach to understanding is ensuring
ed more broadly. that the correct diagnostics are completed
Rob Hull is director of Halliburton Global Technical Solutions,
leading a global team in assisting customers with using
Halliburton  technology to address challenges in deep water,
mature fields, and unconventional assets. He has more than 35
years of experience with various evaluation and production
operators, technology providers, and consulting groups. Hull
holds a BS  degree in management and an MBA, both from
Canterbury University.
18
and vetted against the available technolo-
gies. How much money do you want to
invest in the project? What is the estimated
attainable production yield? Do you want
quick returns or a long-term solution?
The second step entails adopting an
open mind regarding the application of
advanced technologies, to think outside
the box of convention and seriously con-
sider the full range of what is available.
You can then assess and analyze various
technologies to determine which is best-
suited to achieve the desired results in a
cost-effective manner. Risk can be miti-
gated by “doing the homework” or by
application of learnings from others cur-
rently finding success in the surround-
ing areas.
One example is a vertical well that
is located in south Texas. The well was
drilled in 1996 and declined to the point
that it was shut in in 2013. The well was
refractured in 1996 and 1999 to keep
the production up but it continued to
decline rapidly. Tubing was replaced in
2003 but even with all the maintenance
effort, the well went from initial produc-
tion of 400 Mcf/D to 10 Mcf/D.
In 2014, the operator made one more
effort to revitalize the well by using
advanced technology. A tool was run via
slickline that discovered a hole in the
tubing. The tubing was replaced, and a
two-stage refracture was performed using
advanced proppant technology. The well
came back on producing 1.5 MMcf/D. With
a USD 250,000 investment by the opera-
tor, a little design work, and some faith in
applying newer techniques, the operator
was able to exponentially increase pro-
duction and avoid abandoning the well.
Can we afford not to use the right appli-
cation of technology to get the maximum
value for the asset? JPT
JPT • JUNE 2017
 We create
chemistry
that makes EOR
operations more
economical

EVG1468e

BASF develops next-generation surfactants and polymers designed

to support enhanced oil recovery operations even under demanding
field conditions. Delivered with the support of our unique “Verbund”
concept, our high-performance solutions reduce your dependence
on raw materials while ensuring reliability of supply. With solutions
along the entire value chain, a truly global presence and worldwide
availability, we create chemistry that enables you to maximize the
potential and profitability of your EOR operations.
oilfieldsolutions@basf.com · www.oilfield-solutions.basf.com

4668_AZ_EOR_206x276mm_RZ_th.indd 1 11.04.17 10:11

 TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

Chris Carpenter, JPT Technology Editor

Multistage-Fracturing Service
Baker Hughes introduced the DEEPFRAC
deepwater multistage-fracturing service,
which can save operators hundreds of
millions of dollars in offshore develop-
ments through efficiency gains across
the completion phase. By use of multi-
position sleeves and patented flowback-
control technology, the service acceler-
ates or eliminates certain steps of con-
ventional multizone completion opera-
tions and enables rapid stimulation of
multiple stages. This translates into sig-
nificantly greater reservoir contact, with
an average operating-expense savings of
USD 30 to 40 million per well. Typi-
cally, after a deepwater well has been Fig. 1—Baker Hughes’ DEEPFRAC multistage-fracturing service. Proprietary
drilled, the subsequent completion phase flowback-control media is incorporated directly into the multiposition sleeve’s
involves multiple time-consuming steps. production ports to enable long-term, sand-free production without the need
In contrast, the DEEPFRAC service elimi- for conventional sand screens.
nates casing and cementing operations
and simplifies fluid logistics by using sleeve’s ball activation enables contin- ration flexibility. The sleeves used in the
ball-activated, multiposition sleeves that uous pumping, cutting the lower com- DEEPFRAC service are modular and flex-
can be installed in openhole wellbores pletion phase from weeks to days. Con- ible, enabling placement of 20 or more
containing drilling mud (Fig. 1). No tool ventional offshore stimulation systems tightly spaced stages across the pay zone
movement is needed during the DEEP- are often limited to only five zones or to ensure more-uniform treatments and
FRAC service’s stimulation process. The stages, and these systems lack configu- to maximize reservoir contact.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.bakerhughes.com.

Perforation-for-Diversion
System
GEODynamics introduced the SandIQ
optimized perforating technology, now
undergoing field evaluations in the Perm-
ian and Bakken. The system generates
optimized perforating geometry that
leads to improved proppant transport
in fracturing stages (Fig. 2). In addition,
SandIQ uses constant and consistent
perforating entry holes and penetration
depths in wells regardless of gun posi-
tion, well casing, and formation. Par-
ticle transport at a high fluid velocity is
complex. With the SandIQ perforating
system, proppant-placement efficiency
is improved because of the creation of a
diversion ledge in combination with a 45°
formation-entry ramp. The added down-
Fig. 2—Perforations using a conventional perforating system (top) vs. stream ledge in the casing further assists
perforations using GEODynamics’ SandIQ technology. the sand to exit more evenly along the

20 JPT • JUNE 2017

 numerous clusters. SandIQ is the result
of GEODynamics’ engineering and devel-
opment efforts and is part of a broader
perforating technology suite that allows
operators to continuously improve well
completions. GEODynamics offers engi-
neering support for this continuous
improvement process using software
tools and step-rate-testing data provided
by the operator.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.perf.com.

Fig. 3—Production Plus’ HEAL Slickline System enables fewer, and simpler,
artificial-lift transitions.
Slickline System
Horizontal wells are known to have pro-
duction challenges as a result of inconsis-
tent slug-fluid flow, damaging solids, and
excessive gas interference. Production
through the life cycle of these wells often
requires complex and expensive artificial-
lift strategies. Production Plus Energy
Services introduced the retrievable Hor-
izontal Enhanced Artificial Lift (HEAL)
Slickline System, which provides great-
er access to the wellbore, easier instal-
lation, simpler integrity testing, and an
economical protection solution for dam-
aging offset interwellbore communica-
tion (Fig.  3). With no moving parts, the
system easily joins to the horizontal as
part of a standard well completion and
is designed to perform for the life of the
well. The system is part of a set of config-
urations that offers producers increased
efficiency, more cost options, and the
flexibility to enhance the performance of
any artificial system, including electrical
submersible pumps, rod pumping, pro-
gressive cavity pumping, and plunger lift
through the life of a horizontal well. The
products in the HEAL suite are designed
to benefit a horizontal well’s entire pro-
ducing life—controlling fracturing flow-
back, extending the natural flow period,
simplifying transitions between artificial-
lift phases, lowering operating expenses,
and eliminating costly intermediate arti-
ficial lift.
◗ For additional information, visit
www.pdnplus.com.

Fluid-Characterization Service
The average quality of discovered oil is
Fig. 4—The G9+ service from Geolog can characterize reservoir fluids in near- decreasing through time, and oils with
real-time. very different properties coexist in many
wells. Consequently, good completion

22 JPT • JUNE 2017

 wireline logs in new wells. The system
includes the only five-detector-array
pulsed neutron tool in the world, which
enables 250% more gas-saturation mea-
surement sensitivity compared with
two-detector tools. The Raptor tool
is the only pulsed neutron tool that
offers multipoint oil and gas sensitiv-
ity calibration, which provides factory-
specification logging performance
before each job. Once raw data reach
the surface, the information is analyzed
by dedicated production petrophysicists
with an integrated single-well response
characterization, four-detector mixing,
and transparent petrophysical process-
es and software. At any point in the pro-
cess, the client is able to confer with
the production petrophysicist to see the
Fig. 5—Weatherford’s Raptor 2.0 cased-hole evaluation system offers analysis behind the answers. The sys-
multipoint oil and gas sensitivity calibration. tem offers a variety of fluid-saturation
answer products—including carbon/
and flow-assurance strategies can guar- ume within a few saturation units. The oxygen, sigma, and three-phase tech-
antee more value from assets. A continu- system provides reliable saturation data niques—along with an array of specialty
ous oil-quality profile of a reservoir, pro- that guide reservoir-rejuvenation pro- answer products. JPT
duced at wellsite, can support important grams (Fig. 5). It can also be deployed ◗ For additional information, visit
decisions for well completion, avoiding as an alternative to traditional openhole www.weatherford.com.
costly downhole sampling programs and
lengthy delays waiting for lab results.
Geolog’s G9+ service can characterize Introducing Cascade 3
reservoir fluids in near-real-time, with
only a few minutes’ delay, with low rates Improve water injectivity,
of penetration using low-cost thermal-
extraction techniques formerly applied recovery, and well life.
only in analytical laboratories (Fig. 4).
This approach provides timely assess-
ments of oil quality, including wax con-
tent, presence of biodegradation or water
washing, and differentiation of oil inter-
vals with different American Petroleum
Institute gravities, all without any addi-
tional rig time. The service delivers rapid
measurements of the liquid hydrocar-
bons in the range of C9–C27 from cut-
tings. Successful applications have been
delivered in areas such as West Africa and
the Middle East, where both heavy and
high-quality oils commonly occur in the
same intervals.
◗ For additional information, visit Cascade3 removes the three failure mechanisms in injectors:
www.geolog.com.
&URVVćRZ%DFNćRZ:DWHU+DPPHU
Cased-Hole Evaluation System
The Weatherford Raptor 2.0 cased-hole
evaluation system defines the location www.tendeka.com
of oil and gas within inches and vol-

JPT • JUNE 2017 23

 TECHNOLOGY UPDATE
Real-Time, Single-Run CT System Provides
Selective Perforating and Activation
Teoman Altinkopru, SPE, Schlumberger
Deeper boreholes and longer, more devi-
ated laterals are driving an evolution in
well intervention operations, opening
opportunities for the industry to develop
challenging wells in new frontiers as inter-
vention capability expands to support the
most complex wells and completions.
From a service company standpoint,
this phenomenon has challenged the
industry to make continued improve-
ments in the delivery of well intervention
services and technologies to meet the
needs of customers and do the job right,
the first time. Development of advanced
equipment, such as coiled tubing (CT)
and other downhole tools that trans-
mit critical data and measurements in
real time, is helping operators move into
these new arenas and produce from wells
that once would have been inaccessible to
intervention methods.
By far the most used and exposed piece
of equipment in the oil field, CT has
been a critical tool in moving well inter-
vention services forward. The need for
accurate, real-time data in CT operations
will continue to be a key driver for fur-
ther innovation. Downhole tools that can
provide real-time information on depth,
pressure, and temperature and depth
correlation are critically important and
represent a significant change from the
requirements of 10 or 20 years ago in
shallow, vertical wells, where a 0.1% dis-
crepancy was acceptable.
For example, intervention in an off-
shore well of more than 20,000 ft
requires better resolution and greater
accuracy in the critical parameters, such
as depth, pressure, and the specific activ-
ity of the CT than intervention in shorter
wells in less challenging settings.
In this situation, a stimulation treat-
ment to increase the productivity of a
24
Fig. 1—The real-time selective
perforating and activation system
minimizes downtime, risk, and cost
with fewer runs for single perforation
attempts. Source: Schlumberger.
well with lower drawdowns on the reser-
voir can take 2 or more days to run in and
out of the hole. Traditionally, operators
have used surface measurements to infer
the depth from length measurements,
with little information and control over
what the CT is doing downhole. In a dif-
ficult horizontal well, reliance on those
assumptions can very easily lead to dis-
crepancies in measurements and inaccu-
rate decision making.
Schlumberger made a conscious deci-
sion more than 10 years ago to focus on
developing high-tech sensors that pro-
vide real-time downhole measurements
for greater accuracy. Today, tools that
deliver the capability to digitally operate
key well intervention services and equip-
ment are aiding rig crews in conducting
efficient, safer well interventions.
Optimizing the performance of exist-
ing wells is a practical choice that reduc-
es the costs and risks associated with
well intervention. Innovative CT technol-
ogies offer several key benefits, including
a reduced footprint, accurate measure-
ments of bottomhole pressures and tem-
peratures, proper depth correlation, and
precise load measurements in a unique,
robust package for harsh and complex
environments. These features allow
operators to eliminate guesswork and
make educated decisions as the job pro-
gresses, respond immediately, and adjust
parameters as conditions change.
New CT System Advantages
Toward that end, an innovative meth-
od for selective perforating and plug-
setting with CT provides several impor-
tant advantages, including the ability to
accurately correlate depth between each
detonation using fiber-optic telemetry to
transmit signals.
The Schlumberger ACTive OptiFIRE
CT real-time selective perforating and
activation system is able to reach tar-
get depth safely, efficiently, and cost-
effectively in a single CT run, a capability
previously unavailable.
The tool’s accessibility to the targeted
area is equal to that of a wireline trac-
tor but without the need for a wireline
crew at the wellsite. Thus, the use of the
system minimizes environmental impact
and reduces time and rig costs. The tool
accesses the zone, positions the perforat-
ing guns, fires, and confirms detonation
in one run (Fig. 1).
Especially suited for high-flow-rate
wells, sub-hydrostatic wells, and unstable
formations, the CT real-time selective
perforating and activation system is part
of the platform of live CT services, includ-
ing depth correlation, real-time pres-
sure and temperature monitoring, and
accelerometer data obtained by means of
built-in sensors.
JPT • JUNE 2017
 The use of fiber-optic telemetry to
transmit signals eliminates the need to
pump fluids downhole to initiate deto-
nation, enabling operators to maintain
underbalanced conditions to reduce for-
mation damage while perforating and
avoid displacing fractures when run-
ning plug-setting tools. The tool does
not require a ball-drop or pressure-pulse
mechanism to detonate, and can be used
with a wide range of perforating guns.
The system selectively fires multiple
guns for up to 10 zones in a single run,
at different depths, overcoming conven-
tional CT perforation methods that often
require multiple runs, result in operating
restrictions caused by the limitations of
perforating heads, and compromise safe-
ty in confirming detonation. Guns can be
fired on demand, and each gun is fired
separately for greater control of the per-
foration operation.
The system is armed after it is run in
the hole and programmed using wireline
procedures through a surface system in Fig. 2—Real-time confirmation of downhole detonation using the response of
the CT cabin. The battery-activated guns (leftward from second column) the casing collar locator (CCL), accelerometer,
are fired from the bottom up. Continuous pressure, and temperature data. Source: Schlumberger.
real-time feedback on the firing opera-
tion and an electronic safety key and significantly reduced health, safety, and ments and the downhole CCL depth corre-
pin that reduces risk while perforating environmental risk by eliminating the lation tool were used to place the bottom-
enhance safety. Plug-setting is achieved need to pump fluid for detonation and hole assembly, activate the firing head,
by sending a command to the setting tool. avoiding the hydrostatic loading of the and confirm detonation within seconds.
well (Fig. 2). Use of the system resulted in significant
Maintaining Underbalance A Middle East operator successfully time and cost savings for the operator.
The CT real-time selective perforating deployed the CT real-time selective per-
and activation system has been deployed forating and activation system for a field Looking Ahead
globally, including in Mexico, the Middle test on an unconventional oil well. After Going forward, maximizing production
East, Malaysia, and Norway. To prevent seeing positive results, the customer exe- from increasingly challenging reser-
deferral of production and remove for- cuted a subsequent, more complex job voirs will only be possible through the
mation damage in a brownfield, Mexico using the tool. use of advanced technologies. Ongoing
operator Pemex selected the system to Another operator in the region chose improvements in CT, along with break-
perforate two new intervals and reperfo- the single-run system for a 6,562-ft throughs in real-time monitoring and
rate a critical production zone on a live high-pressure horizontal section of an data transmission, have had a significant
well in underbalanced conditions. unconventional, multizone gas well after impact on the well intervention market
Schlumberger deployed the system to experiencing difficulties using simple by enhancing the quality of information
accurately place the perforating guns and perforating guns and abrasive jetting, available for making job-critical deci-
activate the charges without a ball-drop which involves perforating by sandblast- sions during interventions. Thus, opera-
or pressure-pulse system. Data from ing the casing. Attempts to run plugs tors become able to produce from wells
the casing collar locator (CCL) and from and guns using a wireline tractor failed that once would have been beyond the
pressure, temperature, and accelerom- to reach total depth, leaving CT as the reach of intervention capabilities.
eter readings safely confirmed the deto- only option. As the industry pushes into new fron-
nation in real time. The operator used the CT real-time tiers, development and greater use of
The operation was carried out in selective perforating and activation sys- real-time downhole measurements will
record time and increased production tem to execute three zones, firing multiple be essential to assuring production
by 18%. The system reduced perforat- shots from the same location in the same in challenging wells efficiently, cost-
ing detonation time by 75%. Pemex also run. Gamma-ray logging tool measure- effectively, and safely. JPT

JPT • JUNE 2017 25

 E&P NOTES
With New Advance, Natural Gas
Filtering Technology Moves Closer
to Commercial Reality
Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor
Researchers at Rice University in Hous-
ton have advanced their efforts to devel-
op a low-cost and relatively simple-
to-make filtering material for carbon
dioxide separation and capture. Their
aim is for this new material to be used at
natural gas gathering facilities where it
will absorb carbon dioxide from natural
gas streams while allowing the methane
product to pass through.
JPT featured the work in 2014 and,
since then, the researchers say they have
figured out how to optimize their pro-
cess to make the material, described as
a porous-carbon sorbent, to address the
different chemical makeups of natural
gas sources.
The project has received funding from
US independent operator Apache Cor-
poration. The latest details were pub-
lished last month in the Royal Society of
Chemistry’s journal, Sustainable Energy
& Fuels.
Saunab Ghosh, a research scientist at
Rice, described the material as cheap-
(a)
Microscopic images of a porous carbon that that can be optimized as it is
made to achieve a specific selectivity for natural gas and methane at natural
gas facilities or other types of industrial plants. Scientists say the material is
affordable and will be commercially scalable. Source: Rice University.
26
er and easier to make than other forms
of activated carbon, enough so that it
will be commercially feasible to pro-
duce at scale. “Our material is also high-
ly recyclable—you can use it more than
200 or 300 times,” he said. “It’s one of
the most interesting properties of this
porous carbon.”
In addition to midstream oil and gas
applications, researchers hope the mate-
rial will serve as an alternative to con-
ventional amine-based scrubbers used
in refineries, power plants, and other
industrial facilities. Ghosh pointed out
that a major drawback of these scrub-
bers is that they can be used for only
a few cycles. “After that, they become
useless and you have to change your
whole filter setup or buy a new one,”
he said.
To make the porous carbon, the Rice
researchers say only three simple con-
trols are involved: temperature, time,
and the ratio of potassium hydrox-
ide to polymer additives. Depending
(b)
on the makeup of the feed gas, these
parameters can be tweaked to produce
a variation of porous carbon that is
most effective.
Ghosh said that the key enabling fac-
tor of the porous carbon is the size and
width of its pores. Through trial and
error, the researchers have found that
some forms may have a high surface
area, needed to provide plenty of real
estate for the separation process, but
lack the optimal pore size.
“If the pore sizes are too big, 3–4 nm
wide, the [carbon dioxide molecules]
will become stacked,” Ghosh explained.
“But through thermal agitation, they
will fly out and maybe only a small
amount will stay in the material.”
The conclusion is that the pores must
be no more than 1–2 nm across in order
to effectively trap the carbon dioxide
without also trapping too much meth-
ane. In general, Ghosh said the material
absorbs eight times more carbon diox-
ide by mass than the methane.
Once the material is filled to capac-
ity, both the carbon dioxide and resid-
ual methane can be released by heat-
ing it to a specific temperature. This
process could be automated in a com-
mercial product, and the release of the
two gases can be controlled since they
react to different temperatures. Using
a temperature-swing technique, Ghosh
said a “high-purity” grade of methane
can be recovered and sold.
Critical for commercialization, he also
emphasized that oil and gas companies
should be able to create the porous
carbon in their own laboratories or by
those run by their third-party develop-
ers. While the foundational research for
this project requires a deep knowledge
of organic chemistry, Ghosh said the
JPT • JUNE 2017
synthetization process is “straightfor-
ward” enough for less-specialized tech-
nicians to follow.
This research is ongoing and
more results are to be published.
Among them  will be a paper outlin-
ing the progress  made on efforts
to modify the material to capture
highly-corrosive sulfur dioxide, other-
wise known as a sour gas. Rice research-
ers are also investigating another
form of porous carbon that is cheap-
er than the current iteration and may
be more effective at absorbing car-
bon dioxide.

US Gulf of Mexico Hits Record Production

Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor

Average oil production in the US

Gulf of Mexico reached a new bench- DEEPWATER GULF OF MEXICO FIELD STARTUPS IN 2016
mark of 1.6  million B/D in 2016, top-
Majority Project/Facility Water Depth Discovery
ping the previous record set in 2009 by Field Name Operator Name (ft) Year
44,000 B/D. January’s average produc-
Gunflint Noble Energy Freedom 6,138 2008
tion reached 1.7  million B/D, marking a
fourth straight month of increases for Heidelberg Anadarko Heidelberg 5,271 2009
the offshore region. Julia ExxonMobil Jack/St. Malo 7,087 2007
These figures were published by
the US  Energy Information Agency Kodiak BP Devils Tower 5,006 2008
(EIA), which predicts that crude output Stones Shell Turritella 9,556 2005
from the US Gulf will continue to rise Thunder Horse BP Thunder Horse 6,050 1999
into 2018. (South Extension)
Last year, there were eight offshore
Wide Berth Apache Baldpate 3,700 2009
projects commissioned in the offshore
basin, including Shell’s 50,000 B/D Caesar Tonga Anadarko Caesar/Tonga 5,000 2003
Stones floating production facility that Phase II
started up in September and Anadar-
ko’s 80,000 B/D Heidelberg spar plat- the average number of rigs drilling in rent low price environment, with expec-
form which achieved first oil in January. the US Gulf was 55 compared with 22 in tations of higher returns when crude oil
Seven more projects are slated to start 2016. Correlated to this trend is a rise in prices rise and discoveries are brought
up this year. exploratory wells drilled in proportion into production,” the report reads.
The EIA notes that the improving pro- to development wells. To read the full report: https://
duction totals come amid a significant “This reflects operators taking advan- www.eia.gov/todayinenerg y/detail.
decline in offshore rig activity. In 2014, tage of the lower day rates in the cur- php?id=30752&src=email.

Foamer Developed To Help Corrosion, Scale Inhibition

Stephen Whitfield, Senior Staff Writer

Wet-gas production in east and cen-
tral Texas can often be a complicat-
ed process, as corrosive fluids in gas
wells  often lead  to significant depo-
sition of iron sulfide scale in produc-
tion tubing.  Speaking at the SPE Oil-
field Chemistry Conference, Jonathan
Wylde discussed the challenges in cre-
ating a chemical component to deli-
quefy gas wells while reducing cor-
rosion and preventing iron sulfide
scale. Wylde is the global head of
application development at Clariant
Oil Services.
The gas wells are located in the Teague
field in east central Texas. There are sev-
eral producing reservoirs in the field,
but the Upper Jurassic Bossier and Cot-
ton Valley Lime reservoirs are the most
prolific. Wylde said the gas produced by
the two reservoirs has different charac-
teristics, which indicates that they come
from different source rock despite being
in the same field. The Bossier Sands
are a blend of centered gas accumula-
tions and prograding deltaic channel
systems with minimal formation water,
and the Cotton Valley Lime is an oolitic
shoal trend with higher porosity zones
that can produce significant amounts of
water and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Wylde said the requirements for an
adequate chemical component were
borne of a unique combination of chal-
lenges, including gas well liquid loading,
iron sulfide scale deposition, sulfate and
carbonate scale deposition, and sweet
and sour corrosion from the H2S.
“All in all, it was pretty challenging.
We started to see some pretty nasty stuff
once we produced a little bit of water,”
he said.

JPT • JUNE 2017 27

 Clariant performed several laboratory
tests on two cocamidopropyl-betaine-
based foamers with a phosphonate scale
inhibitor and a quaternary-ammonium-
compound-based corrosion inhibitor.
The foamers, Product 84 and Prod-
uct 85, differed slightly in the ratio of
their components but were otherwise
similar. A rotating cage autoclave test
showed that each product reduced cor-
rosion rates to within acceptable lim-
its. Conventional scale inhibition testing
showed the minimum inhibitor concen-
tration required for scale control, and
Clariant determined that the laboratory
results were scalable to field application.
After successful laboratory testing, a
field trial was sanctioned. Wylde said
an increase in production on one well,
University Consortium Prepares for Spike
in Decommissioning
Eric van Oort, Director, Consortium for Decommissioning and Abandonment
In the music world, a coda is the final
section of a movement or composition.
Appropriately, it is also the acronym for
the Consortium for Decommissioning
and Abandonment (CODA), a Universi-
ty of Texas at Austin (UT)-led initiative
that is designed to bring together mem-
bers of industry and academia to help
operators efficiently orchestrate the
final days of deepwater developments.
The CODA is a response to the grow-
ing number of onshore and offshore
wells, platforms, and infrastructure that
are approaching the end of econom-
ic viability and soon must be plugged
and removed.
In the Gulf of Mexico deep water
alone, for example, 2015 abandonment
Focus areas of the UT Well Abandonment Consortium.
28
referred to as Well 4HR, was immedi-
ately discernable upon chemical injec-
tion of Product 85. Whereas the well
previously needed to be shut in on a reg-
ular basis, production was uninterrupt-
ed after injection and followed a smooth
trend that tracked the predicted produc-
tion decline.
Ion and gas analysis showed that
iron sulfide scale was also held in check
and not depositing as a result of Prod-
uct 85. Coupons inserted before injec-
tion showed a significant buildup of iron
sulfide deposits, while coupons injected
during injection were nearly untainted
after a 4-week runtime. Wylde said the
coupons provided valuable information.
“We’ve seen this before in other field
trials. It’s very difficult to get field data
costs were estimated by IHS Markit to
be about USD 2.5 billion. That number
is expected to rise by more than 500%
to USD 13.2 billion by 2040. Abandon-
ment expenses are particularly oner-
ous to operators because unlike other
operating costs, plug and abandonment
(P&A) operations offer no prospect for
return on investment. The consortium
is working to minimize the economic
impact on operators and to ensure effec-
tive P&A operations through the devel-
opment of innovative technologies. The
approach replicates industry efforts
over past decades to develop new tech-
nologies with which to drill and com-
plete wells in various challenging envi-
ronments around the world.
from iron and manganese, these type of
scales. Really, we get the value from the
coupons,” Wylde said.
The formulation was stable up to
300°F and passed all performance
tests. Wylde said that the tests showed
it was possible to formulate a combi-
nation foamer product with corrosion,
conventional scale, and exotic scale
functionalities.
For Further Reading
SPE 184584 Development, Testing,
and Field Application of a Novel
Combination Foamer-Iron Sulfide
Scale Inhibitor-Corrosion Inhibitor
in East Texas by J.J. Wylde, N. Turner,
Clariant Oil Services; M. Austill,
XTO Energy et al.
Researchers at the Petroleum and
Geosystems Engineering department
at UT have fashioned the consortium
after the team’s successful Rig Auto-
mation Performance Improvement in
Drilling (RAPID) project. The CODA is
conceived as an interdisciplinary team
of researchers and students joined by
members from industry whose goal is
to investigate and promote advances in
decommissioning technology. The con-
sortium is focusing its efforts on devel-
oping reliable and permanent sealing
technologies, cost-efficient remedia-
tion techniques and remote monitor-
ing methods. Research targets include
identifying cementitious materials that
are compatible with nonaqueous drill-
ing muds, possess improved mechani-
cal properties compared with Portland
cements, and self-heal when damaged.
Toward those ends, university re-
searchers have developed several sys-
tems, including geopolymer cements,
which are made from aluminosilicate
powder and caustic activators. These
systems appear better-suited than
Portland cements for P&A operations
because they are compatible with non-
aqueous fluids (NAF) in terms of fresh
JPT • JUNE 2017
and hardened state properties. Tests
conducted at the university’s zonal iso-
lation laboratory in Austin demonstrat-
ed the material’s ability to retain com-
pressive strength when contaminated
by up to 40% of NAF by volume.
Tests of the newly designed cement
also indicate significant self-healing
properties. When subjected to uniaxial
and triaxial loads beyond the yield point
7 days after it was set, the geopolymer
cement displayed better strength values
than did self-healing Portland cement 28
days after it was set. The system’s design-
ers presented a paper (SPE 184675) on
the geopolymer cement in March at the
2017 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and
Exhibition in The Hague.
Leveraging initial research in cement
hydration, hydrocarbon sensing and
innovative technologies such as fiber
optic sensors, the team is developing a
system for tracking cement placement,
contamination, and location. Early results
indicate that hydrocarbon-sensitive poly-
mers, connected to the surface via fiber-
optics can be used to monitor cement for
the presence of hydrocarbons during and
after abandonment operations. When
hydrocarbons cause the polymer materi-
al within the cement to swell, fiber-optic
cables detect strain, which can be mea-
sured and displayed graphically at the
surface. Left in the well permanently, the
system then allows operators and regu-
lators to monitor well integrity for years
after the well is abandoned.
The group also has completed work
on modeling displacement of cement
in a simulated deepwater environment.
The effort has yielded an advanced
computational fluid dynamics model
for simulating 3D laminar flow and the
displacement of Newtonian and yield
power law fluids in concentric annuli
without using simplified assumptions.
The model is ready to be applied as part
of well cementing and plugging opera-
tions planning.
Having completed these initial inves-
tigations, CODA members are poised
to enter into further research on new
technologies for well abandonment.
The consortium intends to focus on
further development of novel cementi-
tious materials with superior flexural
JPT • JUNE 2017
properties and self-healing abilities. It is
also actively pursuing cements that are
compatible with downhole fluids and
cements having low permeability.
Other areas to be considered by CODA
include expansive cementing materials
that can be used to plug highly deviated
wells and more advanced techniques for
continuous and long-term hydrocarbon
leak monitoring. The group also intends
to develop methods with which to
model the long-term behavior of hard-
ened cementitious material in the down-
hole environment, plug placement, and
the possible interactions between the
fluids that are pumped downhole as
plugging materials.
The group will be guided going for-
ward by what it perceives to be the
most critical challenges related to plug-
ging activities. These include opera-
tional failures caused by cement con-
tamination from drilling fluids and a
longtime industry dependence on Port-
land cements that may slow its accep-
tance of novel cementitious materials.
Because repairing leak paths in aban-
doned wells is costly, the consortium
will also pursue novel remediation tech-
nologies such as rigless intervention.
Consortium testing will be conduct-
ed at the UT zonal isolation laboratory,
which is equipped for all API standard
cementing tests including high-pressure/
high-temperature (HP/HT) consistom-
eters, pressurized viscometers, stirred
fluid loss, static gel strength, low pres-
sure and HP/HT ultrasonic cement ana-
lyzers, and a curing chamber. The univer-
sity involvement also lends itself to CODA
goals of developing engineering research-
ers with the background and experience
to bring cementing materials knowledge
to the industry and graduate programs
designed around various students’ under-
graduate degree disciplines. The consor-
tium’s undergraduate research program
will give students an opportunity to learn
research skill with hands-on involvement
in CODA projects, including an outreach
to women and underrepresented minor-
ity engineering students.
Industry members interested in join-
ing the UT-based consortium should
contact van Oort at vanoort@austin.
utexas.edu or at 1.512.471.6262. JPT
Guest Editorial:
SPE: Weathering
the Downturn
(Continued from page 14)
at many of our large events, and sought
other ways to help members affected by
the downturn. Our competency manage-
ment tool helps engineers at all career
stages focus on how they can improve
their skills.
During SPE’s 2017 fiscal year (1 April
2016–31 March 2017), revenue was 46%
less than during fiscal year 2014 (the
last fiscal year before prices began to
fall). SPE ended fiscal year 2017 with
a loss of USD 8.4 million. In March,
the Board approved a breakeven fiscal
year 2018 budget. With prices stabilizing
somewhat and a renewed sense of opti-
mism in many parts of the industry, we
believe we are on the road to improved
financial health.
We have downsized in areas, but we’re
seeing the positive effects of doing so.
SPE’s portfolio of conferences and work-
shops has shrunk from 160 globally in
2014 to an estimated 110 for this year,
to better match demand. We’re seeing
a slight upward improvement in work-
shop attendance. We are offering fewer
training courses, but the average atten-
dance has started to move upward.
While a few member programs have
been reduced or modified, the essen-
tial services we provide to members are
unchanged. JPT is a bit thinner than it
used to be, but the technology you count
on is still there. The new online format
for JPT offers additional content that
can’t be included in the print version.
OnePetro and PetroWiki are still valu-
able resources for members. Technical
sections, SPE Connect, and local section
meetings remain great places to net-
work. Through the downturn, we have
had to make many difficult tradeoffs,
but they were necessary to keep SPE
strong. Throughout, we have been guid-
ed by our mission and ensuring that SPE
is as able to serve and benefit our future
members as we have the loyal mem-
bers that have been with us for many
years. In good times and bad, SPE is
here for you. JPT
29
 Major Alaskan Discoveries Promote
Great Expectations
Stephen Rassenfoss, JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor
T he Pikka Field discovered by Arm-
strong Oil & Gas is just 2 to 3 miles
wide, about 30 miles long, could pro-
duce 1.2 billion barrels of oil, and is
one of three major finds that have shat-
tered assumptions about what is pos-
sible in the most explored parts of
Alaska’s North Slope.
“The Armstrong discovery, and espe-
cially the size of that discovery, was stun-
ning to everyone,” said David House-
knecht, a geologist for the US Geological
Survey who has done multiple assess-
ments of the potential in the area. “The
thinking was the biggest oil pool we
could imagine had 200 to 250 million
barrels of recoverable oil. These discov-
eries coming in with more than a bil-
lion barrels or 300 million barrels, at
least, really change things by an order
of magnitude.”
The find by Armstrong in March
may not be the biggest of the three. A
discovery by Caelus Energy in Smith
Bay called Tulimaniq could produce
twice as much oil though the develop-
30
ment challenges are also much great-
er. And ConocoPhillips’ Willow dis-
covery could ultimately produce from
3.3 to 3.9  billion, and add more than
400,000  B/D of production in the
next decade.
It is an impressive total, even when
discounted for the fact that these are
early estimates in a costly area for
development in a period of strug-
gling oil prices. In addition, what
has been learned about identifying
the subtle signs of oil trapped within
two large formations—the Nanushuk
and the Torok—could open up great-
er opportunities.
The recent finds could turn the
Nanushuk from a minor reservoir into
a “virtually unexplored play fairway
covering at least 9000 to 15000 km2
that includes both onshore and shal-
low offshore areas,” said Houseknecht.
He made the comment during a pre-
sentation at the recent annual meeting
of the American Association of Petro-
leum Geologists in Houston, where
even poster sessions on the North Slope
drew crowds.
Those finds highlight advances in the
tools used to look for oil pockets trapped
in the earth, and unconventional tech-
niques needed to maximize production
from conventional reservoirs that are
tighter than the free-flowing reservoirs
found in the aging Prudhoe Bay field
to the east.
“The bottom line is, because of 3D
seismic and because of the comple-
tion practices used for unconvention-
als, we can now reasonably look at low-
permeable Brookian [Nanushuk and
Torok] reservoirs as viable,” he said.
One sign of the industry’s confidence
was bidding at state and federal lease
sales in December, where ConocoPhillips
was the most aggressive bidder, pick-
ing up about 600,000 net acres, said
Alison Wolters, a research analyst for
Wood Mackenzie.
Analysts for Wood Makenzie set the
break-even oil price needed to profit-
ably  develop the Pikka and Willow
JPT • JUNE 2017

projects at USD 50/bbl and USD 55/bbl,
respectively. There are other barriers,
though, to North Slope development.
“It is not just about the break-even.
These are not cheap projects; they are
multibillion-dollar projects. The smaller
companies need to find partners to spread
some of the risk. That is not easy,” said
Imran Khan, senior research manager for
Wood Mackenzie. “The infrastructure has
to be there. Partners have to be there. The
state has to have its fiscal act together.
A lot of things have to be in place.”
Unrealized Potential
A 1979 USGS report said the Nanushuk
could become a “major hydrocarbons
play” in the National Petroleum Reserve in
Alaska but, in the decades that followed,
companies met mainly frustration.
Wells penetrated the Nanushuk about
150 times on the way to deeper targets,
and only one discovery was made and
produced, Houseknecht said. That small
pool was developed within Conoco-
Phillips’ Alpine field, where large oil
JPT • JUNE 2017
reservoirs in deeper Jurassic horizons
covered the cost of the infrastructure.
The recent discoveries in the Nanushuk
were hard to find because these res-
ervoirs are narrow targets. They are
wedges of sand deposited along narrow
coastal beaches and deltas, constrained
by land and sea, and can be from 150 to
250  ft thick.
The discoveries became visible as
companies such as Armstrong, a small
Denver independent led by its found-
er and chief executive officer, Bill Arm-
strong, figured out how to spot traps
using 3D seismic and imaging methods
to highlight likely reservoirs.
In an interview with the Alaska Jour-
nal of Commerce, Armstrong said the
work leading to the discovery began with
buying “tons of seismic data” covering
500,000 acres, and then deliberately
searching for stratigraphic traps.
It is a difficult process because the
stratigraphic traps with the oil are in
sand deposits that are difficult to detect
even in the most detailed 3D seismic
A Caelus Energy drilling pad in Smith Bay
where the company made the largest of
three recent discoveries in the North Slope
of Alaska. Source: Caelus Energy.
images, and surface features offer no
clues that they are below.
“Like what we had found the other
times it was not our primary objec-
tive. It was a secondary objective and it
was almost invisible on the seismic, so
you can see why everybody missed it,”
Armstrong said in the interview.
The northern part of the field was
found in 2011 by Armstrong and its
partner Repsol at about 4,000-ft depth.
Two wells drilled this year extended the
field 20 miles to the south. As a result,
explorers have confirmed what sort of
geological features are likely to hold oil,
and have set up their seismic imaging
systems to highlight those possibilities.
“I have seen Armstrong 3D images,”
Houseknecht said. “They have figured
out how to make it light up.”
Based on the recent discoveries, which
suggest “dozens of prospects to test,” he
made a successful pitch for the USGS to
update its assessment of the Nanushuk
and Torok, and now he is looking for low-
cost sources of 3D seismic, particularly
31
 AK

Map Location

0 10 20 miles Federal Boundaries AK Seaward Boundary

Existing Pipeline Proposed Permitted Pipeline
0 10 10 kilometers

The locations of the three major oil discoveries are shown: Pikka in green at the center, Willow within the Greater
Mooses Tooth in purple, and Smith Bay in the upper left. Source: US Geological Survey.

surveys subsidized by the state of Alaska,
which will be made public soon.
While federal agencies that engage in
leasing, such as the Bureau of Land Man-
700 North Slope Liquids Production, 2017–2030
600
Liquids Production (’000 b/d)
agement, are given access to 3D seismic,
they are not allowed to share it with the
agency whose assessments are aimed at
aiding those seeking exploration targets.
While he said they do get looks at
other people’s seismic, what they are
studying on their desktops is often older
surveys showing only 2D cross-sections
of the subsurface. On 2D, “it is virtually
impossible to see [traps],” Houseknecht
said. “These are very subtle features ...
It is way too risky drilling on 2D alone.”
Realizing Potential
Discoveries holding billions of barrels

500 of  oil invite comparisons to the giant

Prudhoe Bay field, which are not very
400 flattering. Comparing recent discover-
ies with a world-class reservoir that has
produced 14 billion bbl of oil to date
300
shows why it is getting harder to find
and produce oil.
200 Given the scale of the Nanushuk and
Torok plays, it might rival it someday.
100 “Maybe taken as a whole, the entire plays
across the North Slope could be that
big,”  Houseknecht said, adding, “But it
0
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
is not 15 billion barrels of recoverable oil
concentrated in one pool.
Other North Slope GMT-1 GMT-2 Willow Pikka
“These reservoirs are hugely differ-
By 2030, Wood Mackenzie predicts that 40% of oil production from the North ent than the main one in Prudhoe Bay,”
Slope will be from fields not yet in production. Source: Wood Mackenzie. he said. There the reservoir was made

32 JPT • JUNE 2017

Pikka Nanushuk lowstand shelf-
margin wedges and incised,
Discovery: 2011 and extended in 2016 back-stepping facies
Companies involved: Armstrong Oil & Gas
(operator) and Repsol
Estimates: 1.2 billion bbl of recoverable oil
Formation: Nanushuk
Pipeline connection: Yes
Terrain: Onshore
Highlights: 120,000 B/D production planned Torok slope-apron and
by 2021 basin-floor fans

Tulimaniq, Smith Bay 10 mi

Discovery: 2016
Companies involved: Caelus Energy (operator), This interpretation of 2D seismic by David Houseknecht of the USGS
shows the Nanushuk formation (yellow) perched on top of the Torok
NordAq Energy, and L71 Resources
formation. Source: USGS and WesternGeco/Schlumberger.
Estimates: 1.8–2.4 million bbl recoverable, and
6–10 billion bbl oil in place
Formation: Torok Estimates: Could produce 300 million bbl of light oil
Terrain: Shallow offshore, with water depth of (early estimate)
around 10 ft Formation: Nanushuk
Pipeline connection: No Terrain: Onshore at Greater Mooses Tooth area in National
Highlights: Could produce 200,000 B/D of light oil Petroleum Reserve in Alaska
(40–45 °API) Pipeline connection: Under construction, 28 miles from
ConocoPhillips’ Alpine Field
Willow Highlights: Production of up to 100,000 B/D by 2023
Discovery: 2016 of light oil and condensate, plus 30,000 B/D under
Company: ConocoPhillips development nearby

up  of  coarse-to-medium sands to con-
glomerate, with little cementing to block
the flow. In that reservoir, the per-
meability was measured in darcies.
Recent finds have been in tighter rock,
ranging from hundreds of millidarcies
in the Nanushuk down to tens of mil-
lidarcies in the Torok, which is deeper
and tighter.
While wells in the Pikka field could be
developed in a conventional way, House-
knecht said it is likely to be developed
using long laterals and lateral injection
wells like those in ConocoPhillips’ Alpine
field to maximize output.
The Smith Bay discovery is in the Torok,
where Caelus will likely need to fracture
the formation to generate enough pro-
duction of the ultralight crude, he said.
On the plus side, the private company has
experience with lower-permeability pro-
duction on the North Slope, and there is
a huge amount of oil under Smith Bay to
justify the investment.
At this early stage, Wood Mackenzie
has not estimated the break-even cost
of development in Smith Bay because
of the lack of appraisal information,
Wolters said.
Building the infrastructure for the
Prudhoe field was simple compared
with the developing fields scattered
over  the harsh, environmentally sensi-
tive Arctic environment.
Pikka has a pipeline running through
it, and Willow is building a short line run-
ning past two earlier finds, but Smith Bay
is about 125 miles from the nearest pipe-
line connection, she said.
The obvious onshore route to Smith
Bay is off limits to development because it
would go through land around Teshekpuk
Lake, which is environmentally sensitive
and relied on by native peoples for sub-
sistence, Houseknecht said.
The likely solution would be con-
structing a buried pipeline in the shal-
low coastal waters from Smith Bay to
Caelus’ Oooguruk Field, where it could
be tied into a line feeding the Trans-
Alaska pipeline.
The discoveries come at a critical time
for the North Slope, whose link to export
markets has been the Trans-Alaska Pipe-
line System. Without the volumes from
these fields coming on line in the next
decade, the flow through the aging line
was expected to drop below the level
needed to justify the cost of keeping
it operating.
Falling production and low oil prices
have also blown a hole in the state’s
budget, which depends on oil indus-
try revenues. To fill that gap, Alaska’s
legislature is considering an oil indus-
try tax increase for the second year
in a row.
“We will see what happens,” Wolters
said, adding, “It could be difficult to plan
development and secure capital when
there is so much volatility in the fis-
cal environment.” JPT

JPT • JUNE 2017 33

 With New Rig Software, Automated Drilling
is Easier To Embrace
Described as an autopilot for rigs, a new process system for drilling rigs allows many of the most routine drilling tasks to be
carried out by a computer program. The human driller in this case becomes a process overseer. Source: National Oilwell Varco.
L ast summer, while being moved
from one well pad to the next, a
rig in the Delaware Basin of Texas was
updated with some new software. It
took 11 hours to complete, and after the
rig was powered back up, it went on to
drill the vertical section of a horizontal
well almost 3 days ahead of schedule.
Aside from boasting an impressive
stat line, that well represents an impor-
tant milestone for National Oilwell
Varco (NOV) because it is the first to
be drilled using the company’s closed-
loop automated drilling system in con-
junction with a recently launched rig
operating system, which the company
technically refers to as a process auto-
mation system. NOV is telling customers
that this technology not only lowers the
cost of field development, but delivers
higher quality and straighter wellbores
through its consistent performance.
That automated program in Texas has
concluded, but the combined technol-
ogy package is now being used to drill
shale wells on four rigs in the US and one
in Canada. There are 16 separate orders
for the new process system. These con-
tracts for NOV follow more than 5 years
spent using the hardware kit, which
includes wired-pipe and a weight-on-bit
controller, to drill through more than
2.5 million ft of conventional and uncon-
ventional formations.
34
Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor
Going forward, the oilfield technol-
ogy developer is offering a more com-
plete product: automation controlled by
highly capable software. This integra-
tion means that the digitally connected
surface and subsurface machines work-
ing on an automated rig now have a digi-
tal driller to take orders from.
“Our mantra is that the rig of the
future is here today—just add soft-
ware,” remarked Tony Pink, the vice
president of strategic sales at NOV. Pink
has been involved in the automation
initiative at NOV since its genesis and
coauthored a recently published techni-
cal paper (SPE/IADC 184694) detailing
the Texas project that it carried out with
Calgary-based Precision Drilling and an
unnamed oil and gas explorer.
He described the tandem of NOV’s
automated hardware and software as
“a sophisticated autopilot for rigs” that
takes many routine tasks out of the drill-
er’s hands—literally. With the process
system in control, drillers can lay off the
joystick, stop pressing buttons, and also
quit staring at screens in order to main-
tain their drilling direction.
Instead, with key rate-of-penetration
parameters such as weight on bit taken
over by the system, drillers become
overseers of the well construction pro-
cess. This frees them up to pay atten-
tion to improving crew productivity
and safety. Pink put it this way: “You
are moving them from being a machine
operator—a crane driver effectively—
to being a driller again.”
Small Gains Add Up
The paper focuses on a single well that
had an approved drilling schedule for
the  vertical section of 8.7 days but
reached a total depth of about 10,000 ft
in 5.9 days, saving 2.8 days of rig time.
This performance gain was the result
of multiple automated elements, and
includes efficiencies that were only real-
ized by using the process system.
One of them was a reduction of drill-
string connection times by an average of
3.24 minutes compared with manually
controlled times. With an average of 80
connections made for the intermediate
well section, the only section the paper
covers in this regard, the saved time
adds up to more than 4 hours. Though in
total, there may be more than 300 con-
nections made for the entire length of
a modern horizontal well.
Contractor Embraces
Automation
The inclusion of this technology in Pre-
cision Drilling’s premium services on its
tier-one rigs reflects a new priority for
what is one of the world’s largest drill-
ing outfits. Duane Cuku, the vice presi-
JPT • JUNE 2017
 Enhancing
Hydrocarbon
Recovery

Performs Under Pressure

Producing long efficacy in the recovery of hydrocarbons, nanoActiv™ HRT utilizes nano-sized
particles in a colloidal dispersion to create a Brownian-motion, diffusion-driven mechanism
known as disjoining pressure—releasing hydrocarbons well beyond other methods.

nanoActiv™ HRT is a high-efficiency nanoActiv™ HRT particles

Hydrocarbon Recovery Technology well intervention

Crude Oil
additive package and method with particles so small,

they penetrate the fracture network on a nanoscopic Spreading Force

scale—releasing hydrocarbons where no proppant has

ever been able to go. nanoActiv™ HRT particles surround

hydrocarbon drops—fragmenting them into nano droplets,

enabling a highly efficient backflow through the Diffusion-Driven Disjoining Pressure

fracture network to the wellbore.

Start getting better returns today! Fragmentation

nanoActiv.com

nanoActiv™ HRT is made in the U.S.A. by Nissan Chemical America Corporation in Houston, Texas. · © 2017 All Rights Reserved · 1565
 Total Drilled Vertical Depth
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
Hole Depth, ft
5,000
5,500
6,000
6,500
7,000
7,500
8,000
8,500
9,000
9,500
10,000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.5 8.5 9.5
Total Time, days
This chart shows the vertical drilling performance of National Oilwell Varco’s
closed-loop drilling automation (CLDA) service vs. that of the budgeted rig
time. The green line highlights a difference of 32%. Source: SPE/IADC 184694.
dent of sales for rig technology at Preci-
sion Drilling and coauthor of the paper,
said the firm is able to embrace automa-
tion on a commercial scale for the first
time because of the way the new process
system works.
In earlier experiences with automa-
tion, he said the company saw clear
challenges in expanding its use of the
technology because the number of
native operating systems, and different
versions of them, installed on its rigs
made reprogramming them too labori-
ous and impractical.
“The real change for us today is hav-
ing a standardized platform, one that
gives us leverage to effectively deploy
software improvements across the
entire fleet,” said Cuku. “Historically,
to upgrade software, you would have to
go out to each drilling rig, take it out of
service for a period of time, and have a
technician work on its base control set.”
This is no longer the case with the
new process system, which requires no
changes to the rig’s existing operating
system. Rather, it sits on top of the
native system and works within the rig’s
technical limits. It is also able to identify
which automated components are avail-
able to work with, which, importantly
36
Closed-loop drilling
automation services
Project authorization
for expenditure
for uptake, may be ones developed by
NOV or other companies.
This agnostic approach makes it pos-
sible to use the process system on all
types of rigs without concerns over
compatibility issues. And as Cuku point-
ed out, it also benefits drillers by giv-
ing them a user interface with the same
look and feel regardless of which type of
underlying control system is in use.
Capturing Lessons From
Downhole Data
Pink noted that though the hardware
has a longer track record—and much
more is known about it through sever-
al published papers—the automation
software was being designed in parallel
the whole time. In those past case stud-
ies, of which only the automation hard-
ware was used, operators did see some
significant performance gains but they
also faced problems in dealing with the
amount of raw data streaming out of the
system’s different components.
“Not only were they getting a fire-
hose of data,” Pink said, “but they had
no structured way of taking those les-
sons learned, capturing them, and then
passing them out into the field.” With the
process system, he added, drillers and
operators now have something that helps
them use the technology more effective-
ly, and at scale.
In the upcoming automated drilling
projects all the downhole data will be
organized by formation and loaded into
the rig’s process system. That informa-
tion will be used to optimize the software-
controlled drilling of subsequent wells
facing similar geologic conditions.
Pink emphasized that this does
not involve emerging artificial intelli-
gence or machine-learning techniques.
“This is about humans learning,” he
said, explaining that the drillers will
be responsible for providing the input
needed to update new learnings into the
process system.
Mention of the human role raises
another point on the degrees of automa-
tion at play here. This system is consid-
ered semi-autonomous because it relies
on skilled people to improve its abilities,
and if a correction is ever needed, it can
be superseded by the driller by simply
grabbing the joystick.
One key part of this data initiative will
depend on the success of NOV’s app store
approach to the process system. Just like
smartphone makers, the firm is allowing
third-party developers that could include
majors, service companies, and startups
to add value to its product with their own
add-on features.
So far, there are five core apps that
come preloaded on the control software
to handle basic routine tasks such as con-
trolling the speed of “tagging bottom”
with the bit. Two outside apps are also
under development. The company is also
making an effort to drive down the cost
of its wired drillpipe, long seen as a bar-
rier to the wider use of downhole auto-
mation. Pink said the aim is to reduce the
price differential with conventional pipe
enough “to where it’s no longer part of
the discussion.”
Consistency and Cadence
As has been seen in other heavy indus-
tries, the consistency of automated
machinery has the effect of lifting the
performance of workers by making their
jobs more predictable. The improvement
in connection times achieved with the
process system is one example of this.
JPT • JUNE 2017
 10
Process Controller Off
9 8.58
8.33
8 7.58 7.75
7.33
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5760 5855 5949 6044 6138
Connection Depth, ft
8
Process Controller On
7
6
5 4.67 4.76 4.66 4.77 4.50

4
3
2
1
0
4691 4785 4880 4975 5069
Connection Depth, ft
Bottom To Slips Slips To Slips Slips To Bottom

This chart showing the top five drillpipe connection times of a driller and a
process system software show clear performance differences and underline
why automating routine tasks drives rig efficiencies. Source: SPE/IADC 184694.

On most automated rigs today, a new
joint of pipe is still added to the drill-
string by hand, which introduces room
for unavoidable randomness in the speed
at which they can be screwed togeth-
er. But Cuku said, “If the machine sets
the stump at the exact same height each
time, the wrench doesn’t need to be
adjusted and the crew knows how long
that will take, because the time spent
coming-off-bottom and into the slips is
now standardized.”
He added that as the “crews on
the floor get into a cadence with the
machine,” that the consistency in such
routine tasks becomes clear to see in
the data. One chart comparing the best
five connection times made by the pro-
cess system and those made by a drill-
er Cuku described as “very competent”
does not even have to be labeled to tell
which is which. The process system’s set
of times are very even, while the other
times are noticeably uneven and signifi-
cantly longer.
Such examples represent only the low
hanging fruit of potential drilling effi-
ciencies, Cuku said, who added, “With
a platform like this, you can deploy any
number of optimization applications.”
But new tricks will require more CALL FOR PAPERS
downhole data and that could be coming Submission Deadline:
soon. Earlier this year, Precision Drilling
announced that automation upgrades 26 June 2017
will be part of a USD 52 million capital
expenditure program. Dozens of rigs
will be included in this plan; however, IADC/SPE
the number to be equipped with auto-
mated technology was not specified. DRILLING
In a separate project, and unrelated
to the NOV partnership, Precision Drill- CONFERENCE
ing is aiming to de-man its directional
drilling service with an automated advi-
AND EXHIBITION
sory system (SPE/IADC 184682). Cuku
said that this technology was tested in 6–8 March 2018
passive mode on hundreds of wells and Fort Worth, Texas, USA
has recently been used in active mode
to drill the curve on several wells. JPT
Fort Worth Convention Center
www.spe.org/go/DrillingCFP
For Further Reading
SPE/IADC 184694 World First
Closed Loop Downhole Automation
Combined with Process Automation
System Provides Integrated Drilling
Automation in the Permian Basin
by T. Pink, D. Cuku, S. Pink, NOV et al.

JPT • JUNE 2017

 Can Austin
Chalk Expansion
Lead to Revival?
Joel Parshall, JPT Features Editor
A ConocoPhillips rig drills a well in the Eagle Ford Shale, an area where the company has also seen encouraging results
by expanding its objectives to the Austin Chalk formation. Source: ConocoPhillips.
I nterest is growing in drilling the Aus-
tin Chalk formation, with oil and gas
companies hopeful that applying the
latest unconventional resource develop-
ment technologies can open a new chap-
ter of expansion in a historically prolific
play that dates to the 1920s.
Much of the new drilling is in
areas of the Chalk that overlie some
of the most active parts of the Eagle
Ford Shale play in south Texas. Drill-
ers there are taking advantage of the
additional stacked play opportunities
that can often be drilled with the same
rigs and crews they are using in the
Eagle Ford and sometimes in the same
well. Some operators may have also
drilled in the Chalk during the depths
of the industry downturn to hold leas-
es and temporarily defer deeper Eagle
Ford wells.
The Austin Chalk extends from Mex-
ico across south and east Texas and a
large portion of Louisiana to Missis-
sippi. The history of the Chalk play has
38
seen several booms, the last one com-
ing in the 1990s with the introduction
of horizontal drilling. Cumulatively, the
formation has produced 1.7 billion BOE
with approximately 9,500 wells having
been drilled there.
Abundant Resources
There is good reason to believe that
abundant oil and gas resources remain
in the Austin Chalk. The United States
Geological Survey released a study of
four Austin Chalk-area assessment units
(AUs) in 2010 that estimated mean
undiscovered resources for the Austin
Pearsall-Giddings AU of 879 million bbl
of oil, 1.3  Tcf of gas, and 106 million
bbl of natural gas liquids (NGLs). Three
other AUs were estimated to hold a com-
bined mean 78 million bbl of oil, 2.3 Tcf
of gas, and 257 million bbl of NGLs.
Among the most active participants
in the latest Austin Chalk play have been
EnerVest, EOG Resources, Encana, and
Murphy. Other companies active in the
Chalk include GulfTex Energy, Conoco-
Phillips, Devon Energy, Marathon,
Abraxas Petroleum, and Chesapeake.
EnerVest, which acquires, develops,
and operates oil and gas fields on behalf
of its institutional investors, is the larg-
est producer in the Austin Chalk. The
company built a substantial position
there beginning with its 2007 acquisi-
tion of Anadarko’s holdings in Texas’
Giddings field, which has been produc-
ing since the 1930s. EnerVest’s move
into the Chalk came years before most
other current players.
In the Giddings field, as in certain
other parts of the Austin Chalk, the for-
mation lies above the Eagle Ford. But
Eagle Ford development has been min-
imal there, compared with core Eagle
Ford activity taking place from 20 to
80 miles southwest of the field.
Expanded Footprint
The company has since expanded its
Austin Chalk footprint. In three separate
JPT • JUNE 2017

The US portion of the Austin Chalk trend (between black lines), with its
major producing fields shaded. The Chalk extends into Mexico. Source:
Paper SPE 145117.
transactions in 2015–2016, EnerVest
acquired more than 13,000 acres con-
centrated in Karnes County, Texas, which
is also in the heart of Eagle Ford activity.
The acquisitions brought in a combined
875 drilling locations and 15,900 BOE/D
of production.
“This is a great time in the commod-
ity price cycle to buy oil assets, espe-
cially in the core of one of the hottest
plays in the US,” said EnerVest Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) John B. Walk-
er as the last acquisition was com-
pleted. “With stacked reservoirs of
the lower Eagle Ford, the upper Eagle
Ford, and the Austin Chalk, we see
plenty of development opportunities at
today’s prices.”
EOG, also a major Eagle Ford play-
er, has assumed a high profile in the
Chalk since taking a position there in
the first quarter of last year. Two Karnes
County wells in particular raised eye-
brows in 2016. The Leonard AC Unit
101H yielded a 30-day initial produc-
tion (IP) rate of 2,715 BOE/D, and the
Denali Unit 101H yielded a 20-day IP
rate of 3,130 BOE/D.
JPT • JUNE 2017
Lift Your
Expectations
WITH EFFICIENT, RELIABLE
ARTIFICIAL LIFT SYSTEMS
We combine a wide range of
electrical submersible pumps,
robust motors, superior gas
mitigation products, and a
collaborative operating and
monitoring strategy to help get
the most from your wells. Learn
how we can help you increase
Cracked the Code
production and maximize results.
“We discovered a new geologic concept in
an existing play,” said Bill Thomas, EOG
CEO. “Our team at EOG has cracked the halliburton.com/production
code on how to make our particular foot-
print in the Austin Chalk a top-tier hori-
zontal play, earning returns on par with
the Eagle Ford, Permian, and Bakken.”
Not surprisingly, the company was
vague about the code-cracking geo-
logic concept. David Trice, executive
vice president of exploration and pro-
duction, credited development of the
concept to “proprietary petrophysical
analysis” and said the new approach
in the Chalk has enabled EOG to “drill
prolific wells consistently.”
Trice continued, “Our high-density
completions create complex fracture
systems close to the wellbore, signif-
icantly improving well performance.
Also, like the Eagle Ford, the Austin
Chalk benefits from the detailed work
we conduct to determine the best tar-
get. The chalk can be as thick as 140 feet
in some areas, but our targeting efforts
keep the drill bit confined to, at best, 20
to 30 feet of rock.”

® EOG in 2016 began to focus on drill-
Newr
fo
7 !
20 1
January 2017
17
January 2017
The Journal of Petroleum
Technology® (JPT) website
has a new look and feel. The
redesigned site is mobile-
friendly and offers exclusive
online-only content. JPT
will continue to provide
authoritative briefs and
features on E&P technology
advancements, oil and gas
industry issues, and news
about SPE and its members.
Check out the new website
and sign up for the
eNewsletter today at
www.spe.org
Premium Wells
ing “premium wells,” defined as those
that will produce a minimum direct,
after-tax return of 30% at an oil price of
USD 40/bbl. Nikolai Gouliaev, who ana-
lyzes the upstream oil and gas industry
for the investor website Seeking Alpha,
pointed out that “EOG’s Austin Chalk
wells outperform the ‘premium well’
definition by a wide margin.”
Gouliaev compared Karnes County
Austin Chalk wells completed in 2016
with EOG’s Permian Basin wells, at an
assumed price of USD 55/bbl, based
on historic decline curves, oil/gas/NGL
price differentials, gas/NGL splits in
well output, wellhead taxes, and lease
operating expense per BOE.
Notwithstanding Thomas’ statement
placing the Chalk wells on a par with
the Permian, Gouliaev calculated that
the higher estimated ultimate recov-
ery (EUR) of the Austin Chalk wells in
bbl of oil—based on a markedly higher
oil cut—more than offsets the higher
EUR of the Permian wells in BOE. The
Chalk wells will pay back their invest-
ment sooner than the Permian wells,
he estimated.
EOG completed 14 net Austin Chalk
wells in 2016 and is set to complete
another 25 this year.
Encana, working from its Eagle Ford
position, likewise made its initial foray
into the Austin Chalk in 2016. The
company’s first two wells, 7H and 8H
with lateral lengths averaging 3,400 ft,
yielded 30-day IP rates (IP30s) of
2,000 BOE/D and 3,100 BOE/D, respec-
tively, with oil comprising 80% of pro-
duction. Over 90 days, the wells sus-
tained IP rates of 1,800  BOE/D and
1,550 BOE/D, respectively.
Just Getting Started
The company appears to be just getting
started. Following its five-well Austin
Chalk program in 2016, Encana plans
to drill 10 to 15 wells there this year.
Its newest well delivered an IP30 of
1,000 BOE/D from a Karnes County
location 25 miles from the 7H and 8H
wells at the other end of the county, sug-
gesting a strong potential across the
company’s acreage.
In its February Form 8-K Report to the
United States Securities and Exchange
Commission, Encana said it had low-
ered drilling and completion costs 23%
year-on-year in 2016. With new com-
pletion designs for enhancing well per-
formance, the company said, “there is
potential to further expand …. premi-
um-return well inventory” across the
Austin Chalk play.
In an April investor presentation, the
company estimated a potential 50 pre-
mium wells in its Chalk inventory to go
along with 130 in the lower Eagle Ford.
Encana considers premium wells as
those producing a 35% after-tax return
at a USD 40/bbl oil price. IP30 and
IP180 type curves for the premium wells
showed the Chalk wells to be equal or
superior to those in the Eagle Ford, and
the Chalk wells had the higher EURs in
bbl of liquid and BOE.
Murphy moved into the Austin Chalk
with a successful well in late 2015,
expanding from its base in the Eagle
Ford. With two subsequent wells, the
company reported additional upside
potential. Plans call for eight wells
in 2017.
The company’s Chalk wells in Karnes
County have been trending above type
curves. And Murphy says it continues to
make technical advances by optimizing
landing zones with petrophysical analy-
sis and enhancing completion designs
and initial flowback operations.
Successful Wells
GulfTex has participated as an interest
owner in a number of the EOG-operated
Austin Chalk wells but also has drilled
some successful wells of its own there.
The company’s 2016 Moczygemba Unit
103H and 104H wells achieved respec-
tive IP30s of 3,687 BOE/D (82% oil) and
3,775 BOE/D (59% oil).
Privately held GulfTex builds oil and
gas asset portfolios, structured as com-
panies, and periodically sells them to
benefit its private-equity investors. In
the second quarter of 2016, the com-
pany sold GulfTex III to EnerVest (one
of the transactions discussed above),
which comprised a significant por-
tion of GulfTex’s Eagle Ford and Austin
Chalk assets.
JPT • JUNE 2017
 However, the company retained some
65% of its acreage in the plays, which
is being drilled and developed to build
GulfTex IV.
Very Strong Early Results
ConocoPhillips has been drilling and
evaluating the Austin Chalk since last
year in connection with its overall posi-
tion in the Eagle Ford. In a Novem-
ber 2016 investor presentation, Al
Hirshberg, executive vice president
of production, drilling, and projects
at the company, said that some early
data “shows very strong results with
5-month cumulative production levels
that are above both the upper and lower
Eagle Ford reservoirs in the same area.
So the Austin Chalk clearly presents
some upside across parts of the Eagle
Ford area.”
The company reiterated its encour-
agement about the Chalk in an early
2017 presentation and said it will con-
tinue drilling and piloting there to
assess the resource potential.
With a number of companies drilling
successful wells and envisioning upside
in the Austin Chalk, it would not be
surprising to see continued expansion
there. However, with the Chalk’s history
and the industry’s recent accomplish-
ments of pumping new life into long-
standing US onshore plays by apply-
ing updated unconventional drilling and
development methods, it is an enticing
question whether the Chalk could see a
revival on the scale of its 1990s surge or
earlier booms.
Could the experience in the Permian
Basin or Oklahoma’s SCOOP (South Cen-
tral Oklahoma Oil Province) and STACK
(Sooner Trend, Anadarko, and Cana-
dian/Kingfisher counties) plays be rep-
licated? Knowledgeable people don’t
speak with certainty on such things, but
one such person who strongly believes
the industry should test the revival
hypothesis is Tony Maranto, executive
vice president and chief operating offi-
cer at EnerVest. He joined the compa-
ny last August after more than 20 years
with EOG, mainly focused on Oklahoma,
and has 35 years of industry experience.
JPT • JUNE 2017
Revival Potential
In January, Maranto gave a talk on the
Austin Chalk to the SPE Gulf Coast Sec-
tion’s Business Development Group.
Stressing that he was giving his own
views and not necessarily those of
EnerVest, Maranto said there is the
potential for a revival if the industry can
view the Austin Chalk through “a fresh
set of eyes.”
In unconventional exploration,
Maranto said, “you start where oil and
gas are already produced.” The Austin
Chalk should be viewed in light of other
Intervention
legacy conventional plays that have
been revived through “multistage, high- with Vision
density stimulation” of source rock, or
rock juxtaposed to it, such as the Del- VITAL DATA FROM A
aware Basin in the Permian and the
SINGLE TRIP DOWNHOLE
SCOOP and STACK plays, he said.
Maranto gave numerous examples With SPECTRUMSM real-time
of Austin Chalk wells from the 1970s coiled tubing services, we
onward, in which EURs were greatly deliver well intervention and
enhanced by the use of evolving stimula- diagnostics that help you
tion technology, which since the 1990s
monitor and optimize your
was coupled with horizontal drilling.
well’s performance – safely,
Chalk operators have traditional-
ly targeted large natural fracture net- reliably and efficiently.
works, which have been highly pro- Learn how we can help you
ductive under conventional drilling increase production and
and completions. But for high-density maximize results.
stimulations, these fractures pose
problems of fluid loss and unwanted
gas influx, and Maranto recommend- halliburton.com/production
ed targeting less-fractured sections of
the Chalk.
“We have to change our perspective,”
he said. “We have to understand the
properties of the Chalk that are com-
parable to other plays that work.”
Maranto’s message was not that a reviv-
al will happen if these steps are taken
but that it may happen.
It remains for the industry to see what
it can yet achieve in the Austin Chalk.
But the last chapter has probably not
been written. JPT
For Further Reading
SPE 145117 Understanding Production
from Eagle Ford-Austin Chalk System
by R. Martin, R. Malpani, G. Lindsay,
Schlumberger et al. http://dx.doi.
org/10.2118/145117-MS
 Getting More
From Fracturing
With Diversion
Stephen Rassenfoss,
JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor
8 Mesh Beads

M ary Van Domelen makes two key points about using

diverters in fracturing designs: “It is one of the useful
tools in our unconventional stimulation tool kit,” and there is
a good chance “you are doing it wrong.”
Those two observations motivated the engineering advis-
er from Continental Resources to write “A Practical Guide
to Modern Diversion Technology” (SPE 185120), a 22-page
overview on effectively using diversion to more effectively
fracture a well by plugging the dominant fractures to divert
the pressure further down the wellbore to ensure more per-
forations are effectively stimulated.
Van Domelen’s paper, presented at the 2017 SPE
Oklahoma City Oil and Gas Symposium, is one of a spate of
recent papers by operators that show diversion is becoming
a widely used part of fracturing designs, particularly in the
oil-rich Bakken. The papers are coming from unconvention-
al pioneers such as Continental and Devon Energy, smaller
operators such as Liberty Resources and Abraxas, and even 80/20 Blend
Saudi Aramco. All report benefits from diversion, ranging
from improved production and more productive fractures
to cost savings.
Liberty reported (SPE 184828) that wells in the Bakken
using diversion produced twice as much as offset wells using
the old method, and “33% to 39%” more than predicted by
a model that uses data from comparable wells in its database
of more than 10,000 wells in North Dakota.
“We are excited about what we are doing,” said Paul
Weddle, completion manager for Liberty, who presented
the paper at the recent SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technol-
ogy Conference. “In the oil business, there are differences
(of production) of plus or minus 10% to 15%” due to local
geological variations. But with gains of more than 30%, “we
may be on to something.” The earliest wells using diver-
sion have been producing for a year and continue to exceed
their expectations.
Diversion has been quietly used by early adopters—Dev-
on’s recent paper was based on changes it made in its diver-
sion method based on testing—but in the past year the num-
Fine Mesh Powder
A range of sizes of particles are needed to plug an
opening taking in much of the fluid, and divert it
down the hole. Source: Jamplast.

42 JPT • JUNE 2017

ber of companies trying and using it has
grown substantially.
The rise has transformed the busi-
ness of Jamplast, a private company that
began selling degradable polymer par-
ticles for diversion back in 2005 when
a large oilfield service company ordered
some for testing, said John Moisson Jr.,
president and founder of the company.
It was a small line of business until
2014, when unconventional producers
started using the material for refractur-
ing older unconventional wells and com-
pleting new ones. Demand has grown so
much in the past year that “today it is a
major part of our business,” Moisson said.
For those doing the completions,
diversion was added during a period of
sweeping revisions in fracturing designs.
Many of the recent technical papers on
the subject have been written by opera-
tors in the Bakken that used the drill-
ing lull during the deep slump in early
2016 to totally reconsider how they
complete wells.
A paper by Abraxas (SPE 184851)
described how “a legacy Bakken comple-
tion design was set aside to make way for
a ‘blank slate’ analysis.” Diversion was not
on Abraxas’ initial list of possible chang-
es. The process led to completions using
significantly more water and proppant
pumped at higher rates, sand instead of
ceramic proppant, far longer laterals, and
diversion to ensure that a dense array of
perforations is stimulated more evenly.
Based on the reported results in SPE
papers and in earnings presentations, the
efforts have generally paid off, but change
is often bumpy. “Early on we stubbed
our toes a time or two and pressured a
stage out,” because too much diverter
was used, Weddle said. “But we are now
seeing a lot of consistency and success.”
Improvements based on extensive
reviews were “a silver lining” during a
hard time, said Kyle Haustveit, a com-
pletions engineer for Devon, who was
a lead author on a paper (SPE 184862)
about how the company used an array of
diagnostic tests to evaluate its comple-
tion designs, sometimes with surpris-
ing results.
By using multiple diagnostic tests it
was able to improve its diversion by
discovering that the diverter it was
JPT • JUNE 2017
using was not diverting, and finding
an effective alternative. The project
demonstrated that there is a payoff for
checking to see if you are doing some-
thing wrong.
Arguments over the value of diver-
sion linger because it is hard to quantify
its role in improved results. The prob-
lem is the many variables to consider
and limited data available on production
within stages.
A statistical analysis of 14 wells by Hal-
liburton (SPE 179167) in 2016 found that Increase
the impact of diversion did not reach the
level where it was “statistically signifi-
cant” but the result did indicate it was
Production.
“helpful rather than detrimental.”
There is no way of knowing if the Maximize
results in the ground look like drawings
showing rows of even fractures. But Wed-
dle said the diagnostic testing and pro-
Results.
duction analysis show more clusters are
producing more efficiently, and ultimate- THROUGHOUT THE
ly, “production is our strongest metric.” LIFE OF YOUR ASSETS
Adding Finesse Whatever your production
As more water and sand are pumped at challenge, Halliburton offers
higher rates to fracture long wells, diver- a full range of engineered
sion is needed to add some “finesse,” Van solutions. From real-time
Domelen said. The finesse is required to diagnostic well interventions
more evenly spread millions of tons of to customized specialty
sand among hundreds of fracture initia-
chemicals, reliable artificial
tion points. For example, Liberty’s high-
density perforation designs can have up lift systems, and pipeline and
to 15 perforation clusters in each of the process pre-commissioning
50 stages over a 9,500-ft lateral. and maintenance solutions,
Diversion is not addressing a new we’re ready to help keep your
problem. As long as companies, such production high and costs low.
as Devon and Shell, have been report- Contact us to learn more.
ing what they have observed using fiber-
optic cables to monitor fracturing, they
have reported that the lion’s share of halliburton.com/production
the water and proppant regularly flows
into the first perforation cluster within
each stage.
Dominant fractures, such as the ones
shown in Fig. 1 from Devon, are a prob-
lem on multiple levels.
For one, the initial cluster takes in so
much of the flow, it reduces the fluid to
below the level needed to effectively frac-
ture later perforations.
And a giant fracture is not likely to be a
more productive one.
“I can’t get proppant that far out,” in a
really long fracture to ensure it remains

Cluster #
1 2 3 4 5 6
Proppant (lbs)
Fig. 1—In most of the stages of this well, one perforation cluster gets far more proppant than the rest. This study by
Devon Energy using fiber-optic cables to monitor activity along the wellbore by detecting and analyzing sounds—
distributed acoustic sensing—showed most often the first cluster reached by the high-pressure stream of fracturing fluid
becomes the dominant one. Source: Devon, SPE 184862.
open and producing, said Clayton Smith,
global director Research Development
and Engineering for Pressure Pumping
Services at Weatherford, adding that
“there will never be any production from
out there.”
Also, those long over-stimulated frac-
tures are likely to extend to nearby
wells, increasing the risk of damaging
frac hits.
The most widely used hydraulic frac-
turing diverters finesse the problem by
temporarily plugging dominant perfo-
rations by pumping pre-mixed volumes,
or pills, of multisized grains of polylactic
acid (PLA).
Relatively small volumes of diverter
pills are dropped during short breaks
in pumping proppant within each stage,
The particles are supposed to follow the
fluid flow into the dominant opening and
form a plug that is strong enough to stand
up to the hydraulic pressure—Weath-
erford has tested them up to 6,000 psi,
and is pushing that higher—and after-
ward will go away by breaking down into
a benign liquid.
Larger particles in the mix are
designed to create a structure bridging
the opening while mid-sized and small-
er ones fill in the gaps. If the mix and the
44
Proppant Distribution
Stage #
volume pumped are right, the diverter
will block the dominant fractures send-
ing the high-pressure stream down to
undertreated clusters.
If the range of particle sizes is not
right, it will not seal. If the total amount
pumped is too low, it will fail to plug.
Too much and it can block every perfora-
tion and stop the job.
One reason more companies are
using diverters is that it costs a lot less
than it used to. In recent years, the
price has dropped by 80%, said Fran-
cisco Fragachan, director of sales and
marketing for Weatherford Pressure
Pumping Services.
Larger-sized particle types, such as
flakes and pellets from Jamplast, are
engineered to significantly reduce the
volume of material needed in some open-
ings, such as an uncemented well, Mois-
son said.
At this price point, Weddle said the
additional time required to pump the
diverter during each stage is the main
cost consideration, not the cost of the
material. He estimates the breaks added
in the pumping for diverter drops adds
about 6–9 hours per well. “It is still a very
cost-effective way to drive performance,”
he said.
Toe Side Heel Side
Saudi Aramco is interested in using
diversion as a way to stimulate signifi-
cantly more perforations per stage, and
saving money by reducing the number
of stages per well. “It is more efficient
and cost-effective to have more clusters
per stage,” said Kirk Bartko, a senior
petroleum engineering consultant for
Saudi Aramco, during a presentation at
a conference.
Unexpected Observations
When Devon Energy evaluated three dif-
ferent diverters in combination with dif-
ferent fluid formulas last year, it found
that one option was often doing the
opposite of what it was supposed to do
by frequently accelerating the growth
of the dominant fracture, one had no
impact on the growth of the largest frac-
ture more than half the time, and one
was far more likely than the rest to con-
trol the growth of the biggest fractures
(Fig. 2).
The combination of fluid and diverter
most likely to halt growth, which is now
regularly used, was identified only as
diverter C, Haustveit said.
Details like that can be hard to find.
Operators do not want to reveal any-
thing that gives them an edge, and ser-
JPT • JUNE 2017
 0.7
Diverter A / Fluid A
0.6
Diverter A / Fluid B
0.5
Fraction of Drops
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 it thought would be needed when it was
Accelerates
Impact of Drop on Growth of Largest Fracture
Fig. 2—When Devon Energy compared four combinations of fluid and diverter
to see which was most effective at slowing or stopping the growth of the
dominant fracture, the results varied widely. Source: SPE 184862.
vice companies are trying to sell their
proprietary expertise.
“The design needs to be tailored to
the need, to the conditions in the well. It
is an engineering process, not a rule of
thumb,” Fragachan said. He said the fail-
ure to think through a diversion design
can be poorly performing wells, time and
money wasted on added drops of divert-
er, or delays when too much diverter
blocks all fracturing, forcing work to halt
until the blockage clears.
Operators agree that some engineer-
ing is required, but it can be largely
done in-house.
Based on experience and some calcu-
lations, Weddle said Liberty commonly
uses a 50/50 mix of coarse (8 mesh)- and
medium (20–70 mesh)-sized particles.
Van Domelen suggested a mix of 25%
coarse particles, 50% medium, and 25%
fine PLA grains could be a good start-
ing point.
Weatherford and the two biggest ser-
vice companies, Schlumberger and Hal-
liburton, have long sold diverters for
acid stimulation and have made substan-
tial investments in developing hydrau-
lic fracturing diversion methods. While
they are all selling diversion services
and supplies, no company owns the PLA
46
Diverter B
Diverter C
No Impact Impede Stop
market, where there are multiple PLA
particle-makers, some of which claim
their version is superior for reasons that
cannot be disclosed.
As someone who once worked for a
service company developing diverters,
Van Domelen appreciates the desire
for a competitive edge, but the secre-
cy in this area casts a “veil of mystery
over diversion.”
One key to creating a good seal is using
a wide range of particle sizes in the mix,
and Van Domelen’s paper offers a formu-
la for that.
It is based on the method used to
determine the mix of grains sizes need-
ed to create a gravel pack that is perme-
able enough to allow oil to flow but not
formation sand. She lays out a variation
Diverter Design Guidelines
1) Choose the most appropriate base
material
2) Determine the correct particle size
distribution
3) Determine the amount of diverter
required
4) Monitor the injection well
5) Monitor the offset wells
Source: SPE 185120.
that inverts the formula to calculate the
specification required to create an imper-
meable plug.
Pressure Test
There are databases to mine for diversion
information, including FracFocus where
companies disclose the chemicals used
for fracturing, but ultimately each opera-
tor has to adapt what others have done to
the well at hand.
The variables range from how the well
was drilled and completed, to variations
in the rock properties and stresses along
the wellbore.
Liberty uses from 2 lb to 30 lb of
diverter per stage, which is far less than
researching how others did diversion.
The prime measure used to see if a
diverter is actually diverting is the pres-
sure change after a pill is dropped. If
there is a sharp increase, it suggests the
particles have blocked off the flow into
the dominant fracture and the flow is
now being directed elsewhere.
An example of that was in the Abrax-
as paper, which said “treating pressure
data indicate that PLA granular diverter
was highly effective,” in a wellbore that
had not been cemented. That observa-
tion addressed a significant concern:
Could the diverter particles create a plug
if the space between the casing and res-
ervoir rock has not been cemented?
Pressure response interpretation is
not an exact science. During the fractur-
ing conference, the pressure responses
mentioned by presenters ranged from
around 200 psi to well over 1,000  psi,
leading to pointed questions about
whether those readings really indicated
the diverter was working.
Based on Devon’s work, pressure mon-
itoring could be something people are
getting wrong.
“So many times people are defining
the effectiveness of diverters based on
surface treating pressure alone,” Haust-
veit said.
The problem with that, as Devon has
observed when using fiber-optic moni-
toring, are the instances when the pres-
sure rises because diverters are doing
the opposite of what they were supposed
to do: “They screen out smaller frac-
JPT • JUNE 2017
 tures and accelerate the already domi-
nant ones.”
“One of the first learnings was that
fiber showed that surface treating pres-
sure increases alone is not a good indica-
tion that the fluid flow was diverted away
from the dominant fracture,” he said.
Weddle has studied those papers for
the insights they offer, but the million-
dollar cost of those sorts of studies is not
in the budget yet for smaller operators
like Liberty.
By using production analysis and
radioactive tracers, Liberty concluded it
significantly increased the efficiency of
its perforation clusters considerably, he
said. Tests showed efficient production
from 12 to 13 clusters out of 15. That
is better than average both in terms of
the percentage producing, and the num-
ber because it stimulated more than
twice as many clusters as many widely
used designs.
Van Domelen agrees the surface pres-
sure response alone is not definitive,
but companies have to work with the
data available. That includes monitor-
ing nearby offset well pressures while
fracturing. Those levels can indicate if
diversion is helping to manage fracture
growth within the limits of the comple-
tion design, reducing interactions with
nearby wells.
Devon is also using lower-cost diag-
nostics that can be widely used. One
promising option tested by Devon used
pressure readings from multiple nearby
wells to predict fracture growth.
Extreme fracture growth is increasing-
ly being recognized as a problem as the
industry works to reduce damaging frac
hits among tightly spaced wells.
Continental’s completion supervi-
sors log the pressure response after each
diverter drop, with a goal of an increase
of about 500 psi, which is the maximum.
These observations are stored in a data-
base that is used to analyze diversion
performance, and compared with PLA
particles from competing suppliers, Van
Domelen said.
“Based on the data we look at, they are
not all equal. You get different responses
with different diverters,” she said. JPT
Further Reading
SPE 185120 A Practical Guide to Modern
Diversion Technology by Mary Van
Domelen.
SPE 184828 Mining the Bakken: Driving
Cluster Efficiency Higher Using Particulate
Diverters by Paul Weddle, Larry Griffin,
and Mark Pearson, Liberty Resources.
SPE 184840 Innovative Diversion
Technology Ensures Uniform Stimulation
Treatments and Enhances Gas Production:
Examples From Carbonate and Sandstone
Reservoirs by Zillur Rahim, Adnan Al
Kanaan, Sayd Taha, Saudi Aramco, et al.
SPE 184862 New Age Fracture Mapping
Diagnostic Tools-A STACK Case Study
by K. Haustveit, K. Dahlgren,
H. Greenwood, Devon Energy, et al.
SPE 184851 Re-Designing From Scratch and
Defending Offset Wells: Case Study of a
Six-Well Bakken Zipper Project, McKenzie
County, ND by Peter Bommer, and Marc
Bayne, Abraxas Petroleum; Michael
Mayerhofer, Liberty Oilfield Services, et al.
SPE 179167 Improving Hydrocarbon
Recovery in Sliding Sleeve Completions
Utilizing Diverters in the Wattenberg Field
by Jessica Fry, Halliburton; Erick Roach,
Brett Kreyche, PDC Energy, et al.

Weatherford
EXPERT HOUR
Activate Field-Wide Intelligence to Maximize Production
Live and Free | 27 June | 0900 (CDT, GMT-5)
Join us as Weatherford production software experts discuss Manoj Nimbalkar
Global Director
innovations to improve lift performance, reduce operating expense for Software Solutions,
and extend the life of your asset. Weatherford

Topics will include:

• Boosting production through integrated reservoir, well and surface facility optimization
• Combining physics-based models and advanced data analytics to maximize uptime
• Enhancing performance throughout the life of the well Bimal Venkatesh
• Implementing a secure enterprise-wide production optimization software platform Senior Product Manager
for Production Software,
Weatherford
Content Provided by

Register today for this webinar www.spe.org/go/June17Webinar

 Permian, Bakken Operators Face
Produced Water Challenges
Stephen Whitfield, Senior Staff Writer

W ith the oil price market slowly

recovering in recent months,
hydraulic fracturing activity may in-
crease at faster rates than previously
expected. However, even with higher oil
prices, operators in shale plays still face
significant budgetary issues with regards
to water management. As demand and
usage increase, and saltwater disposal
wells (SWDs) fill to capacity, companies
looking to stay afloat will have little
choice but to find alternative means to
store and reuse their produced water.
“Costs will go up, and the industry
needs to be prepared,” Piers Wells, chief
executive officer of Digital H2O, said.
“What this drives us toward is the con-
clusion that increased water reuse will
likely be an operational necessity in a
recovering oil price environment.”
This article examines some of the
water management issues facing com-
panies in the Permian Basin and the
Bakken, two plays with different geo-
logic features but similar needs to handle
rising produced water volumes.
Permian Issues
The downturn put stress on operators
in the Permian Basin, but despite the
financial difficulties hydrocarbon and
water production remained at high vol-
umes. Digital H2O, a company that spe-
cializes in oilfield water resource fore-
casts, claimed that this was primarily due
to the large number of wells completed
between 2012 and 2014. Over the same
time period, water intensity has gone up.
In a company webinar, Wells said that the
amount of water used per well comple-
tion has increased, and more water has
been generated per well and per horizon-
tal foot of wellbore length.
While completion activity has led to
an increase in water intensity in the
Permian, the basin’s SWD capacity is
facing heavy constraints in key areas.
Wells estimated that the average pressure

Fig. 1—A comparison of average monthly water volumes disposed in saltwater disposal wells (SDWs) and the average
pressure utilization of SDWs for each county in the Permian Basin. Source: Digital H2O.

48 JPT • JUNE 2017

Fig. 2—As the median pressure utilization of saltwater disposal wells increases, so does the transport distance.
Source: Digital H2O.
utilization for SWDs was 65% in 2016,
with several wells reporting utilization
approaching 100%.
Fig. 1 illustrates the average monthly
water volume disposed in an SWD com-
pared to the average pressure utilization
for SWDs for each county in the Permian
Basin. A range of 60% to 80% utilization
is considered high, and anything above
that is considered full utilization, mean-
ing that the wells in that county cannot
accept any additional water for disposal.
Wells identified four counties—Gaines,
Yoakum, Kent, and Hockley—that are
either at high or full utilization, with sev-
eral other counties nearing the lower
bound of the high utilization range.
Wells said that SWD pressure utiliza-
tion shares a fundamental relationship
with transport distance costs, as shown
in Fig. 2. The light blue line in the fig-
ure represents the median pressure uti-
lization percentage in a given month,
while the light green line represents the
median transport distance in a given
month. As the median pressure utiliza-
tion increases, so does the transport dis-
tance. Wells said this was likely due to
the fact that, as SWDs near a well produc-
ing high volumes of produced water fill
up, operators have to drive longer dis-
JPT • JUNE 2017
tances to dispose of their waters in less-
utilized wells. This relationship has a
direct impact on water costs.
“As utilization pressure increases,
transport pressure increases, therefore
the cost to transport that water increas-
es,” Wells said. “In addition, as salt-
water disposal capacity increases, the
fee charged to dispose that water in salt-
water disposal wells also increases, so
you get two factors of costs going up—
water transport costs and water dispos-
al costs driven by the capacity utiliza-
tion of the installed base of the saltwater
disposal infrastructure.”
Permian Outlook
At a presentation hosted by the SPE Gulf
Coast Section’s Waste and Water Man-
agement Study Group, Bridget Scanlon
outlined the numerous challenges oper-
ators face in reusing produced water in
the Permian, ranging from the low cost
of fresh water in the area and the cost of
disposal relative to the costs of storage
and reuse.
“Water is cheap in the Permian Basin,”
said Scanlon, a senior research scientist
for the Bureau of Economic Geology at
the University of Texas at Austin. “We
have it measured at about 25 cents per
barrel. Also, the landowners want to sell
fresh water and make money off of it. I
would too. And then, the low costs of pro-
duced water disposal are a factor, and that
doesn’t include the costs for transport.
Then, of course, we’re recognizing the
contamination risk of transporting and
storing produced water in pits. You have
to use tanks, and that’s a lot of tanks.”
Wells et al. (2017) predicted that
renewed completion activity, continued
drawdown of drilled-but-uncompleted
wells, and high legacy well produced
water volumes will drive demand for
additional SWD capacity. However, given
the recent slowdown in available SWD
capacity, they wrote that even a slight
increase in produced water volumes may
lead to increasing water costs until new
disposal capacity becomes available.
Presuming that the price of oil con-
tinues to rise, they estimated that water
production in the Permian could increase
by as much as 50 million bbl each
month.  If production increases by this
amount, approximately 70 million bbl of
produced water would need to be divert-
ed from current disposal facilities to
new facilities or be diverted for reuse.
A 15% volume increase in produced
water would likely lead to multiple bot-
49

tleneck areas in the Delaware and Mid-
land Basins due to high disposal utiliza-
tion, with Eddy, Lea, Hockley, Howard,
Reagan, and Winkler counties being the
most likely areas of acute bottlenecking.
Wells estimated that areas with over-
ly pressured SWDs under this scenario
would produce 35 million bbl of water per
month in the Delaware, and 22 million bbl
of water per month in the Midland.
Scanlon said the Central and Delaware
Basins each have enough saltwater dis-
posal water to support hydraulic frac-
turing; disposal to usage ratios were 1.7
and 2.6, respectively, based on the most
recent data from 2014. An increase in
campaign drilling may also help limit the
need for SWDs, though Scanlon said it
may raise questions of ownership of the
produced water.
“As the system evolves, maybe we see
that happening,” she said. “There’s the
issue of who holds the water—if you turn
a waste into a resource, then all of a sud-
den somebody might want to own it—
but, from a water quality perspective,
there is potential.”
Bakken Issues
Fig. 3 shows hydraulic fracturing water
use per length of lateral for oil and gas
wells in the Bakken. The figure illustrates
50
Fig. 3—A map
of the Bakken
showing
hydraulic
fracturing (HF)
water use per
length of lateral
for oil and
gas wells. The
Bakken includes
the Northwest
Transitional
(NT), Eastern
Transitional (ET),
Central Basin
(CB), Nelson-
Little Knife
(NLK), and Elm
Coulee-Billings
Nose (ECBN)
assessment units.
Source: Scanlon
et al. 2014.
water use for 7,868 wells drilled from
2005 to 2013 in the Bakken and Three
Forks formations, encompassing the
Northwest Transitional, Eastern Transi-
tional, Central Basin, Nelson-Little Knife,
and Elm Coulee-Billings Nose assessment
units in Montana and North Dakota.
Scanlon et al. (2014) determined that
the mean hydraulic fracturing water use
in the Bakken was 200 gal/ft of later-
al, ranging from 100–320 gal/ft of lat-
eral among the different assessment
units. By comparison, in the Eagle Ford
mean water usage was 950 gal/ft of lat-
eral, with usage being higher in the west-
ern part of the formation (1,020 gal/ft
of lateral) than in the east (840 gal/ft
of lateral). Scanlon et al. did not com-
pare the regions because the Permian’s
multistacked plays and mostly vertical
wells make it a significantly different area
to measure.
While the mean figures are lower in
the Bakken than in the Eagle Ford and
the Marcellus, Scanlon said the Bakken
saw a significant increase in hydraulic
fracturing use starting in 2013, when
usage jumped from 310,000 gal/well to
2.8  million gal/well. This increase was
partly related to variation in average lat-
eral length, which led to an increase in
normalized water use.
“You can say, well, the laterals are get-
ting longer and that’s why we’re using
more water. If we divide [water usage] by
the length of the laterals and look at the
time trend, you see that the water use is
increasing,” Scanlon said. “So we’re using
more water. Operators say they’re using
more slickwater fracs rather than gels,
and they probably have more frac stages,
so they’re trying to even out the distribu-
tion of fracking along the laterals.”
Annually, the state of North Dakota
permits withdrawals totaling 10.3 billion
gallons of surface water. The US Army
Corps of Engineers agreed to a 5-year
deal to make available at least 32.5 bil-
lion gal/yr of surplus water from Lake
Sakakawea in the Missouri River basin
via temporary and permanent withdraw-
al permits (Horner et al. 2016). On top
of that, the Western Area Water Sup-
ply Project (WAWSP) expanded the sup-
ply of potable water from the Missouri
River system for municipal, rural, and
industrial use in an area near Willis-
ton, North Dakota, a central hub of Bak-
ken activity. The WAWSP allows up to
20% of its available water to be used
for hydraulic fracturing purposes. How-
ever, accessing the water and transport-
ing it to wellsites can be challenging
for operators.
Scanlon said the water problems in
the Bakken are similar to those in the
Permian, namely in that the Bakken is a
semi-arid region with high levels of salin-
ity in its produced water—approaching
300,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids
(TDS), nearly 10 times the salinity of
seawater. Scanlon said the use of fresh
water for well maintenance (namely the
routine flushing of production casing to
remove accumulated salts and prevent
scale deposition) skews usage figures for
operators in the region.
“The water is so saline that [operators]
have to put fresh water down in it to keep
it from scaling, and they don’t report
that, so we don’t know how much they’re
using. Some of the companies we deal
with say, well, it could be quite a lot and
we’re trying to see how we can manage
using a lot of maintenance water. So in
some cases we could double the amount
of water being used for hydraulic fractur-
ing,” Scanlon said.
JPT • JUNE 2017
 Decreasing Fresh Water Use
The high-salinity produced water has
forced operators and service com-
panies in the Bakken to develop alter-
native methods to avoid running high
freshwater usage costs. In one such case,
Schlumberger developed a crosslinked
fracturing fluid that uses 100% pro-
duced water from the Three Forks for-
mation. The fluid contains a polysac-
charide gelling agent, a pH adjuster,
and a proprietary metal crosslinker that
it implemented in multistage fractur-
ing for long horizontal wells. The fluid
does not require that the water be treat-
ed (although operators can remove sus-
pended solids or other potential sources
of damage), and it is designed to be toler-
ant to changes in water quality through-
out a typical frac stage.
The first step of implementing the fluid
is to hydrate the gelling agent in pro-
duced water at a suitable pH to promote
fast hydration; typical Bakken downhole
conditions require a fluid pH above 10
(SPE 173783). In the second step, a group
IV metal crosslinker is added and the pH
is adjusted to achieve the optimal cross-
linking rate. The resulting fluid is stable
at bottomhole static temperature condi-
tions and does not contain any hydroxide
or carbonate scales.
McMahon et al. (2015) wrote that one
of the benefits of this practice of reusing
produced water is that the connate water
produced from the well can reach ther-
modynamic equilibrium with the for-
mation. The water it tested reached
equilibrium with the formation it was
produced from prior to production
and, apart from suspended iron oxides,
dissolved solids and hydroxides were
found to be in the solution, eliminat-
ing the need for a chemical or mechani-
cal method to change the equilibrium.
Suspended solids can be removed by
filtration, coagulation, and/or settling,
and the inherent “fitness” of the water
for the formation may be beneficial
for operators.
Schlumberger also tested the fluid in a
variety of mixwaters with salinity levels
ranging from 43,000 to 350,000 ppm
of TDS from formations in the Marcel-
lus Shale and the Permian Basin. Identi-
cal formulations showed improved per-
formance as the salinity increased. JPT
For Further Reading
SPE 173783 First 100% Reuse of Bakken
Produced Water in Hybrid Treatments
Using Inexpensive Polysaccharide Gelling
Agents by B. McMahon, B. MacKay, and
A. Mirakyan, Schlumberger. https://doi.
org/10.2118/173783-MS.
Horner, R.M., Harto, C.B., Jackson, R.B.,
et al. 2016. Water Use and Management
in the Bakken Shale Oil Play in North
Dakota. Environ. Sci. Technol. (50):
3275–3282. https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/
acs.est.5b04079.
Scanlon, B.R., Reedy, R.C, and Nicot, J.P.
2014. Comparison of Water Use for
Hydraulic Fracturing for Unconventional
Oil and Gas versus Conventional Oil.
Environ. Sci. Technol. (48): 12386–12393.
https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es502506v.
Wells, P., Rothbarth, S., and Webb, F. 2017.
The Coming Permian Basin Water Disposal
Bottleneck. Digital H2O, 27 January
2017, www.digitalh2o.com/blog/coming-
permian-basin-water-disposal-bottleneck
(accessed 25 April 2017).

Permanent Patches:
NO RIG REQUIRED.
Now you can deploy ESeal™ solid expandable patches via coiled tubing.
Patching troubled casing intervals can be costly and time consuming. Now Enventure’s
Solid Expandable ESeal systems offer permanent patching with minimum NPT. The
systems work by installing a solid expandable patch using coiled tubing.
s No rig needed – just coiled tubing
s Standard and High Performance systems available
s Casing Patch is solid steel and permanent
s No cementing required
s Case histories available
For more information, visit us at:
www.EnventureGT.com/eseal
 MANAGEMENT

Chemical EOR—A Multidisciplinary Effort

to Maximize Value
Gabriela Alvarez Jürgenson, Christian Bittner, Stefan Stein, and Michael Büschel, BASF SE

Production from oil fields can be
increased by enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) techniques. Among several other
EOR methods, the injection of chemicals
has been studied since the 1970s.
In that time, anionic polyacrylamides
(PAM) have proven to be efficient vis-
cosifiers for moderate field conditions
to reduce mobility of the displacement
fluid, thus increasing reservoir sweep
efficiency. Surfactants mobilize oil that is
trapped in formation rock pores by low-
ering the oil/water interfacial tension.
Polymer flooding is now considered an
established technology, which is applied
on a commercial scale in several coun-
tries. In contrast, the commercial use of
EOR surfactants is still limited despite
more than 50 years of research history in
this area. This can be partly explained by
the technical complexity of EOR surfac-
tant projects and the higher cost.
The implementation of a chemical
EOR (cEOR) project is often a significant
endeavor that not only poses technical
challenges but also represents substan-
tial financial risk. In recent years, cEOR
projects also target challenging condi-
tions such as high temperatures, high
salinity, and demanding locations such as
offshore fields.
A multidisciplinary and integrated
approach is vital to managing techni-
cal, regulatory, and economic challenges
with a team of geoscientists, engineers,
chemists, and mathematical modelers
working together to achieve an increase
in incremental oil recovery at the lowest
total cost of ownership.
From Laboratory to Full Field
Once the operator has verified that
injection of chemicals is a viable option
to enhance oil recovery in one of its
assets, a laboratory-screening program
will start to identify a suitable chemi-
cal solution that not only will perform
under specific reservoir conditions but
also meet financial targets. The princi-
pal workstreams of a cEOR project are
illustrated in Fig. 1.
EOR-specific application test work
is needed, such as rheology evalua-
tions for polymers, or phase-behavior
and interfacial-tension measurements
for surfactants. The quality of the work
will rely considerably on the collabo-
ration of an experienced multidisci-
plinary team mainly because the experi-
mental evaluations cover a broad range
of knowledge fields such as chemistry,
physical chemistry, and reservoir and
petroleum engineering.
While laboratory research for EOR
polymers will focus on measuring rhe-
ology, thermal, and mechanical stabil-

Full-Field
Chemical Supplier
Implementation
Operator (Oil Company)
Chemicals
Commercial Prod.

Pilot Field Tests

and Evaluation
Costs/Risks

Chemical Scaleup

Geologic Studies Simulation

Field Test Design

Lab Screening (Phase Behavior,

Coreflood) Process Selection
(polymer flooding, alkaline-surfactant-polymer
flooding, surfactant-polymer flooding)

Reservoir Screening Chemical

Field Selection Development Fig. 1—Workstreams and phases
of a cEOR project.

Time

52 JPT • JUNE 2017

ity, the screening of EOR surfactants in
general is more complex. In most cases,
a blend of several surfactants is needed
to reduce the oil/water interfacial ten-
sion by two to three orders of magni-
tude to an “ultralow” level. These evalu-
ations require extensive solubility and
interfacial-tension measurements fol-
lowed by phase behavior tests.
Ultimately, coreflood studies will be
required for all chemicals, polymers, and
surfactants to assess injectivity, propa-
gation profile, dynamic adsorption, and
incremental oil recovery. The results of
porous media flow investigations can
be used as input parameters to perform
reservoir-simulation studies.
Once the chemical candidate has been
identified, it is important in the laborato-
ry phase to work out production and sup-
ply concepts to cope with performance
requirements and production capabili-
ties at the same time. Results of all men-
tioned steps in the project development
need to be fed back into laboratory work
for potential adjustment.
An important but sometimes over-
looked property of a cEOR solution is
applicability. Using EOR surfactant for-
mulations offshore or at very low tem-
peratures needs a proper design of chem-
icals and their formulation to not fail in
the last step.
For a single-well pilot test, up to a few
tons of EOR chemical formulation are
needed, which can be produced in a small
chemical pilot facility. A multiwell pilot
test might demand a few hundred tons
of chemicals. Besides timely availabili-
ty, understanding the interplay between
production scales and product perfor-
mance is of utmost importance to be able
to scale EOR operations.
Project dimensions and financial expo-
sure will significantly change once the
project progresses to full-field scale. While
the operator will start investing in surface
equipment and eventually even new wells,
the chemical supplier may have to invest
in additional production capacity to meet
the chemical demand, which could be
several thousand tons per year. For stan-
dard PAM polymers, production capac-
ity is not as much of an issue. A challenge
might exist for specialty surfactants that
were tailored toward EOR and for which
JPT • JUNE 2017
dedicated production capacity is limited.
Availability of raw materials and regula-
tory requirements need to be considered
carefully, as well as established manufac-
turing processes, to help reduce project
risks and cost. Risk-sharing agreements
between an operator and chemical part-
ner can help to ease approval processes
and manage financial uncertainties.
Making cEOR a Reality
For polymers, anionic PAM, which
is well-known in the water treatment
industry, is nicely suited to the cost-
performance requirements of EOR. But
the operation window of such polymers
is limited to mild field conditions with
temperatures below 70°C and salini-
ties less than 30,000 ppm, which leaves
room for innovation.
In contrast, most of the surfactants
known from cleaners, cosmetics, and
other applications are not perfectly suit-
ed for use in EOR. Organic sulfonates,
for instance, either did not have the right
alkyl chain, or the quality of commer-
cial products was unsteady. This result-
ed in inefficient surfactant pilot floods
in the 1970s. When oil prices eroded in
the 1980s, EOR research activities were
almost abandoned. Only a few academ-
ic research groups continued working
in the EOR area, gaining fundamental
know-how on the relationship between
molecular structure and EOR applica-
tion performance. This knowledge came
into use once oil prices recovered and
the interest of the oil and gas industry in
EOR was renewed.
Several full-scale polymer flooding
projects have been implemented since
then, first in China, later in Canada, the
Middle East, and several other countries.
Over the years, quality has constantly
improved so that good solubility and
injectivity today are technically achiev-
able. Innovative polymers such as the new
class of associative polymers will help to
further improve overall project econom-
ics. New polymer architectures are being
designed for harsh field conditions where
standard PAM is not applicable.
Research in the surfactant area also
targets more dose-effective structures,
but the development of molecules that
can withstand harsh conditions is also
of interest. It is worth emphasizing that,
except for standard PAM, most of the
innovative EOR chemicals are still in trial
or pilot phase and are not yet fully scaled
up to a true commercial size.
A large chemical company with expe-
rience in both polymers and surfactants
can contribute in several key areas of
EOR product development and supply
through these methods:
◗ Product screening, new product
development, and scaleup. The
key objective is to identify the
optimum chemical solution for a
given field. In case it is necessary
to design new chemicals, a large
and experienced chemical partner
builds on a profound research and
development expertise, which
also includes the development
of reliable, industrial-scale
manufacturing processes.
◗ Production and quality control.
A large, international chemical
supplier has all processes in place
to ensure the supply of chemicals
even in large volumes with an
always consistent quality. Analytical
support beyond routine quality
control measurements can be given
during site visits in the startup
phase of a chemical flood.
◗ Registration of new chemicals.
This topic is especially relevant for
the market introduction of new
surfactants and has to be addressed
early, as it is not only costly but may
take several months or even years.
◗ Raw materials. The long-term
availability of key raw materials
at reasonable costs is decisive for
sustainable project economics. A
large chemical supplier is either
backward-integrated in such raw
materials or, in case of insourcing,
may benefit from a stronger
purchase position to keep costs low.
◗ Supply chain. A strong global
presence helps to set up cost-
effective supply chain solutions even
for oil fields in remote locations.
In summary, close cooperation be-
tween the experts of the operating com-
pany with those of the chemical partner
from an early stage on is vital to making
a cEOR project a success. JPT
53
 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS

Coiled-Tubing Applications
Alex Crabtree, SPE, Senior Adviser, Hess Corporation

This time last year, there was uncer- Efficiency and effectiveness a decrease in activity, continuing rising
tainty as to what the future held for costs, and a reduced return. However,
our industry as a whole and the coiled- will continue to be even with the lower current situation,
tubing sector in particular. Today, the strong influencing factors overall activity has not dropped to 2005
mantra appears to be “lower for longer.” levels; the demand side of the curve is
With the price of oil hovering around
in the development still trending upward. (EIA world petro-
USD 50/bbl, is this really the case? of the coiled-tubing leum consumption data show 84.7 mil-
Looking at the US Energy Informa- market sector. lion B/D in 2005 to 95.1 million B/D in
tion Administration (EIA) data for West 2016.) Therefore, efficiency and effec-
Texas intermediate and Brent spot tiveness will continue to be strong influ-
crude oil prices, it was not until 2005 ing in 2014. Placing the coiled-tubing encing factors in the development of the
that prices rose and consistently stayed sector within this context, the global coiled-tubing market sector.
above the USD 50 mark, with a short coiled-tubing-unit count has increased Efficiency and effectiveness can be
dip below that in 2008. On the cost from 1,163 in 2005 to 1,951 in 2016, achieved in differing ways. This year’s
side of the equation, the US Consum- with the peak being 2,096 units in papers provide readers with exam-
er Price Index in 2005 was 195 (1982 is 2015 (Intervention and Coiled Tubing ples of efficiencies that have been
the base year of 100) and 240 for 2016. Association worldwide coiled-tubing achieved in coiled-tubing operations.
Looking at US Bureau of Labor Statis- rig count). The papers demonstrate how problem-
tics data, oil and gas extraction employ- So what do these statistics imply? solving techniques have been applied
ment rose from 1,287,000 to 1,932,000 They would seem to reflect trends that to improve such aspects as on-site
in the US between 2005 and 2015, peak- are currently manifesting themselves: processes, fit-for-purpose equipment,
coiled-tubing-string selection for pro-
cess optimization, and more-effective
Alex Crabtree, SPE, is senior adviser for well interventions and treatment placement. JPT
well integrity with the Hess Corporation E&P Technology depart-
ment. He has more than 33 years of experience in the upstream
oil and gas industry. Crabtree holds a BS degree in mechanical
engineering. He has worked in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Recommended additional reading
Europe, North America, and South America, both onshore and at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
offshore. Crabtree previously worked within the oilfield-services- OTC 26690 Journey to Success—
company sector, holding various engineering and management Advancement of Coiled-Tubing Drilling in
posts in research and development, field operations, downhole-tool design, and Malaysia by Zhon Wei Ooi, Petronas, et al.
technology implementation. He has authored several SPE papers and is a past SPE 182905 Coiled-Tubing Technology
program-committee chairperson for various SPE conferences and SPE Applied for Extending the Reach in Sand-Screen-
Technology Workshops. Crabtree was an SPE Distinguished Lecturer in 2001–02 and Completed and Openhole Wells by Karim
is a member of the JPT Editorial Committee. Elrashidi, Baker Hughes, et al.

54 JPT • JUNE 2017

Custom-Designed Coiled Tubing Leads
to Success in Extended-Reach Operations

A dvanced horizontal drilling,

multistage hydraulic
fracturing, and other technologies
CT-String Design
Considerations
The CT-string designs followed a coop-
vertical and horizontal sections of the
wellbore. This friction between the CT
and wellbore is produced by excessive
have helped make the Vaca Muerta erative process between the operator, the wall-contact forces generally because the
shale oil and gas resource economically CT service companies, tool providers, CT buckled into a helical shape as a re-
viable. An option to exploit this and the CT-manufacturing engineers. sult of the axial compressive forces while
resource better is to increase the Tubing forces, buckling occurrence, and running in hole. Therefore, preventing
length of the horizontal section of lockup depths were analyzed in detail helical-buckling occurrence in the CT
each well to add hydraulic-fracture to determine the optimal CT size and reduces the wall-contact forces acting
stages. Anticipated high angles in string design makeup to ensure the like- against the wellbore, allowing for force
deviated well sections, along with lihood of reaching target depth (TD) in transfer to the end of the CT string.
the extended horizontal length of the the planned extended-reach wells. Ad- By understanding the theory of buck-
planned wells, formed an expectation ditionally, hydraulic analysis was per- ling, especially helical-buckling load cal-
that conventional coiled-tubing (CT) formed to compare frictional pressure culations, CT-design engineers can alter
designs would not be able to service losses (CT, bottomhole-assembly, and the string makeup to reduce CT buckling
the new well designs. Using refined, annular) using the optimal flow rates for in extended-reach wells. Helical-buckling
custom-engineered CT-string designs annular velocities adequate to support load variables that are affected by the CT-
appears to be an economic and sufficient well cleaning. The results from string design are CT stiffness (CT geome-
efficient solution. the analysis were used to estimate fatigue try), radial clearance, and tubing weight.
accumulation in the CT strings, consider- Therefore, helical buckling can be miti-
Project Overview ing anticipated circulating pressures and gated by increasing the CT stiffness in
Increased diameter, strength, and reli- surface-equipment (reel and gooseneck the areas of maximum compression (i.e.,
ability have made CT the preferred cost- arch) dimensions. varying the geometry of the tubing to in-
effective well-intervention solution in The primary objective for the new crease the moment of inertia of that sec-
the Vaca Muerta unconventional shale CT-string design is to optimize lateral tion). Consequently, increased wall thick-
development; however, the maximum reach and available weight on bit for post- ness is placed strategically to cover the
lateral reach the CT can achieve dur- fracture mill-out operations. vertical section and the curvature of the
ing operations is a limiting factor for well where the tubing tends to buckle
well optimization. Extended-Reach more, and then it is tapered down to the
Initially, 2-in. CT strings with a sim- CT-Design Methodology minimum wall thickness quickly to re-
ple wall taper shape were an effective Excessive friction between the CT and duce weight in the horizontal.
and reliable option to complete wells in the casing causes a lockup condition that However, the number of wall thick-
the first development stage. However, prevents further penetration in the lat- nesses and the lengths of the transitions
the need for optimized design and even- eral. Friction lockup indicates that any have significant influence on the per-
larger-diameter CT with enhanced-wall- force applied at surface by the injector formance of the string, particularly on
thickness configurations became appar- and the available CT normal weight is lost extended reach, weight, and overpull.
ent when an increase of the well lateral because of local drag, especially around Technology exists that provides rapid
lengths was  attempted. the heel, and because of buckling in the wall-thickness transitions of 300 to
650  ft in length to place specific thick-
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains nesses purposefully along the length of
the string to enhance force transmis-
highlights of paper SPE 184752, “Vaca Muerta Coiled-Tubing-Operations Success
sion to the end of the tubing, increase
and the Development of Future Extended-Reach Operations,” by I.I. Galvan,
strength and stiffness, and reduce fatigue
Global Tubing; M.M. Nebiolo, R.D. Del Negro, and G.A. Landinez Gomez, YPF; accumulation and weight.
C.  Cerne,  SPE, ThruTubing Solutions; and A. Sanchez, SPE, and G. Mallanao, Friction is another variable that can
Global Tubing, prepared for the 2017 SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and Well be reduced by using vibration tools
Intervention Conference and  Exhibition, Houston, 21–22 March. The paper has (extended-reach tools) and fluid addi-
not been peer reviewed. tives such as metal-to-metal lubricants.

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JUNE 2017 55

 High-Cycled Region of the CT Strings
Proper Section Length
Extended Reach of Minimum Wall Thickness
2-in. CT×18,400 ft, Design 1

70,700 lbm
0.190 in. 0.204-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.224 in. 0.156 in.
≈1,800 ft

2-in. CT×19,350 ft, Design 2

68,700 lbm
0.190-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.204-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.204 in. 0.145 in.
≈1,500 ft

Weight Management With Greater Quick Wall-Thickness

Wall Thickness in the Bias Welds Transitions

Fig. 1—Final optimized 2-in.-CT designs showing an hourglass configuration to improve reach and reduce overall
weight. Both designs benefit from reduced weight in the uphole section, proprietary dual tapered strips that protect
the bias welds in the high-cycled region of the string, and rapid transitions to thinner wall to reduce weight in the
horizontal section.

The advantage of vibration tools or lu-
bricants is so significant that, depend-
ing on the complexity of the extended-
reach wells, they can enable reaching
TDs with smaller CT sizes and lighter
string makeups.
To maximize fatigue life, CT-design en-
gineers carefully select the minimum wall
thickness that has the proper diameter/
wall-thickness ratio for the CT geom-
etry. Increasing wall thickness reduces
CT-bending-fatigue accumulation and in-
creases pressure capacity. Therefore, it
is recommended to cover the expected
working area of the string with increased
wall thickness where the fatigue tends to
accumulate faster because of short trips
(from kickoff point to TD).
2-in. CT Design Optimized for
Multistage Hydraulic Fracturing
The design process started by placing
specific thicknesses along the tubing
length to avoid helical buckling in the
well. The effective axial force and the
helical-buckling-load limits were ana-
lyzed for each wall-thickness change in
the designs.
After many design iterations and re-
visions of the proposed strings with
the CT service companies and the op-
erator, the final designs were achieved
(Fig. 1). These strings have a unique
continuous-taper configuration, which
provides rapid wall-thickness transi-
tions to help with the strategic place-
ment of the wall thickness and provide
additional tubing strength where it is
needed most.
The new string designs feature an
hourglass configuration, which reduc-
es some of the heavy wall in the upper
section with thinner wall thickness-
es. This reduces fluid frictional pres-
sure losses inside the CT because of
the restricted inner diameters; reduces
weight; reduces tubing costs; and, most
importantly, does not affect extended-
reach capacity.
Optimized-2-in.-CT-Design
Field Performance
The 2-in. customized CT designs have
been in operation since 2015. The ad-
ditional force transfer achieved by the
optimal selection of the wall-thickness-
transition points allowed for more avail-
able set-down weight while milling
fracture plugs, which increased the ef-
ficiency of the operation. The post-job
analysis performed in several wells in-
dicated that the apparent friction fac-
tors are very similar to the previously
matched friction factors analyzed with
the previous CT designs when using lu-
bricants and a vibration tool, which
was expected.
(Continued on page 60)

High-Cycled Region of the CT Strings

Proper Section Length
Extended Reach of Minimum Wall Thickness

2.375-in. CT×20,300 ft

0.224 in. 0.236-in. Dual Taper Strips 0.250 in. 0.156-in. Dual Taper Strips 99,200 lbm
≈2,950 ft

Weight Management Quick Wall-Thickness Transitions

Fig. 2—Final custom-fit 2.375-in. hourglass design that includes a lighter core for weight optimization, proprietary dual
taper strip technology that protects bias welds to improve fatigue performance, greater wall thickness extended to the
end of the vertical and deviated sections of the wells to increase CT stiffness in those sections, and quick transition of
six nominal wall thicknesses at 2,950 ft to place thin wall material in the horizontal section. In addition, a 130-ksi-yield-
strength CT grade was selected to optimize service life and prevent tubing deformation because of the challenging
operating conditions.

56 JPT • JUNE 2017

 RFID-ENABLED TOOLS

ACTIVATE
THE POSSIBILITIES
RFID-activated, dual-reamer BHA saves
more than $1.5 million
It’s time to reduce risk and expense in your drilling operations.
Activated by our exclusive radio-frequency identification (RFID)
technology, the RipTide® drilling reamer and rathole killer systems
remove days from your drilling schedule.

Our customer in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico used RFID-activated

tools to enlarge the borehole, eliminate the rathole, and land the well—
all with the same BHA. By activating and deactivating the primary and
secondary reamers on demand, the operator reached total depth in
one trip, which saved 2 days of rig time and more than US $1.5 million.

Drill and enlarge efficiently at weatherford.com/RFID.

© 2017 Weatherford. All rights reserved.
 Systematic Coiled-Tubing-Efficiency
Improvement Reduces Operational Time

D eepwater coiled-tubing (CT) well

interventions can benefit from
significant rig-time reduction and
The underlying strategies of sev-
eral widely accepted continuous-
improvement programs, such as lean
standard lifts introduces waste into the
process. Proper personnel allocation ad-
dresses both wasteful cases—oversup-
cost savings associated with improved principles and the define/measure/ ply and undersupply of personnel—to
efficiencies of surface processes. analyze/implement/control methodolo- ensure efficient process completion.
Efficiency improvement requires a gy, were used to provide the link between Defined Work Plan. Inefficiencies
systematic approach and detailed performance and improvement. during the equipment-spotting pro-
analysis of each part of the process. Low-performance areas and areas of cess occur when the lift sequence and
The efficiency methodology allows for recurring nonproductive time (NPT) equipment-placement processes are han-
systematic improvement in all areas of were addressed through root-cause dled without clear direction. A document-
CT operations, specifically for surface analysis and remedial-work plans that ed work plan, with both lift sequence and
activities. The total efficiency solution were focused on specific tasks. Mean- equipment destination, is critical for effi-
described in this paper requires no while, high-performance areas were ana- cient completion of equipment spotting.
additional cost to service providers, lyzed to document the best practices for Work Site Preparation. At a mini-
and results can be seen immediately. efficient operational execution so that mum, the work site must be prepared for a
efficiency gains could be realized for the CT intervention before the equipment ar-
Deepwater Coiled Tubing duration of the campaign. rives on location. Temporary equipment,
The use of CT for well intervention Performance is compared with both tote tanks, and other miscellaneous items
can provide many downhole solutions baseline and previous-operation perfor- in the planned CT-equipment-spotting
throughout the life of a well. Although mance data so that trends and inconsis- and rig-up areas should be removed. Ad-
there is much discussion of the financial tencies could be identified easily. ditionally, any support activities, such as
and technical aspects of CT in the indus- erecting scaffolding, preparing the well
try, less conversation is directed toward Equipment Mobilization/ bay, and installing barriers, may be per-
the efficiency of CT surface processes. Demobilization and Lifting formed in advance.
The expansion of analysis, specifically The first stage of any CT operation in- Crane Operations and Availability.
to CT process efficiency both before and volves mobilizing the required equip- Perhaps the largest bottleneck during the
after in-hole operations, is necessary for ment to location. A typical CT spread equipment-spotting process is crane op-
a holistic approach to total efficiency im- may require 30 to 45 individual lifts to erations and availability. Being a shared
provement. The stages of CT operation move equipment from the workboat to resource on location, the crane must be
shown in green in Fig. 1 can be identified the rig. This first process, termed boat prioritized to ensure necessary activities
as five distinct surface activities. work and equipment spotting, is most are progressed. Perceiving the crane as
commonly tracked by total time required a temporary resource ensures optimiza-
Design Methodology to place the entire CT spread on deck. tion of use while also ensuring that the
The first stage of the efficiency solution process-work-flow design accounts for
involved analysis of past performance. Areas of Improvement. Allocation of periods of crane unavailability.
Some limited performance data were col- Personnel. Proper personnel allocation
lected and reviewed, primarily on CT rig allows for the correct number of person- Rig Up and Rig Down
up, pressure testing, and transition time nel to concentrate on a required task. Al- Stages 2 and 5 of a deepwater CT op-
between CT and wire services (wireline locating too few personnel for complex eration involve CT rig up and rig down.
and slickline). lifts or allocating too many personnel for While clearly inverse processes, rig up
and rig down exhibit a multitude of simi-
lar characteristics. The ultimate objec-
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
tives of both processes are opposing,
of paper SPE 184779, “Consistent, Systematic Approach to Deepwater Coiled-Tubing- but the nature of the work to reach the
Efficiency Improvement Substantially Reduces Operational Time, Gulf of Mexico,” by goal is nearly identical. Each addition-
Peter Weiland, SPE, Alexander Rudnik, SPE, and Eric Gagen, SPE, Schlumberger, al item rigged up must later be rigged
prepared for the 2017 SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and Well Intervention Conference and down, whereas efficiency gains experi-
Exhibition, Houston, 21–22 March. The paper has not been peer reviewed. enced during rig up most likely will be

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

58 JPT • JUNE 2017

 Deepwater CT
Operations

Stage 1 Stage 6
Boat Work and Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Boat Work and
Spotting Rig Up Pressure Test Operations Rig Down Backload
Equipment Equipment

Fig. 1—Key deepwater CT stages.

exploited during rig down. This doubles
the reward for optimal work flow and
efficient design.
Understanding the process work flow
of a rig-up or rig-down series is impera-
tive for process improvement. Rig up and
rig down involve significant time work-
ing at heights. Activities performed while
working at heights must be reduced. In
fact, working at heights is the largest
bottleneck of all surface activities. Near-
ly every prolonged rig-up process can be
traced back to undesirable performance
while working at heights.
Areas of Improvement. Upon applying
the systematic efficiency method to rig
up and rig down, the following improve-
ment opportunities were identified.
Bottleneck Aversion. Bottleneck aver-
sion involves recognizing and reducing
the number of tasks that may cause con-
gestion. Eliminating at-height tasks al-
together can have a profound effect on
efficiency improvement. As previous-
ly mentioned, any task eliminated dur-
ing rig up will also be eliminated during
rig down.
Standardization. In both design and
execution, standardization can guar-
antee consistent, efficient improve-
ment. It should include, as a minimum,
pressure-control-stack configuration,
low- and high-pressure-line configura-
tion, standard work instructions, and
operational checklists.
Work-Flow Management. Work-flow
management ensures that tasks are com-
pleted in the most efficient manner to
complete a total process. Additionally,
work-flow management involves strate-
gically allocating the proper amount of
personnel resources for each task.
Multiskilling of Personnel. Specifi-
cally, multiskilling is perhaps the pinna-
cle of efficiency. From a work-flow per-
spective, consistency and continuity are
realized across all performed services
because multiskilled personnel perform a
variety of tasks. Naturally, cross-trained
crews allow the work involving multiple

Unmanned Systems
Technical Section
SPE has formed a Technical Section for members This section seeks to:
to promote the exchange of information and • Develop capability through workshops and
technology, as well as develop understanding of and conferences
competence in the area of unmanned systems.
• Transfer knowledge through meetings,
This new technical area covers remotely operated and communication, and PetroWiki®
autonomous vehicle systems, software solutions, and
power systems for marine, air, and land environments • Promote safety, professionalism, and social
such as ROVs and drones. responsibility through ethics, certification, and
HSSE-SR
Deepen your learning and share your insights with
other SPE members on the subject both virtually and • Provide public education through STEM
face-to-face. volunteering and student competition engagement

Learn more and join today at connect.spe.org/unmannedsystems.

JPT • JUNE 2017 59

 services to occur faster because the de-
fined work plan takes into account the
required tasks.
Purpose-Built Equipment. Purpose-
built equipment must be reserved for
opportunities to eliminate tasks or to
dramatically improve the efficiency of
certain tasks. Generally, specialized
equipment is developed to alter signifi-
cantly the method in which a certain task
is completed.
Pressure Testing
Stage 3 of a deepwater CT operation in-
volves low- and high-pressure testing
of every pressure-control component.
Pressure testing verifies pressure integ-
rity of blowout preventers (BOPs), BOP
inlet valves and kill lines, treating lines,
choke lines, CT string, and dual-flapper
check valves.
Pressure testing, contrary to other CT
operation processes, requires a mini-
mum number of personnel and must be
performed sequentially. Pressure testing
is also suited for improvement following
the systematic improvement methodol-
ogy. The pressure-testing process cloaks
many sources of waste that were unrec-
ognized previously.
Process Management. A proactive, care-
fully managed approach was deemed nec-
essary to achieve a true step change in
performance. The systematic improve-
ment methodology was used to monitor
the entire process on an individual-task
level. Pressure-testing sequences were
managed by individual tests and then the
subtasks necessary for each test. Investi-
gating the process on such a detailed scale
allowed the root causes of inconsistency
and poor performance to be analyzed.
Areas of Improvement. Significant
pressure-testing improvement was ob-
served after implementing the system-
atic improvement methodology. The en-
hanced performance was a product of
eliminating component redundancies,
reducing failed pressure tests, minimiz-
ing transition time, optimizing pressure-
control components, increasing offline
testing, managing performance, and im-
plementing software enhancements.
Component Redundancies. Risk
aversion, when applied specifically to
pressure testing, materializes in the
60
form of redundant components or du-
plicate processes that are not required
by regulations.
Failed Pressure Tests. Failed tests,
referred to as NPT, are an obvious source
of waste while pressure testing. Re-
ducing the number of pressure tests in
the series ultimately increases perfor-
mance through limited exposure to fail-
ure modes.
Transition Time. Transition time
must be minimized to increase the per-
centage of total process time that is com-
pleted as value added. Transition time, in
many cases, can exceed total NPT from
failed tests. Transition time warrants a
careful focus on managing the tasks com-
pleted during this period.
Offline vs. Online Testing. Pressure
testing off line is highly preferred to on-
line testing. When permitted and ap-
proved, offline testing allows for a large
percentage of pressure tests to be per-
formed while other activities progress.
Resources Required
for Continuous Improvement
Personnel. Continuous improvement in
surface processes requires an efficiency
champion (EC). This person most often
is a service-company employee with ex-
cellent familiarity with CT surface activi-
ties and work-flow processes. However,
the EC title is reflective of any individual,
whether operator, service company, or
third-party employee, who possesses the
primary objective of implementing the
systematic methodology to improve ef-
ficiency. Therefore, the EC position is not
limited to engineering personnel but is
expanded to a variety of positions, such
as service-quality coaches, internal audi-
tors, or supervisors.
Software Systems. Manually track-
ing each process is a heuristic approach
most suited for demonstrating the ef-
fectiveness of the systematic approach.
However, manual tracking is not rec-
ommended for long-term evaluation
of performance because of the inher-
ent amount of time and effort required.
To ensure continuous improvement in
every job, the systematic efficiency-
improvement methodology must be au-
tomated so that information can be col-
lected, stored, and analyzed without
conscious effort. JPT
Custom-Designed
Coiled Tubing Leads
to Success in Extended-
Reach Operations
(Continued from page 56)
2.375-in.-CT Design
Optimized for Multistage
Hydraulic Fracturing
The proposed design enhances reach by
decreasing tubing weight in the hori-
zontal section of the well and increas-
es stiffness in the vertical section to
avoid the onset of helical buckling as
much as possible. The optimal multi-
taper configuration has 0.250 in., which
is the maximum wall thickness avail-
able in the CT market, covering the ver-
tical and the deviated sections of the
wells. This is to increase weight in the
heel and help push the tubing further in
the horizontal.
On the basis of tubing-force simu-
lations, the 2.375-in. CT increased the
force transfer of the design, enhancing
the downhole axial compressive force
at the bottom of the CT. The analysis
indicated that this optimized 2.375-in.
design will reach the TDs of planned
wells with laterals longer than 2500 m
and still have sufficient set-down weight
to mill isolation plugs. Fig. 2 shows
the final configuration of the custom-
fit string.
Conclusions
The combination of using a custom-
fit CT design, friction-reduction tools
and fluid additives, and superior oper-
ation techniques had a great effect on
developing longer lateral wells in Vaca
Muerta economically and efficiently.
Benefits from this exercise include
◗ Improved reach through optimized
CT-string design by tapering
wall thicknesses for specific
applications
◗ Understanding the associated
friction force eliminated through
the use of vibration tools and
chemical additives
◗ Enhanced accuracy of prejob
simulations
◗ Improved understanding of
cleanout efficiencies JPT
JPT • JUNE 2017
 Real change
starts here
TechnipFMC is a new and dynamic force in energy.

We have the size, experience, and capabilities to

transform the industry in pursuit of new possibilities
and improved project economics. Our ability to
innovate is testament to what’s possible when you
shake off the bounds of convention.

We’re thought leaders, but we don’t just think – we act.

Working closely with partners and clients, we leverage
technologies, expertise, and innovation to deliver fresh
thinking, streamlined decisions, and smarter results.

From concept to project delivery and beyond, we’re

driving the change the oil and gas industry needs.

To not just imagine a better way, but to make it happen.

Discover more.
TechnipFMC.com

AOGJ Ad_v2 (8.25x10.875).indd 1 18/04/2017 14:29

 Coiled Tubing With Real-Time-Measurement
Tools Helps Overcome Stimulation Problems

T he treatment in a deepwater,
frac-packed well with fiber-optic-
equipped coiled tubing (CT) and a
The formation consists of two lobes
of one sand package at an approximate
angle of 33°. On the basis of log data and
mined. In addition, it was hoped that
a way to correct those points of failure
could be developed while the operation
rotating, hydraulic high-pressure core samples, the permeability of the was in progress, to produce improve-
jetting tool achieved successful formation across these lobes was highly ments and negate the need for addi-
stimulation of a 500-ft-long frac- variable. On the basis of that variability, tional treatments. A variety of methods
packed zone after several previous it was believed that the most likely sce- could be used to gather data on the op-
failures using different techniques. By nario was that the upper portion of the eration: electric line, CT with electric
using CT equipped with fiber optics lower lobe was the highest-conductivity line or fiber-optic cable installed, or
and downhole measurement tools, region of the completion and that the digital slickline. However, only the CT
engineers were able to perform a previous acid treatments had mostly option offered any reasonable expec-
data-driven operation based on real- been stimulating that portion of the tation to be able to alter the treatment
time bottomhole measurements and well to the detriment of other areas. It after it was started. Traditional CT with
distributed-temperature surveys. was believed that the more-laminated- electric line installed in it was consid-
This successful treatment improved looking pay in the upper lobe, in partic- ered for the operation but rejected. Or-
productivity by 75% compared to the ular, was underperforming. dinary electric-line cable has poor re-
well before treatment. Several problems had to be overcome sistance to acid. This can be overcome
to make another stimulation successful: by cladding the electric line in plastic or
Introduction ◗ There was uncertainty about polymer armor. However, this increases
Diagnostic work indicated that a well exactly what the production the outer diameter of the electric-line
had considerable skin and flow impair- problem was with the well. cable, greatly reducing fluid pumping
ment. Several acid treatments had been ◗ Conducting the stimulations would capacity through the CT. This would re-
bullheaded into the well since initial incur high cost. duce the potential opportunity to alter
completion. The treatments were inef- ◗ Excessive interruptions of new the course of the treatment once started
fective, either producing no material well-drilling operations would and would limit the ability to clean the
results or producing only short-lived threaten to put production from screens themselves with tools installed
improvements with a quick return to new wells behind schedule. on the CT. Traditional electric line also
original conditions. ◗ The fracture pressure of the zone lacks the ability to sense changes in tem-
Slickline diagnostic work conduct- was 12,700 psi, but the pore perature across the length of the cable.
ed on the well indicated the possible pressure was 12,100 psi, leaving This capability is critical to obtaining
presence of a mechanical obstruction only a small pressure margin to detailed information about where fluids
or fish of some sort near the bottom perform an operation at matrix are entering and exiting the wellbore.
of the lower lobe of a sand package injection rates. Without this capability, electric-line-
in the well. However, lacking corre- equipped equipment can only determine
lated depth measurements, it was un- Technological Solutions fluid entry and exit where the downhole
clear whether this obstruction was A solution that allowed for real-time tools are located at any given time.
below the entire producing zone or high monitoring of the treatment was de- CT with fiber-optic cable installed
enough to obstruct some of the lower sired so that the reasons for the previ- would allow real-time data gathering as
screen section. ous stimulation failures could be deter- well as the opportunity to pump down
the CT pipe at high enough rates to po-
tentially adjust the treatment. It would
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
allow for much-more-effective screen
of paper SPE 184753, “Overcoming Challenges of Stimulating a Deepwater, Frac-
cleaning of the completion than the op-
Pack-Completed Well in the Gulf of Mexico Using Coiled Tubing With Real-Time tion of electric line in CT. It would also
Downhole Measurements,” by Eric J. Gagen, SPE, Schlumberger, Alex D. Menkhaus, allow the use of distributed-temperature
Kellogg School of Management, prepared for the 2017 SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and sensing to determine where along the
Well Intervention Conference and Exhibition, Houston, 21–22 March. The paper has 500-ft gross formation length the fluids
not been peer reviewed. were going.

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

62 JPT • JUNE 2017

Results
All the various data-collection instru-
ments saw valuable actual use during
the course of the operation—not mere-
ly functioning but gathering actionable
information.
After tripping past the lowermost per-
foration at 23,660-ft depth, the CT hit an
obstruction at 23,674 ft. This obstruction
was the fish or debris previously noted
by slickline work in the well. The use
of the tension-and-compression sub was
important in avoiding a potential stuck-
pipe situation. Because the item required
extra pull to get off or out of, it is easy to
imagine a scenario in which the CT could
have gotten stuck without the immediate
data and feedback from the tool down-
hole as to what was happening.
In this case, the debris was deep
enough in the well that all of the screen
assembly could be stimulated effective-
ly without risk. Having casing-collar-
locator data was important for confirm-
ing this.
Before the stimulation began, baseline
distributed-temperature data were gath-
ered so that the subsequent treatment
could be evaluated properly.
When used in the field, these data were
compared with the actual data gathered
during pumping operations. Tempera-
ture data for a pumping operation such
as this can be gathered in one of two
ways: by comparing the baseline tem-
perature to the amount of cooling after
the stage is pumped or by comparing the
temperature after the stage is pumped
to the speed at which it heats back up
toward the baseline. The first set of
data was gathered by pumping a 171-bbl
ammonium chloride preflush into the
formation. All this fluid was pumped
through the CT with the tool near the
bottom of the lower zone at 23,610 ft
and at a constant rate of 1.1 bbl/min so
that rate-diversion effects and depth-
diversion effects are eliminated from the
subsequent data. The preflush is impor-
tant to push reactive brines away from
the near-wellbore region before any acid
or other reactive material is pumped
into the well. In this case, it is also im-
portant information because it provides
a snapshot of the as-found condition of
the formation because nothing had been
done yet to change the injection profile
of the formation.
JPT • JUNE 2017
The data available from this operation
in the field after the 171 bbl of preflush
show regions that had greater cooling
and warmed up more slowly, indicative
of regions that had greater amounts of
fluid injected into them. The most ob-
vious and unexpected point of interest
is that the upper lobe, in particular the
upper portion of the upper lobe, had the
highest injectivity. This was not what
was thought to be the case before the
operation began. Immediately after the
full acid treatment was completed, the
data were processed. This information
was correlated with the volumes of fluid
pumped to develop a map showing how
much fluid was actually injected to each
portion of the zone.
The fully processed data provide more-
detailed information about where the
fluids went into the well, clearly showing
that the top of the upper lobe took the
greatest volume of fluid, even though the
entry point of fluids into the well is at the
bottom of the interval of investigation at
23,610 ft.
The CT was reciprocated across the
intervals of interest while these stages
were pumped so that the screens could be
cleaned by the fluid-jetting action of the
high-pressure rotating wash nozzle and
to aid in diversion. Rate increased from
1.0 to 1.2 bbl/min through the course of
the treatment as breakdown of the for-
mation allowed increased pump rates.
Compared with the as-found condition
of the well, the upper portions of the
lower lobe showed greatly increased fluid
entry. This indicated that it was being
effectively stimulated.
The treating line from the stimula-
tion vessel to the rig lacked a digital
flowmeter, and pump rates varied from
0.5 to 9.0 bbl/min. This combination
of varying rate without closely spaced
data on the actual rates from one point
to another prevented the fluid invasion
from being calculated as it had been for
other stages of the operation. Neverthe-
less, a clear pattern could be seen. Di-
version caused by screen cleaning in the
CT pumped stages, foam diversion, and
rate assist had moved the primary points
of fluid entry from the upper lobe in the
preflush stage to the upper portion of the
lower lobe in the stages pumped through
the CT. This resulted in a more-balanced
profile in the bullheaded stages, with the
first significant fluid entry to the lower
portions of the lower lobe. Because of
the data gathered during the CT-injected
phases of the treatment, the size of the
foam diverter stage in the bullheading
phase of the operation was increased
to try to block off the upper portions of
the well because it was clear that they
had already been effectively stimulated
or never needed stimulation. It appears
that this objective was achieved.
Conclusions
Well productivity improved from approx-
imately 4,000 to 7,000   BOPD with
no water. The improved rate was
accompanied by a rise in the produc-
ing tubing pressure, but total rate was
restricted to maintain a consistent
drawdown and avoid completion dam-
age. This rate has been sustained for
more than 9 months after the treat-
ment. Previous treatments dropped
back to the baseline decline rate after
only a few weeks of production. The
operating envelope for operations of
this sort was expanded, and a meth-
odology to evaluate future operations
was determined. JPT
The JPT
website has
been updated
to include these
new features
• Exclusive Online-Only
Content
• Mobile Friendly
• Improved Navigation
Check it out and sign
up for the eNewsletter
today at
www.spe.org
63
 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS

Matrix Stimulation
Frank Chang, SPE, Petroleum Engineering Consultant, Saudi Aramco

Carbonate rock holds 60% of the global There has been ongoing induced fracturing is one idea to increase
oil and gas reserves, but they are becom- well and reservoir connectivity, although
ing more and more expensive and dif- development to add science the ability to control the depth of fractur-
ficult to develop. With large reservoirs and engineering to the art ing still needs to be worked out. It might
maturing, operators are forced to explore help operators tailor stimulation in par-
and produce from deeper resources,
of matrix stimulation so ticular reservoir and geological proper-
which are tight, highly stressed, and that the fluid volume can ties for bypassing near-wellbore damage.
under high temperature. In today’s eco- be reduced, the placement Tight formations are candidates for
nomic environment of USD 50/bbl, the hydraulic fracturing as the default. How-
cost of extracting hydrocarbon from can be more controlled, and ever, the solubility of carbonate by vari-
these reservoirs needs to be scrutinized the result can be measured ous chemicals provides opportunities to
to maximize profitability. This means extend the well drainage radius effec-
increasing drainage of wells using effec- more directly and reliably. tively without the intensive equipment,
tive stimulation and optimizing produc- material, and infrastructure demand of
tion profile along the well. stimulation so that the fluid volume can hydraulic fracturing. The industry has
Generically, carbonate matrix stimula- be reduced, the placement can be more developed significant portfolios of tech-
tion means pumping acids, retarded or controlled, and the result can be mea- nologies for stimulating carbonate reser-
unretarded with various functional addi- sured more directly and reliably. Adapt- voirs, covering intervention tools, pump-
tives, through coiled tubing or by bull- ing multiple operations in a single trip, ing processes, chemicals, and diagnostic
heading, followed with diverting agents. by combining mechanical tactics such as mechanisms. Standing alone, no tech-
Treatment volume and injection rate are jetting and chemical tactics such as ener- nology can deliver productivity optimi-
based on rules of thumb formed from gized or in-situ-generated acid, further zation and maximized cost-effectiveness.
experience accumulated in the industry allows time and cost saving while mini- Integrating technology-provider ingenu-
and based on laboratory studies with mizing risks and enhancing well produc- ity with operator knowledge in appli-
cores under achievable experimental tivity. Measuring real wormhole penetra- cability will be key to using these tech-
conditions. Success is evaluated from the tion in the reservoir will help complete nologies to make matrix stimulation
pressure and temperature response dur- the loop of design, execution, and evalu- more effective in delivering hydrocar-
ing treatments or incremental produc- ation. It adds tremendous value for engi- bons from the increasingly difficult-to-
tion increase after stimulation. There has neers to optimize the matrix treatment. tap resources. JPT
been ongoing development to add sci- Alternative physics and chemistry are
ence and engineering to the art of matrix on the horizon as well. Temperature-
Recommended additional reading
Frank Chang, SPE, is a petroleum engineering consultant in pro- at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
duction technology with Saudi Aramco, which he joined in 2012. SPE 181845 Far-Field Diversion in
He looks after a portfolio of projects focused on developing Hydraulic Fracturing and Acid Fracturing:
new technologies in hydraulic fracturing, carbonate stimulation, Using Solid Particulates To Improve
formation-damage removal, corrosion and scale mitigation, and Stimulation Efficiency by Vanessa Williams,
sand control. Chang started his career with Stimlab in 1992 after Baker Hughes, et al.
earning a PhD degree in petroleum engineering from the SPE 183465 A Novel Approach for
University of Oklahoma. He joined Schlumberger in 1996. Chang Stimulation of a Heterogeneous Thin-
progressed through his Schlumberger career, 1996–2012, from development engineer Layered Reservoir in an Offshore Field,
to engineering adviser. During his 16-year tenure at Schlumberger, he was involved in Abu Dhabi by S.F. Nofal, Abu Dhabi Marine
development of several new products and technologies in sand control, fracturing, Operating Company, et al.
acidizing, and perforating. Chang is an author of the new SPE acidizing monograph SPE 181823 A New Acid-Fracturing-Fluid
published in 2016. He holds 23 patents, is an author of more than 40 SPE technical System for High-Temperature Deep-Well
papers, and is a member of the JPT Editorial Committee. Chang can be reached at Carbonate Reservoir by Ying Gao, China
fakuen.chang@aramco.com. National Petroleum Corporation, et al.

64 JPT • JUNE 2017

Novel Coiled-Tubing Perforation Technique
and Stimulation in Carbonate Gas Well

A brasive perforating with coiled

tubing (CT) is a technique that
has proved to be a valuable alternative
Design of the Perforation
Technique and Yard Testing
The team was able to source a newly devel-
55-gal drums after 3.2 minutes of pump-
ing. Meanwhile, the acid-soluble material
required 6.8 minutes to penetrate the ce-
to conventional perforating with oped acid-soluble abrasive material that ment and ultimately cracked the cement
electric line. The application is enabled the same quality of perforations annulus (Fig. 1). Although the cement
particularly valuable whenever a to be created without performing a clean- annulus cracked at 6.8 minutes, water
high rate or fracture-stimulation out run because the acid from the stimula- was observed exiting the sides of the
treatment is to follow because of the tion would dissolve the abrasive material, steel drums at approximately 4.8 min-
significant reduction in tortuosity saving at least 2 days of operation. utes. These tests helped provide a better
and pumping friction losses across The abrasive material was sourced, and understanding of the additional pumping
perforations. This paper discusses a several yard tests were completed to de- time necessary to achieve the same pene-
novel approach to abrasive perforating, termine if the material had the same abra- tration effect with the new product com-
including the first-ever use of an sive characteristics as common 20/40- pared with the conventional sand.
acid-soluble abrasive material and or 100-mesh sand. It was necessary to After the tests were completed, the de-
ending with CT-jetting-assisted compare the time required to penetrate sign of the operation was begun. It was
nitrified stimulation. the steel and cement with the results ob- determined that a total of six perfora-
tained using common sand. This bench- tion clusters would be performed. Each
Introduction marking was key to determining if ad- of these clusters would include five per-
Many carbonate gas wells located in the ditional time and fluid resources were foration stages with four holes per stage,
northern section of the Ghawar reservoir necessary to obtain the same penetration. for a total of 120 perforations. As such, it
exhibit a low-permeability profile and A yard test was set up with two metallic was determined that the pumping time to
are characterized by having low reser- 55-gal drums cut halfway lengthwise and achieve a similar effect would be 45% lon-
voir pressure. Fracture gradients in a for- then welded together. This created a re- ger compared with that using convention-
mation in this area of the field are on the ceptacle that allowed the team to place a al sand; it was thus decided to increase
order of 1.12 psi/ft, which is considerably 6⅝-in. casing section with 100% stand- the value to 12 minutes (roughly 46% ad-
greater than that of more-conventional off and then fill the entire annular space ditional time), for operational ease.
tight gas formations. One particular well, with cement. The drum was then set on
located on the flank of the reservoir, was top of cement blocks, and the abrasive- Design of the Stimulation
designed to be completed with a plug- jetting tool was introduced. Operation
and-perforate acid-fracturing operation, The tests were performed on several This critical portion of the operation re-
but issues arose with this option that drums to establish a control test with the quired the use of a stimulation technique
finally caused the abandonment of the drum by use of 20/40-mesh sand and the that would maintain a wellhead pressure
fracturing treatment. To find a solution same tool configuration and then using (WHP) of less than 10,000 psi but would
that would be feasible and economical- the same test setup to pump the acid- provide deep acid penetration at the same
ly viable, an innovative perforation and soluble abrasive material. Conventional time. The decision was to use the CT-
stimulation technique was engineered sand was able to cut the pipe and pene- jetting-assisted acid-fracturing approach
for this well. trate the cement completely through the to meet both criteria, leveraging the Ber-
noulli effect of dynamic diversion and
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights deep penetration by the use of CT. This
of paper IPTC 18880, “Novel Abrasive Perforating With Acid-Soluble Material and is achieved through the use of CT-jetting-
assisted acid injection, which takes ad-
Subsequent Coiled-Tubing Jetting-Assisted Stimulation Provide Outstanding Results
vantage of the dynamics of fluid moving
in Carbonate Gas Well,” by Adrian Buenrostro, Nahr Abulhamayel, Usman Malik,
at a very high velocity to direct flow to a
Mohammad Bu Suwaileh, and Saad Driweesh, Saudi Aramco, and Alejandro specific entry point in front of the nozzle.
Chacon, José Camilo Jimenez Fadul, and José Noguera, Halliburton, prepared The pumping schedule for the CT-
for the 2016 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, jetting and stimulation stages was then
14–16 November. The paper has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 2016 International developed. The first two stages of the
Petroleum Technology Conference. Reproduced by permission. first cluster were planned as a diagnos-

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JUNE 2017 65

 (a)
Fig. 1—(a) Cracked cement annulus after acid-soluble-material test, and (b) perforation-hole diameter in the 6⅝-in. casing.
tic approach to determine whether the
acid-soluble abrasive material could con-
tact the formation as desired; if not suc-
cessful, switching to conventional sand
would be required. If successful injectivi-
ty was observed, then the rest of the stag-
es would be completed, with the stimula-
tion performed sequentially immediately
after each CT-jetting stage.
Operational Report
The equipment was rigged up per op-
erator requirements. A drifting and
casing-collar-locator run was performed
SPE EVENTS
WORKSHOPS
13–14 June ◗ Calgary—SPE Thermal
Drilling and Completions
13–14 June ◗ The Woodlands—SPE
Application of Integrated Diagnostics for
Unconventional Resource Development
15 June ◗ Calgary—SPE Life Cycle Asset
Management for Unconventional Field
Development
29–31 August ◗ Denver—SPE Distributed
Fiber-Optic Sensing for Well, Reservoir,
and Facilities Management
14–15 September ◗ Santa Cruz, Bolivia—
SPE HSE and Sustainability—The
Cornerstone for Efficient E&P Operations
26–27 September ◗ Abu Dhabi—SPE Asset
Integrity Management—How to Improve
Profitability, Performance, Efficiency,
and People
Find complete listings of upcoming
SPE workshops, conferences,
symposiums, and forums at
www.spe.org/events.
66
(b)
with a memory gauge to achieve precise
depth correlation for the perforation and
stimulation stages. The run was com-
pleted successfully, and the depth offset
was corrected with the flags made on the
pipe. CT was run in hole (RIH) once more
with the perforating/jetting tool to per-
form the first two stages. The plan was
to perform the first two stages and then
to perform an injectivity test to verify
the effectiveness of the abrasive mate-
rial. The injectivity test showed a steady
pressure increase. The contingency plan
was then to spot a 50-bbl 10% hydro-
CONFERENCES
12–15 June ◗ Paris—SPE Europec featured
at 79th EAGE Conference and Exhibition
20–23 June ◗ Macaé—Brasil Offshore
27 June ◗ London—Oil and Gas Industry
in a New Epoch
17–20 July ◗ Houston —Carbon
Management Technology Conference
24–26 July ◗ Austin—SPE/AAPG/SEG
Unconventional Resources Technical
Conference (URTeC)
5–8 September ◗ Aberdeen—SPE Offshore
Europe Conference & Exhibition
13–14 September ◗ Midland—SPE Liquids-
Rich Basins Conference–North America
9–11 October ◗ San Antonio—SPE Annual
Technical Conference & Exhibition
15–18 October ◗ Mishref—SPE 3rd Kuwait
Oil and Gas Show & Conference
16–18 October ◗ Moscow—SPE Russian
Petroleum Technology Conference
chloric acid pill to increase injectivity in
case the face of the formation had been
plugged. The CT was pulled out of hole
(POOH) 2,000 ft to stay above the acid
after being spotted. At this depth, the
acid was squeezed into the formation,
and the pressure suddenly dropped to
zero psi while being squeezed. No pres-
sure was observed at the surface. It was
determined that the well was on vacuum
from this point forward.
It was decided to proceed with a ni-
trified CT-jetting-assisted acid injection,
which would still produce fractures, al-
17–19 October ◗ Bali—SPE/IATMI Asia
Pacific Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition
SYMPOSIUMS
4–6 October ◗ Lexington—SPE Eastern
Regional Meeting
7–8 November ◗ Kuala Lumpur—SPE Asia
Pacific Production Enhancement and Cost
Optimization
FORUMS
5–9 November ◗ San Antonio—SPE
“Waterless Fracturing”—Reducing Fresh
Water Use for Reservoir Stimulation in a
Future Water-Constrained World
CALL FOR PAPERS
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and
Exhibition ◗ Fort Worth
Deadline: 26 June
SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology
Conference ◗ The Woodlands
Deadline: 14 August
JPT • JUNE 2017
 though with less extension. It was de-
cided that the new pump rates would
be 5 bbl/min or higher—to maintain CT
pressure of greater than 6,000 psi to
provide control of fluid placement—with
a nitrogen rate of 600 scf/min. The en-
tire treatment was pumped with these
parameters, and then CT was POOH. The
increase in pressure observed while per-
forming the CT-jetting operation corre-
sponds to the additional pressure in the
reel while it was being loaded with a
higher-density fluid, the abrasive mate-
rial, which then dropped as the slurry en-
tered into the section of CT in the well.
Eventually, the pressure increased when
the acid entered the reel and eventually
hit the formation, but then was reduced
once the acid dissolved the near-wellbore
damage in the face of the perforation.
External downhole pressure gauges
were run to evaluate the treatment later.
In this case, it was observed that the
annulus pressure was in the vicinity of
5,200 psi, which is in the same range as
a full column of water in the annulus, in-
dicating the positive effect of nitrifying
the acid treatment to maintain the acid
placement under control.
CJENERGY.COM
CJENERGY.COM
Post-Treatment Evaluation
To evaluate the result of the treatment, it
was necessary to use a wellbore simulator
to evaluate the effectiveness of the perfo-
rations that were made. The stimulation
treatment that followed the perforations
was evaluated with a reservoir simulator.
The results of the simulation showed
that the fractures created were 55 ft long
and approximately 50 ft in height, with
an etched width of approximately 0.3 in.
The simulated bottomhole pressure
(BHP) closely matches the synthesized
BHP in that portion of the flowback after
the choke size has been left stable, which
is the portion of the flowback period that
is useful for correlating and evaluating,
given that the other pressures are at rates
that have not been stabilized and the
choke setting is constantly varied.
Conclusions
The treatment was completed success-
fully, and the CT was used to perform a
nitrogen-kickoff operation to bring the
well into production. CT was RIH while
unloading the well. The deeper the CT
was RIH, the higher the circulation pres-
sure, evidence that the nitrogen had to
lift a continuous liquid column in the
annulus. CT was downhole for 15 hours
at 9,000 ft while pumping nitrogen at
500  scf/min. Two batches of liquid CT
protector fluid were pumped to protect
the CT from reservoir fluids during flow-
back. No circulating pressure buildup
was noticed; however, WHP increased
significantly from 2,200 to 3,000 psi.
After a constant gas rate was obtained,
the CT was demobilized from the loca-
tion and the flowback continued to clean
up the treatment. Eventually, the well
stabilized at approximately 30 MMscf/D,
which is an outstanding figure, especially
for a well that was subjected to a “last re-
sort” treatment before being sidetracked
because of wellbore issues.
The operation was performed success-
fully. The acid-soluble abrasive material
was deemed a total success, given that
the perforations were generated in their
entirety, and allowed for the full acid
treatment to be completed. The place-
ment of the perforations with regard to
the target pay zone and the subsequent
acid treatment paid great dividends; the
final flowback results came in six times
higher than expected. JPT
 Monitoring of Matrix Acidizing
by Use of Resistivity Measurements

T his paper describes the testing

of a novel concept based on
resistivity measurements to monitor
in real time. A yard test was conducted to
verify the response of a real induction tool
to simulated wormholing features.
ers, each capable of holding a 12-in. core,
placed inside an oven. The rubber sleeves
inside the core holders have four equi-
acid-stimulation operations. It is distant pressure sensors (2.4 in. apart)
believed that the proposed concept for Resistivity Measurements connected to pressure transducers. These
monitoring the wormholing process While Coreflooding transducers can thus monitor the pres-
can be adopted in the field with the Experimental Setup and Procedure. A sure difference across a particular sec-
deployment of induction tools. The three-phase methodology was followed: tion. Consequently, the propagation of a
outcome of this novel monitoring rock-sample characterization, coreflood- wormhole can be recorded as a function
concept is expected to provide an ing and resistivity measurements, and of pressure drop in a particular section.
unprecedented level of understanding characterization of the core samples Furthermore, eight electrical-resistivity
of the depth, number, and type of after acidizing to inspect the wormhole tappings (1.25 in. apart) were placed along
wormholes being created downhole. structure and invert through the model a custom-molded rubber sleeve housing
to close the experimental loop. the core sample and were connected to a
Introduction Saturation of Cores and Porosity meter that measured inductance, capaci-
Induction-logging tools can be viewed Measurement. The core samples were tance, and resistivity. The procedure used
as an attractive option for characteriz- put under a vacuum for a few hours and for each of the core-flow tests is detailed
ing wormhole morphology resulting from weighed. Then, they were saturated in the complete paper.
the acidizing process and can be used with 50,000 ppm of sodium chloride Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan.
to assess acid-stimulation operations. (NaCl) at a pressure of 2,000 psi for a Dry cores were scanned using X-ray CT
The authors propose to extend the use few hours. After saturation, the samples with a slice thickness of 1 mm, thus gen-
of resistivity-logging tools for evaluating were weighed again; the difference in the erating approximately 300 slices of each
acid-stimulation jobs after well cleanup. weight of dry and saturated samples was core. The cross-sectional images of the
This concept relies on the significant vari- simply converted to the pore volume of rocks were obtained with an image-
ations in the electrical resistivity of the the rock. analysis and visualization software
different fluids and chemicals involved in Permeability Measurement. The per- product and were used to visualize the
the acidizing process and the increase in meability of the rock samples was mea- wormhole morphology of the acidized
the effective porosity in the near-wellbore sured by the constant-flow-rate method. core samples.
region resulting from the acid reactive This was performed by flowing deionized
dissolution. In this work, the authors con- water across the cores in the coreflood- Results and Discussion
ducted resistivity measurements while ing system while recording the pressure A series of coreflooding experiments
acidizing carbonate core samples. To do drop. The permeability was computed was conducted to investigate worm-
so, an electrically sensitive coreflooding from the pressure drop and correspond- holing in carbonates under different
setup was designed to conduct acidiz- ing flow rate using Darcy’s law. operating conditions.
ing tests of carbonate core samples while Coreflooding Experiments. The dual-
measuring the change in the electrical re- coreflood system used for the acidizing Pressure Analysis and Post-Acidizing
sistivity at multiple points along the core experiments is a high-pressure, high- Core Characterization. The differential-
and in real time. The paper shows the po- temperature core-flow test apparatus that pressure and resistance data were moni-
tential use of such measurements to mon- comprises a fluid-delivery pump, four tored while injecting acid through the
itor wormhole penetration and branching fluid accumulators, and two core hold- core samples. A typical pressure re-
sponse (normalized with respect to pre-
acidized values) is obtained from the
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
equally spaced transducers in the core
of paper SPE 181414, “Monitoring of Matrix Acidizing by Use of Resistivity sleeve as the acid is injected into the core
Measurements,” by Mehdi Ghommem, American University of Sharjah, and samples. These measurements allow for
Xiangdong Qiu, Dominic Brady, Firas Al-Tajar, Steve Crary, and Alaa Mahjoub, the estimation of breakthrough for each
Schlumberger, prepared for the 2016 SPE Annual Technical Conference and 2.4-in. section of the core sample as the
Exhibition, Dubai, 26–28 September. The paper has not been peer reviewed. wormhole forms and propagates. The

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

68 JPT • JUNE 2017


breakthrough volume and time were
computed when the differential pres-
sure at each transducer section dropped
to zero. A pH meter was also used to cor-
roborate the point of acid exit from the
outlet, to confirm breakthrough.
After the coreflooding experiments
were completed, the cores were soaked
in fresh deionized water to be desali-
nated. Next, the core was dried at a tem-
perature of 65°C in an oven for approxi-
mately 24 hours. The cores were then
taken for the X-ray CT analysis. All cores
were scanned under the same room con-
ditions and with the same examination
plan. For low injection rate (0.5 mL/min),
the authors observed a thick wormhole
propagating along the core. For interme-
diate injection rates (1 and 2 mL/min),
a thinner wormhole was obtained. Fur-
thermore, the authors observed some
tortuosity in the fluid conductive path
resulting from reactive dissolution, in-
dicating the presence of heterogeneity
in the porous medium. For higher injec-
tion rates (5 mL/min), highly branched
wormholes were obtained, indicating
more transverse flow of the acid and de-
viation from the main wormhole.
Resistivity Measurements. The use
of resistivity to monitor the wormhole
propagation and profile is a novel con-
cept that relies on the significant varia-
tions (up to three orders of magnitude)
in the electrical resistivity of the differ-
ent fluids and chemicals involved in the
acidizing process. The work flow used to
obtain the dynamic resistivity measure-
ments while conducting the coreflood-
ing experiments is described here.
Brine was injected until stabiliza-
tion was observed in the resistivity data.
These present the baseline preacidized
values. Then, acid injection proceed-
ed until a complete breakthrough was
achieved. Finally, brine was reinjected
until stable resistivity readings were ob-
tained. A sharp decrease in the resis-
tance values was observed when the acid
penetrates the zone under inspection.
Resistivity at the first channel does not
drop immediately after acid injection. In
fact, wormholes do not form immedi-
ately when the acid comes into contact
with the inlet face. During the wormhole-
initiation phase, the acid penetrates into
the matrix pores and enlarges them as
JPT • JUNE 2017
Case 1 Case 2
(highly absorbent (15 pipes of
spill pad to hold brine) dimensions 2×2 in.) dimensions 0.5×8 in.) dimensions 0.25×16 in.)
(a) (b)
Fig. 1—Jigs to simulate wormholing features.
the reactive dissolution takes place. The
pores grow, and, after exceeding a criti-
cal pore size, they give rise to wormholes.
As the wormholes propagate, the effec-
tive porosity of the core sample increases,
more acid flows through it, and then the
electrical resistance decreases. Interest-
ingly, the decreasing trend observed dur-
ing acid injection undergoes two different
slopes. The first slope is associated with
the wormhole propagation, and the sec-
ond corresponds to the wormhole growth
and transverse branching within the area
of investigation. The initiation of the first
slope is indicative of the level of acid pen-
etration within the core. The second slope
can be used to characterize the wormhole
structure; a steep slope is indicative of
the formation of transverse branches and
wormhole-thickness growth as the acid
flows through the respective core zone.
The stabilization of resistance at higher
values occurs after reaching the complete
breakthrough and reinjecting brine.
The derivation of a numerical model to
determine electrical resistivity while in-
jecting acid and dissolving the rock sam-
ple is detailed in the complete paper.
Yard Test: Response
of Induction Tool to Simulated
Wormholing Features
A yard test using an array-induction-
imager tool was carried out to demon-
strate further the capability of resistivity
measurements to monitor acidizing op-
erations in the field.
Test Procedure and Results. Prepara-
tion of Wormholing Jigs. Jigs consisting
of 1 m (length)×8 in. (diameter) poly-
vinyl chloride (PVC) pipes were fabricat-
ed to simulate different wormholing fea-
tures, as shown in Fig. 1. Transverse pipes
of varying diameter and length were at-
Case 3 Case 4
(60 pipes of (120 pipes of
(c) (d)
tached to the main PVC pipes. These pipes
were filled with brine to mimic electrically
conductive wormholes. Highly absorbent
spill pads were used to hold brine as need-
ed to reproduce a face-dissolution acidiz-
ing regime (Fig. 1a). The same amount of
brine was used for all cases (1.5 L).
Test on Air With Conductive Bore-
hole. The first yard test was conducted
on air while placing the array-induction-
imager tool in a 6-in. pipe filled with fresh
water to mimic a conductive borehole.
This test was carried out in the calibra-
tion area, which is cleared of any metallic
parts that may affect the measurements.
Resistivity data were retrieved with
an integrated field-acquisition system
and processed with a wellbore software
platform. In the obtained resistivity logs
for all simulated wormholing cases, the
array-induction-imager-tool curves ob-
tained for the baseline case show high re-
sistivity values because of borehole cor-
rection introduced to data processing.
The mud resistivity is 1.3 —·m. All curves
corresponding to different depths of in-
vestigation overlap. For Cases 1 and 2, the
array-induction-imager-tool logs show
characteristic shapes as the wormholing
jig passed the receiver/transmitter pairs
in the array-induction-imager-tool array
section. This indicates the sensitivity of
the induction tool to shallow wormholes.
However, no changes were observed in
the array-induction-imager-tool curves
for Cases 3 and 4. In a highly resistive me-
dium (air), the induced electromagnetic
field from the array-induction-imager-
tool transmitter was attenuated even in
the presence of conductive transverse
pipes simulating wormholes for Cases 3
and 4. These pipes need to be connected
continuously through a conductive ma-
terial so that the array-induction-imager
tool can detect the wormholes. JPT
69
 Cryogenic-Fracturing Treatment
of Synthetic-Rock With Liquid Nitrogen

C ryogenic fracturing is a waterless

stimulation technology that
uses cryogenic fluids to fracture
fracturing technology has been demon-
strated by both laboratory experiment
and pilot field tests, the mechanism be-
the annulus space to the environment.
The purpose of liquid-nitrogen circula-
tion is to achieve a better cooling effect
unconventional oil and gas reservoirs, hind it was rarely investigated and is on the openhole section of the wellbore.
and, to date, the underlying poorly understood. A preliminary test Pressure, temperature, and stress data
mechanism has been investigated involved a series of experiments investi- were collected during the experiment.
rarely and is often understood poorly. gating patterns of surface fractures and The synthetic samples used in this
This study aims to investigate the the effect of cryogenic treatment after study are made of concrete and mold-
efficacy and feasibility of cryogenic- submerging concrete-rock samples into ed into 8×8×8-in. cubes. To better
fracturing technology in enhancing liquid nitrogen. Computed-tomography evaluate the temperature field within
the permeability of unconventional- scans showed that the fracture pene- the samples during experiments, the
reservoir-rock analogs. Laboratory trated into the center of the block authors embedded eight thermocouples
cryogenic-fracturing experiments after 30 minutes of submersion. Fur- (TCs) on the diagonals of top surfaces to
and finite-difference modeling are ther cryogenic-fluid-injection tests on the depth of 4 in., which is the middle
integrated to reveal the process concrete and shale samples have dem- plane of samples.
and mechanism of cryogenic fluids onstrated the efficacy of permeability The cryogenic-fracturing treatment
in creating fractures in synthetic- enhancement around the wellbore by was conducted on two concrete sam-
rock samples. injecting liquid nitrogen at both low and ples (TC1 and TC2). Sample TC1 was
high pressures. initially at room temperature, which is
Introduction 19°C, while sample TC2 was preheat-
Traditional hydraulic fracturing relies Experimental Approach ed in an oven to 85°C. Both samples
on mostly water-based fracturing fluids To conduct a cryogenic-fracturing treat- went through 30 minutes of cryogenic-
and usually consumes a tremendous ment in a manner similar to that seen fracturing treatment.
amount of water. The usage of water in field applications, the authors cre- For characterization, the authors
not only can cause potential formation- ated a testing environment with sample used pressure-decay tests as a measure-
damage issues but also can place a sig- sizes (8×8×8 in.) between the core and ment for average permeability of sam-
nificant stress on local water resources the real-reservoir scales. Liquid nitro- ples and acoustic measurements before
and the environment. Thus, waterless gen was circulated into cubic samples and after cryogenic treatment to obtain
stimulation technologies, especially through 6-in.-deep boreholes drilled a general idea of the extent of cryogeni-
cryogenic fracturing, are being devel- from the top of the samples and cased cally induced fractures.
oped to solve these issues. with stainless-steel tubing by epoxy for
Cryogenic fracturing uses cryogenic the top 2 in. The confining stresses were Simulation Approach
fluids such as liquid nitrogen to fracture applied on each sample by a triaxial- The simulation for the cryogenic-
unconventional oil and gas reservoirs. loading system that has the capability fracturing process was based on a
Fractures will be induced by the dramat- of providing a true triaxial-stress condi- modified enhanced-geothermal-system
ic change of temperature when a warm tion with different stresses along three simulator. The modification concerned
body, such as reservoir rock, is exposed different axes. The liquid nitrogen was fracture initiation and propagation.
to a frigid fluid, such as liquid nitrogen. drawn from a tank, injected directly into This simulation tool can simulate
Although the feasibility of cryogenic- the wellbore, and then vented through cryogenic-fracturing processes and pre-
dict the distribution of fractures. The
approach is discussed in detail in the
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
complete paper.
of paper SPE 185050, “Experimental Study and Modeling of Cryogenic-Fracturing
The basic setup for simulation fol-
Treatment of Synthetic-Rock Samples With Liquid Nitrogen Under Triaxial Stresses,” lows that of the cryogenic-fracturing
by B. Yao and L. Wang, Colorado School of Mines; T. Patterson, Devon Energy; T.J. experiment. The liquid nitrogen is sim-
Kneafsey, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; and X. Yin and Y. Wu, Colorado ulated as circulating through the well-
School of Mines, prepared for the 2017 SPE Canada Unconventional Resources bore and cooling the surface of the bore-
Conference, Calgary, 15–16 February. The paper has not been peer reviewed. hole. The injection pressure is set to

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

70 JPT • JUNE 2017

be 15  psi, which is the pressure of the
liquid-nitrogen tank.
This simulation tool is used to ob-
tain average permeability of samples,
by reverse modeling the pressure-decay
tests, and to predict the fracture distri-
bution within samples.
Results and Discussion
Sample TC1, under triaxial stresses of
500, 750, and 1,000 psi, was treated
with circulation of liquid nitrogen for
30 minutes. The circulation pressure of
liquid nitrogen is approximately 15  psi
greater than the ambient pressure. Fig. 1
shows the temperature readings from
all TCs during the cryogenic-fracturing
treatment. Because TC1 and TC8 were
not working properly during the ex-
periment, the respective data are not
shown. Contrary to expectation, TC6,
which was located farther from the well-
bore than TC5, actually gave the lowest
temperature reading for all diagonal-
embedded TCs. This might indicate that
there existed some high-conductivity
channel through the borehole to loca-
tions around TC6.
The acoustic measurement showed
a uniform delay caused by tri-
axial loading. However, other points
showed a significant delay, indicating
that fractures might be generated in
these locations.
The pressure-decay tests before and
after the cryogenic treatment showed an
improvement in the overall permeabil-
ity of Sample TC1. The simulation result
shows that the average permeability of
TC1 before treatment was approximate-
ly 1.05×10–2 md. After treatment, the
average permeability from simulation
was increased to 1.55×10–2 md.
Fig. 2—Fracture plane of TC2 after dye application and gas breakdown.
JPT • JUNE 2017
50
0
Temperature (°C)
–50
–100
–150
–200
0 500
TC2 TC3
Fig. 1—Temperature profiles during cryogenic-fracturing treatment.
Sample TC2 was also subjected to tri-
axial stresses of 500, 750, and 1,000 psi.
Liquid nitrogen was circulated through
its borehole for 30 minutes. However,
TC2 was preheated in an oven to 85°C,
which made the temperature change
more dramatic during the treatment.
Therefore, cryogenic-fracturing treat-
ment on TC2 should potentially be more
efficient. TC5 and TC8 were compro-
mised and did not provide reasonable
readings. The temperature profile indi-
cated a pre-existing fracture on the side
of TC6 and TC7.
The acoustic measurement for TC2
showed similar uniform delay caused
by triaxial loading, but no significant
change from induced fractures.
1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
Time (seconds)
TC4 TC5 TC6 TC7 Borehole
The pressure-decay tests before and
after the cryogenic treatment showed
an improvement of the overall perme-
ability of Sample TC2. The simulation
result yields an average permeability of
TC2 before treatment of approximately
0.130  md. After treatment, the average
permeability from simulation was in-
creased to 0.655 md.
Fig. 2 shows a fracture plane of
TC2 after injection of dye and break-
down with high-pressure gas. The
permeability-enhanced area was dyed
red. The shape of this area agrees with
the simulation results.
Conclusion
Cryogenic-fracturing technology has
been demonstrated to be a promising
formation-damage-free and environ-
mentally friendly stimulation technol-
ogy in laboratory studies. It can achieve
reasonable permeability enhancement
solely by circulation of liquid nitrogen
through the wellbore of synthetic-rock
samples. However, without aid of pres-
sure, the extent of permeability en-
hancement is greatly restricted. The
fractures created by cryogenic fluid may
not be planar in shape, as in hydraulic
fracturing. Instead, the method might
evenly increase the permeability in the
affected area. JPT
71
 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS

Wellbore Tubulars
Robello Samuel, SPE, Technology Fellow, Halliburton

This month, I would like to bring out Sometimes, while flying
some thoughts on the advancements that
have been made in the tubular area, an at an altitude of 35,000 ft,
important and complex system that has I think of a drillstring and
a very, very small diameter/length aspect
ratio and a high slenderness ratio, mak-
the fact that, if I could
ing it a thin wall. hold it from the plane,
Sometimes, while flying at an alti- it would be touching
tude of 35,000 ft, I think of a drill-
string and the fact that, if I could hold the ground.
it from the plane, it would be touching
the ground. Amazingly, we are trying ogies. Tubular manufacturing, recom-
to predict the health of this long string mended practices for material strength,
in a constrained wellbore with a few and wear are important for drill-
sensors at the bottom. It is like saying string integrity. We have seen in recent
I will touch your toe with a few instru- years many technological advancements
ments and then predict the health of in tubular-manufacturing technology.
your whole body. The greatest challenge Tubulars also have become part of the
is being able to bring together all aspects data-transmission network and slowly
of tubulars to advance in lockstep with will converge with the data-handling and
one another. We have advanced tremen- data-transmission systems. Common
dously not only in the modeling but also thoughts for drilling engineers—when
in materials and manufacturing technol- it comes to planning and drilling—often
Robello Samuel, SPE, is a technology fellow at Halliburton based
in Houston. He has more than 30 years of multidisciplinary expe-
rience in domestic and international oil and gas drilling and, for
the past 12 years, has held concurrent adjunct-professor appoint-
ments at the University of Houston. Samuel has published 12
books and more than 150 technical papers. In 2013, he received
the SPE Gulf Coast Section Drilling Engineering Award, and, the
following year, he was named an SPE Distinguished Lecturer.
Samuel holds BS and MS degrees in mechanical engineering and MS and PhD
degrees in petroleum engineering from The University of Tulsa and is a member of
the JPT Editorial Committee. He can be reached at robello.samuel@halliburton.com.
focus on torque and drag, which concern
tubulars. Even though we have advanced
in the prediction of torque, drag, and
hookload estimation, challenges remain
concerning drillstring integrity, such as
prediction of tool failures, buckling, and
string stability.
Can we couple fewer casings? Vari-
ous underlying arguments could be made
to answer this question. In the world of
exponential technologies, there are many
opportunities where we are breaking the
status quo to reduce nonproductive time
by providing shorter connection times.
One of the emerging technologies is braz-
ing of the connection, leading the way to
coupling fewer casing runs, which can be
automated very well in the future with an
autowelding tong on the rig floor instead
of casing tongs as the casings are run into
the hole.
I have selected papers that present a
balanced perspective on the advance-
ment of tubulars technology. Also, I
would like to encourage attendance at
the tubular session in the upcoming SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibi-
tion in San Antonio. JPT
Recommended additional reading
at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
SPE 180437 Structural-Casing/Soil
Interaction Effects on Wellhead Motion
by Udaya B. Sathuvalli, Blade Energy, et al.

72 JPT • JUNE 2017

What Vacuum-Insulated Tubings and Casings
Bring to Thermal Wells

T his paper describes both design

and economic considerations
that lead to the selection of vacuum-
insulated tubing (VIT) or vacuum-
insulated casing (VIC) for the
completion of thermal wells. The
results shared in this paper are some
of the parameters considered during
thermal-well design: temperature on
the casing and the tubing, and heat
loss. Knowing these parameters, well
integrity can be studied and the overall
efficiency of the process estimated.
Introduction
The most common thermal enhanced-
recovery methods are cyclic steam stim-
ulation, steamflooding, and steam-
assisted gravity drainage, which is
widely used in Canada. The role of these
thermal-recovery methods is to con-
vey heat into the reservoir, mainly by
convection. The temperature of the
oil increases and its viscosity decreas-
es significantly in the reservoir. These
methods can substantially increase the
oil production of a field, increase the
recovery factor, or unlock some heavy-
oil assets.
Typical steam-injection temperature
is between 250 and 310°C; in a few cases,
it could be greater than 310°C. This
high-temperature application requires
adapting the design of the injector wells
to avoid any mechanical failure of the
well or to mitigate heat loss through the
well. VIT or VIC are solutions to some of
these issues.
VIT technologies have evolved sig-
nificantly since their first application.
Different materials are used as insula-
tion material, and several designs are
proposed by the industry to achieve
the best thermal-performance-vs.-
cost equation.
A model was developed to assess the
temperature of the different compo-
nents of a well—tubing, casing, cemen-
tation, and ground—and to provide the
heat loss occurring during the steam in-
jection. The results show that the wide
range of VIT thermal performance pro-
vides a range of casing temperatures.
Thus, the casing thermal expansion or
thermal loads resulting from this tem-
perature increase range significantly.
VIT Description
A VIT is a double-walled tubing, one
inner tubing and one outer tubing with
an annular space between. The connec-
tion could be on either the inner tub-
ing or the outer tubing. Two main as-
pects will define the VIT performance
and dimensions: the insulation material
and how the connection between two
VIT joints is insulated. There are two
main types of insulation. The first, se-
lected when VIT was first developed, is
based on the insulation material used
by the space industry. It requires a high
vacuum (10–5 Torr) coupled to a mul-
tilayer foil. The high vacuum will re-
duce the thermal conduction and ther-
mal convection in the annulus space.
The multilayer foil will reduce the last
mode of heat transfer, the radiation be-
tween the inner pipe and the outer pipe.
The phenomenon of hydrogen perme-
ation through the carbon steel of the
tubing increases the vacuum pressure
of the annulus, thus reducing the ser-
vice lifetime of VIT using high vacuum
as insulation. The other insulation ma-
terial used is a microporous material
applied between the inner tubing and
the outer tubing. The microporous ef-
fect is the restriction of air-molecule
collision that leads to heat transfer.
Applying a soft vacuum, typically 10
Torr, the pore inside the microporous
material is smaller than the mean free
path of air molecules, thus reducing the
heat-transfer modes. This material re-
quires only a soft vacuum (seven-order-
of-magnitude difference from the high
vacuum required for the multilayer-foil
technology). One major advantage of
using a soft vacuum is that the hydro-
gen permeation does not affect the long-
term performance.
The insulation of the connection of
two consecutive VITs is the other major
aspect that is critical to the overall ther-
mal performance. The first VIT tech-
nologies had limits because of the poor
insulation at the coupling. The thermal-
insulation weaknesses are even more
substantial at high temperature because
of radiation and convection caused by
potential fluids in the casing annulus
because both of these effects depend
strongly on the temperature difference
across the annulus. The concept of the
insulation at the connection is to use
an insulator sleeve above the coupling.
This sleeve is typically made of Tef-
lon. An alternate design, now available
on the market, uses intermediate piec-
es to cover the coupling with a layer of
vacuum insulation. Thus, the conduc-
tion, convection, and radiation are re-
duced to a minimum.

Well-Temperature-Analysis
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights Model
of paper SPE 182515, “What Vacuum-Insulated Tubings (or Vacuum-Insulated The analysis model is a steady-state
Casings) Bring to Thermal Wells,” by J. Damour and D. Johannson, Majus, prepared thermal model of a horizontal slice of
for the 2016 SPE Thermal Well Integrity and Design Symposium, Banff, Canada, a well. It includes the different layers
29 November–1 December. The paper has not been peer reviewed. of a thermal well: the bare tubing or

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JUNE 2017 73

REGISTER NOW!
Explore offshore innovations and share
a lifetime of learning with E&P experts.
OTC BRASIL 2017
AN E VENT ORGANIZED BY IBP AND OTC
24-26 October 2017
Riocentro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
go.otcbrasil.org/JPT
Transforming Today to Power
the Solutions of Tomorrow
New this Year! OTC Brasil
held alongside Rio Pipeline.
Register today and access two
exhibitions at one low price.
#OTCBrasil
the VIT including the inner tubing, the
outer tubing, and the gap in between;
the casing annulus; the casing; the ce-
mentation; and the ground. Only the
radial heat flux is considered. The ther-
mal resistance of each layer is calculat-
ed following formulae that are provided
in the complete paper. The casing an-
nulus could be filled by air; therefore,
radiation has to be taken into account
with conduction. The heat flux through
each layer has the same value. This pro-
vides several equations having temper-
atures as the unknowns. An equation
solver provides the temperature results
in each case.
The inputs to the model are
◗ The steam temperature
◗ The ground temperature
◗ The VIT U-value, or the overall
heat-transfer coefficient of
the VIT
◗ Outer diameter (OD) and inner
diameter (ID) of each layer
◗ The thermal conductivity of
carbon-steel pipe, air, cement,
and the ground
◗ Convection coefficient between
the steam and the inner tubing
Well-Temperature Analysis
During Steam Injection
The study was based on a typical ther-
mal injection well. The main character-
istics of the well are
◗ Inner tubing OD is 3½ in.
◗ Casing OD is 9⅝ in.
◗ Cement thickness is 2 in.
◗ Ground thickness is 15 ft.
◗ Steam temperature is 300°C.
◗ Ground temperature far from the
well is 30°C.
◗ Steam/oil ratio is equal to 3.
The thermal performance indica-
tor of the insulated tubing is the over-
all heat-transfer coefficient, or the
U-value; the unit expression is Btu/
(hr-ft2-°F) [or W(m2•K)]. The choice of
the U-value over the other commonly
used thermal conductivity, K-value, is
guided by the following:
◗ The U-value gives the intrinsic
thermal performance of an
insulated tubing, including the
connection.
◗ U-value measures the overall heat
transfer of a tubing; multiplied
by the surface reference and
the temperature differential, it
provides the heat flux in Watts
or Btu/hr.
◗ Only one surface reference
needs to be defined, whereas the
K-value requires two reference
surfaces.
◗ Two definitions are commonly
used for the K-value, leading to
possible misinterpretation of
thermal performance. The K-value
could be defined relative to the
outer diameter of the outer pipe
and inner diameter of the inner
pipe, or relative to the inner
diameter of the outer pipe and the
outer diameter of the inner pipe.
In this work, all U-values are de-
fined relative to the external surface
of the inner pipe. Currently, almost all
technologies of insulated tubing use a
double-walled pipe with an inner pipe
and outer pipe. The fluid is conveyed
through the inner pipe.
Results and Conclusion
The results from this study show that
behind the generic name of VIT, the
overall thermal performance of the
selected product will yield significant
variation in the well temperature or
heat loss. In some pressure conditions,
the casing temperature can be higher
than the water-vaporization tempera-
ture or can be high enough to create
annular-pressure buildup. The thermal
stress induced by the temperature in-
crease in the casing is far from negli-
gible. With a VIT U-value higher than
1 Btu/(hr-ft²-°F), the thermal stress in-
duced represents greater than 30% of
the yield strength of L80-grade casing.
The basic economics, based on the
results of the model, show that any im-
provement of the overall thermal per-
formance of a VIT will lead to additional
oil production. That means that, apart
from well-integrity issues, for which VIT
can be the answer, the saved energy it-
self can make a return on investment
sufficient to justify VIT investment.
The wide range of VIT thermal per-
formance is representative of the mar-
ket availability. Thus, during the se-
lection of a VIT string for a thermal
well, the specification of the application
should be clearly identified to select the
proper VIT. JPT
JPT • JUNE 2017
Improving Casing Integrity
by Induction Brazing of Casing Connections

B razing technology allows metallurgical

joining of dissimilar materials by use
of a filler material. In this paper, brazing
technology applied to casing connections
is presented. The brazing process, or
temperature/torque/time (TTT) process,
is performed with regular casing
connections, a filler material deposited
by flame spray, and a flux. Two processes
were developed, one for expandable-
grade material (VM50) and one for
quenched-and-tempered-grade material.
Introduction
Casing connectors continue to be a poten-
tial liability in complex wells that use pre-
mium connections or expandable liners.
The technology presented in this paper
applies brazing to casing connectors to
improve leak tightness of American Petro-
leum Institute or premium connectors, en-
sure leak tightness after severe plastic de-
formation, and increase torque capacity.
The casing connector needed to have
mechanical and pressure integrity before
and particularly after expansion. How-
ever, the extreme plastic deformation
reduced the critical cross section and
the effectiveness of the metal-to-metal
sealing mechanisms. This proved to be
difficult to solve with only mechanical
design considerations.
The bond needed relatively high shear
strength and enough ductility to cope
with the plastic deformation. Further-
more, the bond needed to be made quick-
ly, should not alter the material prop-
erties of the expandable material, and
should be compatible with standard rig
operations. Multiple technologies were
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
of paper SPE 184703, “Improving Casing Integrity by Induction Brazing of Casing
Connections,” by D. Ernens, H. Hariharan, W. van Haaften, H.R. Pasaribu,
M. Jabs, and R. McKim, Shell, prepared for the 2017 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference
and Exhibition, The Hague, The Netherlands, 14–16 March. The paper has not been
peer reviewed.
investigated to overcome these difficul-
ties, including welding and gluing. How-
ever, among the technologies evaluated,
only brazing provided the strength and
ductility with the relatively high speed
for making the joints approaching that
of the standard casing running process.
Methods
Brazing Process. The brazing process is
shown schematically in Fig. 1. The first
step involves deposition of the filler ma-
terial on the threads. This operation is
carried out off line, away from the critical
path of casing-running operations on the
rig. This is followed by a process to make
the final brazed joint. Briefly, the pin of
the joint is stabbed and made up to a frac-
tion of the required optimal torque; the
filler material already deposited on the
threads is melted using heat; and the joint
is torqued up to its final makeup torque.
This is followed by cooling of the joint
before running in hole. It is important to
note that virtually any casing connector
can be joined with this technology.
Filler-Material Selection on the Basis
of Pipe Grade. The type of filler mate-
rial is determined on the basis of the pipe
grade, which, in turn, is determined by
the application. To determine the sen-
sitivity of the pipe grade to the effect of
heat treatment, a set of simple experi-
ments was carried out.
The pipe material was heated to a max-
imum brazing temperature of 700°C and
left to cool in air to simulate a worst-
case scenario. “Dogbone” samples were
made from the pipe wall and tested in a
tensile machine. The stress/strain curves
and microstructures were compared with
the as-received material to examine the
changes to microstructure as a function
of temperature. For expandable-grade
material, the pipe was expanded with
standard expansion procedures to assess
the formability of the joint after brazing.
Filler-Material Deposition. The filler
material was deposited in an offline step
with flame-spray technology. Both pin
and box of all the samples were sprayed
and coated with a thin layer of filler ma-
terial. The raw materials used were either
wire or powder. The casing was mounted
in a lathe to allow for even deposition of
filler material around the circumference
of the threads. For the deposition, stan-
dard flame-spray procedures were fol-
lowed. The pin and box were spray coated
with a process described in the complete
paper and then were ready to be joined on
the rig with the appropriate process.
TTT Process. The process is defined on
the basis of the casing-material prop-
erties. The process temperature is then
determined on the basis of the filler-
material melting temperature. Given suf-
ficient power for the heating apparatus,
the duration of the process is set by the
wall thickness and conductivity of the
casing material.
The process is as follows:
◗ Stab connection and make up to
20% of the prescribed torque.
◗ Start heating with full power.
◗ Dwell at 85% of filler-material
melting temperature to allow the box
to heat up through conduction.
◗ Increase temperature to 105% of
filler melting temperature.
◗ Make up to 100% prescribed torque.
◗ Dwell at 105% of filler melting
temperature for full heat through to
ensure proper bonding.
◗ Stop heat.

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JUNE 2017 75

 Regular Connection Deposit Filler Material
Fig. 1—Schematic of the brazing process.
◗ Cool brazed joint with forced-air
convective cooling.
Induction Heating. The choice for the
heat source was governed by the need
for a fast heating process. In this case,
only induction heating was found to be
capable of reliably attaining the heat-
ing rates. The induction-heating prin-
ciple is based on combining a coil with
the casing. When alternating current is
passed through the coil, a magnetic field
is generated. The magnetic field induc-
es an opposing current in the pipe body
and then causes the pipe body to heat
up. The primary heating is caused by the
electric resistance of the pipe material.
For practical purposes, and given a
known power supply, the induced heat is
maximized for magnetic, high-electrical-
resistance materials with a minimal gap
between coil and pipe body. The induced
heat is generated only in the outer skin of
the pipe. A resonant frequency of 2 kHz
was chosen, which gave approximately
0.5 mm of penetration depth.
The speed of the heating process is
governed by the spacing between the coil
and the pipe body, the conduction of heat
from the induction heated zone, and the
electric power that can be delivered by
the induction system. The laboratory ver-
sion of the technology was based on a
150-kW power supply with a simple axi-
symmetric coil design with tight clear-
ances for maximum power efficiency. In
the rig-ready system, a compromise was
made between heating efficiency and run-
ning clearance; therefore, a larger clear-
ance (approximately
12.7 mm) was chosen.
Fig. 2—Schematic of the finalized system on the rig floor.
76
Partial Makeup Induction Brazed+Full Makeup
Rig-Ready Brazing System. The proto-
type rig-ready unit was based on the
existing laboratory brazing setup. This
meant making use of proven compo-
nents. Furthermore, all equipment from
the onset of the project was designed
with rig operations in mind.
The as-built brazing system consists
of an induction heating system, a power
tong, and an environmental chamber to
shield the hot work. The components are
connected by a central control system
to allow automatic makeup of brazed
joints similar to regular casing running.
Each component is discussed in detail
in the complete paper. An impression of
the final setup on the rig floor is given
in Fig. 2.
Trial Preparation
Filler-Material Selection. The VM50-
grade casing material used in the ex-
pandable application can cope with
high temperatures without affecting
microstructure, formability, or tensile
strength. This was proved by expand-
ing brazed joints. The brazed connec-
tion expanded without issues. Therefore,
it was justified that a high-melting-
temperature filler material could be used
that provides the ductility and shear
strength needed.
For standard casing-connection appli-
cation, the aim was to braze L80 through
the Q125 grade without
affecting the micro-
structure. It is clear
from the heating trials
that the onset of soft-
ening is approxi-
mately 550°C. This
Brazed Connection
coincides with the tempering tempera-
ture of quenched-and-tempered mate-
rial grades.
When microstructural changes were
considered, it was observed that the large
carbides are completely dissolved back
into the matrix because of the effect of
the heating process softening the mate-
rial, as observed in the tensile tests.
The results of the brazing trials are dis-
cussed in detail in the complete paper.
Conclusions
An extensive test program was used to
prove the feasibility and applicability of
brazing on expandable and regular con-
nections. The results show that for both
processes there are no microstructural
changes to the substrate. The pin and box
were metallurgically bonded by the filler
material. Consequently, both processes
produced leak-tight casing connectors
before and, when applicable, after expan-
sion, as shown by full-scale tests. On the
basis of these results, the following con-
clusions can be reached:
◗ A laboratory process was proved for
producing brazed connections by
spraying braze material on casing
threads, making up with induction
heating, and using conventional
casing makeup and torquing
procedure.
◗ A rig-ready prototype brazing
machine was constructed, and the
brazing process was proved in the
laboratory using modified casing
tongs for 8⅝- and 9⅝-in. casing.
◗ Limited pressure testing conducted
on brazed joints has demonstrated
that it is possible to produce leak-
tight brazed connections (for both
conventional and expandable casing
joints) for the pressures tested
(350 bar).
◗ The brazing process holds promise
to enhance sealing capability
compared with existing casing
pressure ratings. JPT
JPT • JUNE 2017
Collapse Analysis of Perforated Pipes
Under External Pressure

T his work is a study of collapse

pressure of perforated pipes
to evaluate the effect of lateral
T 3 C F I 0 1
perforations on the radial resistance
I: Intact
of pipes under external pressure.
E: Expanded
These types of pipes represent a Pipe Number CF: With Holes Specimen
simple and economical technology SF: Without Holes Number
widely used as sand-control meshes
Fig. 1—Nomenclature of specimens.
or perforated liners.

Introduction The geometrical properties were ob- entire tube. The tube is placed inside a
One of the most common challenges tained by means of a physical mapping, hyperbaric chamber, which is filled with
to high flow rates in mature fields is taking 10 measurements in the longitu- water at a rate of 200 psi/min until the
the migration of sand to the well. High dinal direction and five in the circumfer- space between the tube and the chamber
rates of oil production together with ential direction to calculate the average wall is completely free of air; the interi-
maximum sand retention is the opti- thickness, average diameter, and initial or of the tube, however, will remain full
mal result. In accomplishing this com- imperfections (ovalization and eccen- of air. The assembly is then finally pres-
plex goal, perforated pipes play a vital tricity) of each specimen. surized to collapse, which is character-
role because they are a simple and in- ized by a distinctive noise followed by an
expensive application, and they are Material Properties. The mechan- abrupt drop in applied pressure.
widely used in the industry. Failures of ical properties were also determined
such pipes are directly related to the for each specimen by means of trac- Numerical Simulation. A tridimen-
collapse resistance of a pipe weakened tion tests on 18 proof bodies, including sional finite-element model was devel-
by the perforations. Such failures can some in the longitudinal direction and oped by use of commercial software.
occur because of the plugging of holes others in the circumferential direction. Typical meshes were used in the numer-
or changes in differential pressure. This After processing the results, the aver- ical models for intact tubes and tubes
study might contribute to future predic- age curves and values for the mechanical with holes. These meshes were deter-
tion of collapse pressures of perforated properties for each tube were defined. mined following mesh sensitivity in the
pipes without resorting to costly full- Because of the remarkable differences in circumferential, axial, and radial direc-
scale experiments. shape and behavior of the curves, an av- tions. Also, a special mesh-sensitivity
erage curve was calculated also. The re- analysis was evaluated in the region
Methodology Development sults of monotonic traction tests in the near the holes. The models were devel-
Geometric Properties. This study in- circumferential direction are shown in oped to simulate the results of the ex-
volves four intact and eight perforated Table 4 of the complete paper, and the perimental tests, with the objective of
specimens as study bodies. All of them plots are shown in Figs. 3 and 4 of the verifying their capacity to reproduce
were obtained from four pipes designat- complete paper. the physical phenomena of collapse. The
ed as T3, T4, T5, and T6. A special no- radial and axial symmetry of the tube
menclature was defined to identify each Collapse Test in Full Scale. Initially, were recognized, to save computation-
one with a sequence of letters and num- the tube to be tested was prepared by al time. Thus, only half the length of
bers. An explanation of this nomencla- using a 10-mm-thick metal tape and a the specimens was modeled (750 mm)
ture is shown in Fig. 1. 1-mm-thick rubber blanket to cover the and the circumferential superior half,
obtaining only one-fourth of the tube.
The finite-element mesh was developed
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of with 3D solid elements, which have 20
paper SPE 184946, “Collapse Analysis of Perforated Pipes Under External Pressure,” nodes and three degrees of freedom per
by K. Beltrán and T. Netto, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, prepared for the node. This element presents quadratic
2017 SPE Latin American and Caribbean Mature Fields Symposium, Salvador, Bahia, displacement functions, and it is appro-
Brazil, 15–16 March. The paper has not been peer reviewed. priate for irregular meshes. Each model

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JUNE 2017 77

 Fig. 2—Real collapsed pipe (Pipe 1).
consisted of approximately 60,000
nodes and 9,000 elements.
Initial geometric imperfections were
considered with the maximum mea-
sured ovalization in each tube and locat-
ed in the center of the tube to simulate
the real geometric conditions of each
tube. The material was modeled in the
elastic case with a linear isotropic be-
havior, with modulus of elasticity and
Technical Papers
The complete SPE technical
papers synopsized in this
issue are available free to
SPE members for 2 months
at www.spe.org/jpt.
Subscriptions
Address Change:
Contact Customer Services
at +1.972.952.9393 or
+1.800.456.6863 (toll-free)
to notify of address change
or make changes online at
www.spe.org/members/
update.
Subscriptions are USD 15
per year (members).
78
Fig. 3—Real collapsed pipe (Pipe 2).
Poisson’s coefficient obtained from the
tensile tests. In the elastoplastic case,
a law of potential flow was adopted and
associated with the von Mises plasticity
theory, with a nonlinear isotropic be-
havior. For the solution method of the
modified algorithm of risk, where the
load was evaluated at each increment of
displacement, the collapse occurs when
the load drops.
Analytical Approximations for In-
tact Pipes. American Petroleum Insti-
tute (API) Standards 5C2 and 5C3 can
be used for different types of pipes:
casings, drillpipes, line pipes, and tub-
ings. According to the approximation
therein, there are essentially four types
of failure modes: yield strength, plastic
collapse, transition collapse, and elas-
tic collapse. To define which type of col-
lapse formulation should be applied for
a specific tube, five constants must be
calculated and the intervals limiting the
application of each one must be evalu-
ated. The collapse pressure is obtained
by replacing the values of each formu-
lation. The Det Norske Veritas (DNV)
equation considers that the collapse is
a function of three properties: elastic
capacity, plastic capacity, and ovaliza-
tion. These functions are combined into
a polynomial of the third degree that re-
solves the collapse pressure.
Analytical Approximations for Per-
forated Pipes. The mechanism of the
four-hinge method was proposed more
than 30 years ago and assumes that,
during the collapse, four sections are
formed that allow the collapse to occur.
In general terms, this method consists
of obtaining the collapse pressure by
verifying the cross plots of elastic oval-
ization and plastic collapse. A modi-
fication was proposed for this model
later to determine the analytical col-
lapse pressure of tubes with holes, in-
cluding a geometric parameter related
to the diameter of the hole and the spac-
ing between holes.
Results
Collapse-Pressure Experimental Test
and Numeric Simulations. Figs. 2 and
3 show real pipe collapsed after the
testing. Generally, the perforated pipes
show values of collapse pressure 10%
lower than those of intact pipes, but this
difference could increase or decrease
as a function of other variables, such as
material data, geometric hole distribu-
tion, and initial imperfections.
The collapse values obtained from
the Group A material data (using the
material plot obtained for each pipe)
show a difference of between 1 and 20%
between the experimental and the nu-
merical pressures. This variation could
explain the differences in the material
behavior between pipes, where material
properties obtained in some test bod-
ies could represent in a better way the
structure behavior, whereas other bod-
ies have important differences and can-
not represent as well. To avoid this vari-
ation, the most-divergent curves were
disregarded. The authors then deter-
JPT • JUNE 2017
mined an average curve and simulated the collapse pressure
again for all the pipes. This second group of results was called
WE LIKE IT
Group B.

Analytical Collapse Results and Correlations. Tables 8 and

9 of the complete paper show the calculated values for the an-
alytical pressure and the differences compared with the ex-
perimental values. The results show that the best correlations
stem from the DNV equation, with differences of 11% or less.
The four-hinge method yields results with representative dif-
ferences of between 4 and 15%. On the other hand, the API
equation provides the worst correlation, showing pronounced
differences close to 30% or more. The results for perforated
pipes using the four-hinge mechanism indicate that it could be
an effective method of obtaining an approximation for the col-
lapse pressure, although the high differences between 17 and
32% suggest that using this tool could provide results with
bad approximations.
HIGHEST TEMPERATURES
Conclusions
The mechanical material properties presented a wide varia-
tion in the behavior of the stain/stress curve between test bod- HIGHEST PERFORMANCE
ies from the same tube, as well as between the average curves
for each tube. One reason for these variations may be the exis-
tence of residual stresses in the tubes from which the test bod-
ies were removed. This variation also demonstrated the im- LONGEST LIFE-CYCLE
portance of having various specimens from the same tube, to
improve repeatability and reliability of material results. The
results of the circumferential traction tests presented similar
behaviors for T5 and T6. Anisotropy also showed similar val-
ues and behaviors.
The numerical model proved to be a good tool to predict
the values of collapse pressure of perforated pipes for a vast
range of geometries. The use of a pattern curve of material
data (Group B) shows results with differences of between 8
and 12%, improving on the results obtained for Group A. On
the other hand, the intact tubes had better adjustments when
compared with the perforated pipes. Group A shows differ-
ences of between 0.18 and −7%; in the case of Group B, these
were between 0.02 and 0.5%.
The differences between the experimental-collapse-
pressure values and the analytical approximations considered
in this work are considerable even in the case of intact tubes.
The API equation presented quite conservative results. The
fact that it incorporates safety factors causes the sensitivity
of the results to be lost somewhat. The four-hinge model pre-
sented reasonable results, and the DNV equation showed an
excellent fit (the safety factor was not considered in the cal-
MAJUS
culations there).
Vacuum Insulated Tubing
For pipes with holes, the four-hinge mechanism seems from design to installation
a weak tool for approximating collapse pressure. In other
words, for this approximation, no results close to the exper-
imental values are obtainable. One reason could be the cal-
culated geometric parameter that considers only the longi-
tudinal spacing between holes and the diameter of the hole,
disregarding other effects (for example, circumferential spac-
ing). A readjustment of the geometric parameter could be con-
sidered in future research JPT

JPT • JUNE 2017 majus.co.uk

 TECHNOLOGY FOCUS

EOR Operations
Stephen Goodyear, SPE, EOR Deployment Lead, Shell

When I started editing this section in The discipline of
2015, the year after the oil-price crash,
many industry commentators were pre- a lower-for-longer world
dicting a strong recovery in oil price by can create the conditions
now; instead, the concept of “lower for
longer” has become the present real-
in which long-term
ity. Now, many commentators expect a investment decisions
shortfall in supply by the mid-2020s and can be made.
the effect of shorter-cycle shale oil devel-
opments to be just two of the factors
affecting price in the future. when real-term costs are at their highest
Sometimes, I hear the view that, with- (pushed by the high oil price) may not be
out high oil prices, enhanced oil recovery the best strategy.
(EOR) does not have a place in the mix Significant progress in cost reduction
of projects delivering the new produc- has been made in the industry follow-
tion needed over the next decade. How- ing the price downturn, not only in the
ever, high oil prices are not the whole direct cost of construction and opera-
story. High oil prices may cause an over- tions but also through a determined
heated market that squeezes the value drive to simplify and streamline new
from EOR. By their nature, EOR projects projects in concepts selected for facili-
are often longer-term investments, so ties and wells. Through this competi-
investing in new EOR projects at a time tive scoping, project economics can be
Stephen Goodyear, SPE, is EOR deployment lead for Shell. He
has 31 years of experience as a reservoir engineer, principally
working in EOR. Before joining Shell in 2002, Goodyear worked
for an oil and gas consultancy and, over his career, has per-
formed a wide variety of roles, including in research and field-
development planning. He is Shell’s principal technical expert for
gas EOR and storage solutions and has a particular interest in
next-generation carbon dioxide EOR projects and carbon cap-
ture and storage. Goodyear holds an MMath degree from Cambridge University and
a PhD degree in physics from the University of Edinburgh. He is a member of the JPT
Editorial Committee and can be reached at stephen.goodyear@shell.com.
improved to deliver more-robust invest-
ment opportunities.
The discipline of a lower-for-longer
world can create the conditions in which
long-term investment decisions can be
made. In the mix of new projects need-
ed to fill any production shortfall in the
coming decade, brownfield improved
and enhanced oil recovery can com-
pete with the alternatives available to
the industry.
SPE continues to play an important
role in sharing best practices to allow the
industry to reap the benefit of project
learnings, and I hope you find that the
selected papers and recommended read-
ing provide useful insights. JPT
Recommended additional reading
at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
SPE 180755 Enhanced SAGD Startup
Techniques for Improved Thermal Efficiency
and Conformance—A Field-Test-Based
Investigation by J.M. Dragani, Cenovus
Energy, et al.
SPE 180739 Results of a Polymer-
Flooding Pilot in the Tambaredjo Heavy-
Oil Field, Suriname by E. Delamaide, IFP
Technologies, et al.
SPE 183362 Successful Flood-Front and
Breakthrough Prediction of Miscible WAG
in a Complex Carbonate Reservoir—A Case
Study by Z.U.R. Qureshi, ADCO, et al.

80 JPT • JUNE 2017

Challenges During Surface-Facility-Project
Implementation for a Full-Field Polymer Flood

T his paper presents key challenges

in surface-facilities-project
implementation during the construction
tion. The concentrated polymer solution
is transferred from the central polymer
facility to the well pads through pipeline
the polymer solution at a high concen-
tration. Thus, the flow assurance of the
highly viscous mother solution became a
and operational-readiness phase of a distribution. Once at the well pads, the key success criterion for the project. For
project and presents results from full- concentrated polymer solution is diluted details of pressure-drop estimation and
field implementation. The key areas with injection water at a specific ratio and various consequent design aspects for the
discussed are operational difference injected into the individual wells. non-Newtonian viscous mother solution,
in the available technologies for please see the complete paper.
concentrated-polymer dissolution, Key Challenges Significance of K and n Values. K
transfer of viscous polymer mother Technologies for Concentrated- and n are the consistency coefficient and
solution with minimal viscosity loss, Polymer Dissolution. The industry the liquidity index, respectively. From the
efficacy of the pumping facility with has only two standard technologies for pressure-drop equation, which can be
high-viscosity non-Newtonian liquid, dissolving polymer into water—the found in the complete paper, the follow-
and supply-chain strategy. eductor-type units and slicing/mixing ing inferences can be made:
units. Conventional eductors work on the ◗ Pressure drops are sensitive to both
Introduction Venturi principle and allow for the mix- K and n values.
Because of positive responses from an ing of the polymer powder and water up ◗ Pressure drop varies linearly with
enhanced-oil-recovery pilot, a full-field to certain concentrations. Slicing units, length.
polymer-flood development plan was im- on the other hand, reduce the polymer ◗ Pressure drop does not vary
plemented in the Mangala field in India. particle size with a cutting head, reduc- significantly with change in flow rate
Selecting the right facility design was of ing the polymer particle to a uniform (with n<1).
paramount importance once the pilot size and allowing for significantly higher o A 100% increase in flow will lead
study confirmed the benefits of polymer polymer concentrations without affect- to only a 15% increase in pressure
flood over waterflood. A multilayered pat- ing the polymer molecular weight. drop for fluid with n=0.2.
tern drive with 129 injectors in an intense In recent years, the slicing-unit design o A 100% increase in flow will lead
brownfield execution poses immense has become more compact and capable of to only a 3% increase in pressure
challenges for facility engineering. Thus, producing highly concentrated polymer drop for fluid with n=0.04.
the world’s largest polymer-injection plant mother solution with less sensitivity to Validation From Site Observations.
was built, primarily by scaling up the pilot. flow variation. Pressure drop for a non-Newtonian fluid
in a pipeline can be calculated using the
New Facility Transfer of Viscous Polymer Mother equation in the complete paper and is
The current facility setup consists of Solution With Minimal Viscosity Loss. affected by K and n values of the fluid.
remote well pads with both produc- Transfer Facility. For a centralized poly- Hence, a realistic and correct usage of
ing and injection wells connected mer facility, it is crucial to design a ro- K and n value is key to estimating any
with the production-fluid and injection- bust mother-solution transfer facility. pressure-drop calculation.
water network. This also warrants an in-depth under- On the basis of viscosity vs. shear-rate
A central polymer-preparation facility standing of polymer-solution rheology data of the mother solution prepared in
was constructed to prepare the concen- and flow behavior. In order to use the ex- the laboratory, K and n values were esti-
trated polymer solution, called the moth- isting waterflood network optimally, the mated for various mother solutions.
er solution, at various levels of concentra- selected surface facility had to prepare The mother solutions prepared from
Polymer A, Polymer B, and Polymer C at
approximately 60°C have similar K and
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
n values.
of paper SPE 181615, “Challenges During Execution, Construction, and Operational- After commissioning of the mother-
Readiness Phase of Surface Facilities in a Full-Field Polymer-Flood Project,” by solution transfer facility, site observa-
Santosh Mohanram, Premashis Bhaumik, SPE, and Shagun Jain, SPE, Cairn tions were used to validate the applica-
India, prepared for the 2016 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dubai, bility of the estimated K and n values and
26–28 September. The paper has not been peer reviewed. refine the pressure-drop analysis.

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

JPT • JUNE 2017 81

 For an ideal case, all the K and n val-
ues derived from site observations should
have converged at K and n value estimated
for the Polymer A mother solution. But,
because different polymers were used
and because of polymer degradation dur-
ing transportation, slippage effects, and
real-time measurement errors, a range of
K and n values can be generated.
It is essential that an operating enve-
lope be generated that accounts for all
variations of K and n values on the basis
of available current information so that a
robust system design can be adopted.
Efficacy of Pumping Facility
Positive-displacement pumps were used
for high-pressure injection of the polymer
mother solution. Double-acting double-
diaphragm pumps were used for injection
of the mother solution into the individual
wells after dilution through available in-
jection water.
The mother solution is transferred
from the central polymer facility by in-
dividual headers through independent
mother-solution transfer pumps. These
headers are used to transfer the mother
solution across the well pads. At the in-
dividual well pads, a common line re-
ceives the polymer solution at a pressure
Changing Your
Address?
Let SPE know.
+1.972.952.9393 or
+1.800.456.6863 (toll-free)
Update Your
Member Profile
http://www.spe.org/
members/update
SPE Benefits
Discover the possibilities.
http://www.spe.org/
members/benefits
82
of approximately 4–20 barg. A double-
acting diaphragm pump boosts it fur-
ther to the required injection pressure
with a variable-speed-drive motor. The
mother solution is diluted with injection
water to the required viscosity in a static
mixer before being injected to the indi-
vidual wells.
The high-pressure injection pumps
are low-shear positive-displacement di-
aphragm pumps. Low-shear pumps are
considered for this application to reduce
shearing of the mother solution. Each well
is provided with this diaphragm pump to
boost the pressure, and these pumps are
controlled by a variable-speed drive. The
wide variation in pressures is managed by
varying the speed of the pump and adjust-
ing the stroke length.
Challenges Faced,
Field Investigations,
and Modifications
Piping-system failures experienced were
attributed largely to vibration-induced
fatigue. These failures occurred at the
suction line and discharge line of the
positive-displacement pumps. The vi-
bration is attributed mainly to the non-
Newtonian behavior of the polymer fluid.
The viscoelastic nature of the polymer
fluid is believed to induce flow-related
vibrations in the system.
The following field investigations,
trials, and modifications were explored
and executed:
◗ Changing flow and pressure of the
suction and discharge piping
◗ Maintaining and monitoring the
suction and discharge accumulator/
dampener pressure
◗ Providing additional pipe supports
at the suction and discharge piping
◗ Redesigning the accumulator/
dampener for a wider range of
operating pressures
◗ Removing piping equipment
wherever possible to reduce the
weight on the weld joint
◗ Providing additional stiffeners for
pipe support
◗ Avoiding the cantilever of pipes or
providing support in both directions
◗ Reducing the length of small-bore-
pipe branch connection to the main
pipe
◗ Using flexible hose for connection
at the suction and discharge piping
close to the pumps to release the
fatigue energy caused by pulsation
◗ Providing a buffer volume of storage
at the pump suction to ensure
seamless flow to the pump suction
On the basis of these trials and modi-
fications, the following were found to be
most effective in addressing the issues of
flow-induced vibrations:
◗ Provision of buffer volume at the
pump suction will help in providing
enough suction volume to the
pumps, especially when multiple
pumps are operating in parallel.
◗ Pulsation dampeners should be
designed for the entire range of
operation at both the suction and
the discharge side.
◗ Where the suction system
pulsation levels are significantly
high, redesigning of the suction
header is critical to avoid vibration
from cavitation and starvation.
Cavitation causes shock waves
that get transmitted through the
suction piping, which can excite
acoustical resonance and cause
piping vibration at the mechanical
frequency of the pipe span, leading
to failure.
◗ The number of piping elements on
the system must be kept as low as
possible.
Supply-Chain Strategy
The full-field implementation of the proj-
ect warrants handling a huge amount
of polymer. The polymer consumption
during the full-field flood is expected to
be  60 000–65 000 t/a. This is a signifi-
cant portion of the global polyacrylamide
consumption and of polyacrylamide con-
sumed in the oil industry.
To ensure uninterrupted delivery, a
robust supply-chain strategy was devel-
oped that focused on correct inventory
levels, modes of transport, medium of
movement, and overall operating mod-
els. Polymer from multiple suppliers is
brought to port in containers (approxi-
mately 20–25 t per container), and inland
transportation is carried out through
railway (inland transportation is approx-
imately 600 km). The total cycle time for
one batch of containers is 75 days, and
orders are placed on a monthly basis to
ensure consistent maintenance of inven-
tory levels. JPT
JPT • JUNE 2017
 Saltel
Expandable
Steel Patch FOR REPAIR AND
REMEDIATION OPERATIONS

A fit-for-purpose casing patch

should fit your well—and your plans.
You have options for repairing damaged casing, valves, or screens, but some of those options will limit your well’s future by
constraining its geometry. In contrast, the Saltel expandable steel patch can be run into the well with maximum clearance. A
unique hydraulic setting technique means it can be expanded to seal effectively inside the casing, even across uneven joints,
frac sleeves, or ovalized sections, with minimal reduction in inner diameter. Once installed, you can still run tools, perforating
guns, plugs, or even patch through the patch—whatever your plans require. Our patch fits your purpose.

Find out more at

slb.com/remedialservices

Copyright © 2017 Schlumberger. 17-CO-284341

 Optimizing the Use of Miscible Injectant
at the Greater Prudhoe Bay Fields

M iscible injectant (MI) has been

used at Prudhoe Bay and its
satellite fields for more than 30 years.
This paper provides an overview
of all enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR)
projects in the Greater Prudhoe Bay
(GPB) region and presents the process
and methodology for MI allocation
to these projects and to individual
injection patterns. A new approach is
used to determine the amount of MI
allocated to each project on the basis
of predicted marginal MI use per barrel
of EOR oil.

Introduction
The MI-gas EOR process at Prudhoe Bay
began in late 1982. In late 1986, the Cen-
tral Gas Facility (CGF) began operation, Fig. 1—Area map of Alaska North Slope.
enabling the first field-scale EOR proj-
ect, the Prudhoe Bay Miscible Gas Proj-
ect (PBMGP), to start in early 1987. Since ly injected into the reservoir. The total gas (WAG) injection to improve areal and
then, the PBMGP has expanded to more amount of MI produced at the CGF is vertical sweep efficiencies.
than 170 injection patterns in the main the sum of the fresh MI (which can be
field of Prudhoe Bay. Fig. 1 provides forecast by the GPB full-field simulation EOR-Performance Analysis
a layout of the oil fields on the North model) and the recaptured RMI (which EOR-Benefit Evaluation in Produc-
Slope of Alaska. can be forecast by COBRA and process ers. The historical EOR oil benefit from
The CGF is a gas-processing plant that modeling). COBRA is a full-field scale- each producer can be estimated through
makes natural-gas liquids (NGLs) for up tool for predicting MI performance decline-curve analysis. For conven-
shipment in the Trans-Alaska Pipeline on the basis of type-pattern-simulation- tional WAG patterns, the incremental
System and MI for EOR projects. The model results. benefit from MI injection is evaluated
CGF currently processes an annual aver- MI gas produced at the Prudhoe Bay using an approach modified from the
age of approximately 7.5 billion scf/D of CGF is a rich gas composed primarily multiple-trend-forecasting technique.
produced gas to generate approximate- of carbon dioxide (approximately 21%), Water/oil ratio (WOR) is plotted on a log
ly 40,000 STB/D of NGL and more than methane (approximately 32%), ethane scale vs. recovery factor on a Cartesian
200  million scf/D of MI. The feed gas (20%), propane (25%), and a small scale to estimate the effect of MI injec-
comes from three different sources— amount of butane and heavier compo- tion on WOR. A WOR trend of water-
solution gas from the produced oil, free nents (approximately 2–3%). flood is established by matching the
reservoir gas from the gas cap, and re- Most of the GPB EOR projects are pat- WOR before MI injection to a waterflood
turned MI (RMI) that was previous- tern floods that use a water-alternating- type curve, which is generated from a
reservoir-simulation model. This hypo-
thetical WOR trend is compared with the
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
actual historical data, and any suppres-
of paper SPE 180420, “Optimizing the Use of Miscible Injectant at the Greater sion of WOR from the type curve is at-
Prudhoe Bay Fields,” by S.X. Ning, SPE, B.S. Jhaveri, E.M. Fueg, SPE, G. Stechauner, tributed to the effect of MI injection.
J.L. Jemison, SPE, and T.A. Hoang, BP Exploration (Alaska), prepared for the 2016
SPE Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, 23–26 May. The paper has not been RMI Estimation in Producers. In
peer reviewed. the GPB fields, produced-gas samples

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

84 JPT • JUNE 2017

normally are taken quarterly for active
MI-injection patterns. The Prudhoe
Bay Unit Laboratory analyzes these
samples and enters the compositions
into a local database. The rate of RMI is
automatically calculated on the basis of
these compositions as well as measured
oil- and gas-production rates.
Allocation of EOR Oil and RMI to In-
jectors. WAG injection is managed at
injectors by swapping between water
and MI services and controlling the
injection rates of water or MI; there-
fore, field-performance data need to
be allocated to injector-centered pat-
terns. A dynamic production-allocation
factor is used to allocate the produc-
tion rates of EOR oil and RMI back
to injectors.
modeled region is divided into injector/ oil-production rates are predicted on
producer segments. Production from the basis of previous MI-injection rates
each segment is governed by user- using EOR mobilization curves and tim-
supplied performance curves. ing functions. All patterns are ranked at
Fresh MI supply, RMI imported from each timestep on the basis of EOR effi-
other fields, and MI exported to other ciency, with MI preferentially allocated
fields can all be entered into COBRA, to the best patterns until all available
which calculates the amount of MI avail- MI is used.
able to inject for the subject field on
the basis of these inputs and the RMI
from the same field. The RMI and EOR- (Continued on page 89)
POLYMER CHEMISTRY FOR
THE OIL & GAS INDUSTRY

Pattern Ranking. After the RMI and

EOR data are allocated to injector-
centered patterns, the patterns can be
ranked on the basis of one or more of
the following criteria:
◗ Pattern maturity as measured
by cumulative hydrocarbon pore
volume of MI injected
◗ Pattern maturity as measured by
instantaneous RMI/MI ratio
◗ Pattern efficiency as measured by
cumulative MI use (Mscf/STB)
◗ Combination of maturity and
efficiency
Pattern maturity is a measure of how
mature a pattern is compared with the
project design. Another measure of pat- Oil Sands
tern maturity is the ratio of RMI to MI
injected (RMI ratio). The RMI ratio in-
creases as a pattern becomes more ma- Hydraulic Fracturing
ture, indicating that the MI injected is
mobilizing less EOR oil.
Drilling and Cementing
Performance Prediction
A holistic MI-use strategy must account
for the past performance and the pre-
dicted performance of the EOR patterns.
Enhanced Oil Recovery
MI EOR performance in GPB is predict-
ed using COBRA models.

Introduction to COBRA. COBRA is a

full-field forecasting tool for waterflood-
ing and miscible-gas injection based on
type curves developed using numerical-
simulation models. marketing@snfhc.com | www.snf.us
The basic building block of COBRA is
an injector/producer segment. The entire

JPT • JUNE 2017 85

 Overview of Carbon Dioxide Injection
and Water-Alternating-Gas Sensitivity

T his paper presents an overview

of the SACROC Unit’s activity
focusing on different carbon dioxide
(CO2) injection and water-alternating- Platform
gas (WAG) projects that have made
the SACROC unit one of the most
successful CO2 injection projects Central Plain
in the world. The main objectives
of this were was to review CO2
injection and injection-rate losses
with respect to the CO2/WAG
miscible displacement process in Southwestern Area
the SACROC Unit and recommend
an injection strategy for WAG-
sensitive patterns.

Introduction
The Kelly-Snyder field is the largest of a
chain of fields along the Pennsylvanian
Horseshoe atoll in the Midland Basin.
Within this field, the Scurry Area Canyon
Reef Operators Committee (SACROC)
Unit covers approximately 56,000 acres
with 2,800 million STB of original oil Fig. 1—SACROC 3D structure and thickness map.
in place (OOIP). Limestone is the dom-
inant mineral within the Canyon Reef
formation, and less than 3% of the for- Review 900 ft on the crest of the reef. A map
mation exists as thin sections of shale Primary Production. Completed in of the unit’s 3D structure and thick-
(1–10 ft in thickness) that are impor- November 1948, the Standard No. 1 ness is shown in Fig.  1. By late 1950,
tant stratigraphic markers. The forma- Jessie Brown 2 was drilled to 6,700 ft 1,600 production wells had been drilled
tion is divided into four major zones: the and produced 530 B/D from the Can- on the Kelly-Snyder field on irregular
Cisco, the Green Zone (GZ), the Upper yon Reef Formation. Located 9 miles 40-acre spacing.
Middle Canyon, and the Lower Middle northwest of Snyder, Texas, this well
Canyon (LMC). Of these, the GZ shows was the discovery well of the North Sny- Waterflooding. By 1954, the unit con-
the highest matrix permeability, signifi- der field. The Texas Railroad Commis- verted producers to water injectors
cant nonmatrix-flow features, and high- sion eventually merged this field with along a line in the center of the forma-
conductivity channels. Moreover, the the neighboring Kelly field upon rec- tion in a massive pressure-maintenance
transition zone (TZ) below the oil/water ognizing that both fields produce from program. This injection scheme allowed
contact has recently been developed in the same reservoir. The reservoir thick- injection of large volumes of water to the
parts of the SACROC Unit. ness varies from 10 ft on the flanks to thickest portion of the reservoir, ulti-
mately repressurizing the reservoir and
increasing oil production. By the end of
This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
1971, the SACROC Unit was producing
of paper SPE 179569, “Overview of CO2 Injection and WAG Sensitivity in SACROC,” 134,000 BOPD and had a cumulative oil
by Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi, SPE, The University of Kansas, and Steve Pennell, production of 528 million STB.
Michael Matson, SPE, and Mark Linroth, SPE, Kinder Morgan, prepared for the
2016 SPE Improved Oil Recovery Conference, Tulsa, 11–13 April. The paper has not Early CO2 Flooding. In 1968, an inter-
been peer reviewed. company engineering planning commit-

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

86 JPT • JUNE 2017

 Make every driller
the best driller. 2017 | Permian Basin | Precision Drilling

NOVOS: Differentiate your fleet.

NOVOS™ is a process automation platform that manages rig
equipment to execute drilling programs. Using an imported
well plan that describes the desired drilling parameter ranges,
the system performs planned operations until total depth is
reached. NOVOS is customizable, scalable, and allows rig fleet
differentiation. Combined with NOV’s most advanced drilling
equipment, NOVOS enables you to drill better than anyone else
with no surprises and best total cost.

nov.com/NOVOS

©2017 National Oilwell Varco | All rights reserved

DRAFT - NOV_NOVOS_World Oil_2017.indd 1 5/15/2017 2:13:58 PM

 tee recommended WAG injection using
inverted-nine-spot injection patterns.
Three pilot areas of similar hydrocar-
bon pore volume were flooded initial-
ly. Positive results prompted the ini-
tiation of Phase One in January 1972.
Before CO2 injection, however, a high-
pressure water slug was injected into
this low-pressure area to attain min-
imum miscibility pressure (MMP).
Phase One’s oil production increased
from 30,000 to 100,000 BOPD within
18 months.
Phase Two waterflooding began in June
1972, and CO2 injection began in March
1974. Incremental oil production was ob-
served within several months; however,
most of the CO2 was injected using ir-
regular patterns and below MMP. Phase
Three waterflooding began in April 1973,
and CO2 was first injected in November
1976. The majority of the incremental oil
recovery most likely can be attributed to
secondary production.
By the mid-1990s, using knowledge
of other successful CO2 floods in Texas,
three focused CO2-flood tests were start-
ed in Norflood, Southwest Bank, and
Center Line. High-WAG-ratio CO2 injec-
tion was conducted at pressures below
MMP because of variations in MMP from
hydrocarbon components not separated
during recycling.
Recent Developments
Platform Developments. The Platform
area contains the thickest pay in the en-
tire unit, with an OOIP of 951 million
STB spanning 5,700 acres. Unfortunate-
ly, the area is highly heterogeneous and
severe CO2-channeling issues have been
observed within hours of starting CO2
injection. Four key development options
were recommended for this area: hori-
zontal wells, infill drilling, zonal shut-
ins, and dual injectors.
Poor reservoir processing rates in the
LMC coupled with lower drilling costs en-
couraged the operator to drill horizontal
injectors with multiple gelled-acid frac-
ture stages.
Geologically isolated GZ pinch-outs
were also targeted in the infill-drilling-
expansion area using infill drilling. Early
CO2 breakthrough was initially a prob-
lem, though this has been fixed by use of
large-scale gel treatments. In addition to
gel-based conformance and squeezed ce-
88
ment, 10-acre infill drilling and conver-
sion resulted in high-efficiency patterns.
South Shore TZ Development. The TZ
is an interval with water saturations
ranging from connate water satura-
tion (approximately 20% water for the
SACROC Unit) to 100% water at the
base. The oil cut will decline when pro-
ducing deeper in the TZ until pure water
is produced at waterflood residual oil
saturation (Sorw), approximately 26%
oil for the unit. While all depths from
the Sorw to the base of the TZ will pro-
duce 100% water under waterflood, oil
saturation still exists at these depths
and some of it can be mobilized by CO2
injection, acting effectively like a resid-
ual oil zone.
Injectivity Loss
Injectivity loss of both CO2 and water
slugs has been a continual concern since
the first field tests were conducted. De-
clining CO2 and water injectivity while on
a tapered WAG schedule has been noted
on numerous injection wells since the
early 2000s.
Factors affecting WAG injection
include
◗ Heterogeneity, anisotropy, and
stratification
◗ Wettability
◗ Fluid properties
◗ Miscibility conditions
◗ Injection techniques: tapered WAG
vs. constant WAG
◗ WAG parameters (e.g., ratio, slug
size)
◗ Physical dispersion
◗ Flow geometry (linear, radial,
and pattern influence)
◗ Chemical effects: acidic reactions
◗ Entrapment
◗ Relative permeability effects
◗ Interfacial tension
◗ Salinity and pH
Reasons for injectivity loss include
◗ Effective mobility reduction
across all layers resulting in lower
injectivity of both phases
◗ Redistribution of pressure profiles
from higher- to lower-permeability
zones
◗ Relative permeability hysteresis
because of three-phase trapping
◗ CO2 making oil- or mixed-wet
systems more water-wet
Recommended remedies following in-
jectivity loss include
◗ 4–6 years of continuous CO2
injection followed by a 1:1 WAG
injection
◗ Increasing injection pressure while
staying below parting pressure
◗ Addition of injection wells to
compensate for the reduced
injectivity
Methods
An investigation of injectivity losses ob-
served during WAG injection was con-
ducted across the entire SACROC Unit.
A data set containing daily CO2- and
water-injection rates for all WAG in-
jectors was collected and divided into
two subpopulations:
◗ Injectors that demonstrate an
injectivity loss over time (“WAG
sensitive”)
◗ Injectors that demonstrate a fairly
constant injectivity over time
or injectivity that returned to
before-WAG values rapidly (“WAG
insensitive”)
Injection-Profile Analysis. An exten-
sive record of both water- and CO2-
injection profiles for the majority of
WAG-injector wells across the unit has
been collected and maintained for the
SACROC Unit. This record was ana-
lyzed, specifically looking for differenc-
es between the WAG-sensitive and WAG-
insensitive subpopulations.
Single-Pattern Simulation. One repre-
sentative WAG-sensitive pattern in the
SACROC Unit was selected for this study.
The pattern’s cycle was an 18-year water-
flood, followed by a 1-year continuous
CO2 slug, followed by 3.5 years of 1:1
WAG injection, and concluding with a
chase waterflood.
Results and Discussion
Injectivity loss was observed in more
than 150 SACROC wells, with a signifi-
cantly higher concentration in the newly
developed Platform areas. As soon as
WAG injection started, both injectivity
and productivity of the pattern started to
decline. This injectivity damage has been
repaired in cases where injection was
switched back to long cycles of CO2 for
many months.
JPT • JUNE 2017
Injection-Profile Analysis. WAG-
sensitive wells typically show a wider
vertical distribution of flow for both
water and CO2 during WAG injection. In-
jectivity loss occurs when WAG injection
redistributes CO2 into zones that were
previously not flooded on continuous
CO2. Numerous factors could underlie
this injectivity loss, including heteroge-
neity, anisotropy effects, stratification
effects, wettability effects, entrapment
effects, relative permeability effects,
and interfacial-tension effects.
Injectivity-Index Analysis. WAG-
sensitive wells showed an average injec-
tivity index (bbl/psi/D) of 19.48, while
WAG-insensitive wells showed an aver-
age injectivity index of 8.48. Because
of the limited number of cored wells,
the standard deviations are quite large
for each population; however, both dis-
tributions have a median value close to
the average values. Until more data can
be collected, the authors recommend
using continuous CO2 flooding of all
patterns with injectivity indices under
10  bbl/psi/D until gas/oil ratio (GOR)
reaches uneconomical values before
starting WAG injection.
Single-Pattern Simulation. The sim-
ulation results show the smaller the
water/gas ratio becomes (or the drier
the WAG injection becomes), the lower
the bottomhole pressure of the injection
well will be. This suggests that overall
injectivity will improve significantly if
only 2  weeks of water injection is cou-
pled with 1 year of CO2 injection when
cycling WAG injection; however, GOR
will also increase as a result of this
change. It will  be important to opti-
mize the WAG injection to be as dry as
possible while maintaining an accept-
able GOR.
Conclusions
All these observations indicate that
WAG injection has been successfully re-
distributing CO2 and water into low-
permeability zones and has improved
sweep efficiency in more-heterogeneous
areas of SACROC. In areas where high-
permeability and less-heterogeneous
zones exist, WAG injection has not
been able to redistribute the injection
profiles  significantly. JPT
JPT • JUNE 2017
Optimizing the Use of Miscible Injectant
at the Greater Prudhoe Bay Fields
(Continued from page 85)
GPB COBRA Models. A COBRA model
has been developed for each of the
current EOR projects in GPB. History
matching is performed to match the
observed field performance at the field
level. Performance prediction at the
field level is more accurate than at the
pattern level because allocation errors
are canceled out, as long as the perfor-
mance curves are representative of the
average field performance.
Each COBRA model (other than the
PBMGP model) is run independent-
ly to predict the EOR and RMI per-
formance of  the project with a prede-
termined amount of MI supply. The
PBMGP COBRA  model is then used to
predict EOR  and RMI performance of
the PBMGP patterns, as well as the total
amount of MI available for all GPB proj-
ects, on the basis of
◗ CGF fresh MI supply predicted by
the Prudhoe Bay full-field model
◗ The MI exported to all other
projects outside PBMGP
◗ The RMI from all EOR projects,
including PBMGP
MI Allocation
MI-Allocation Strategy. The objective
of MI allocation is to optimize EOR oil
production economically across all GPB
projects within operational constraints.
Ideally, all EOR patterns in GPB would
be ranked together in the same way,
and MI would be allocated preferen-
tially to the highest-ranked patterns.
Practically, however, it is often more ef-
fective to rank patterns in each project
independently, considering the time re-
quired to update the more than 300 in-
jection patterns. Hence, MI allocation
in GPB is hierarchical; first it is per-
formed at the project level, then at the
pattern level.
At the project level, the amount of
MI allocated to each project is deter-
mined by using a uniform cut-off MI-
use value across GPB. Within a proj-
ect, all injector-centered patterns
are ranked on the basis of their ma-
turity and MI use. MI is allocated to
the highest-ranked patterns until the
amount of available MI is consumed for
that project. New patterns are always
ranked favorable until sufficient perfor-
mance data are available.
Another consideration when allocat-
ing MI is that some projects produce
more RMI than others. For this reason,
when comparing MI use among proj-
ects, net MI use is used instead of gross
MI use.
MI-Allocation Process. GPB MI is allo-
cated to various MI projects and injec-
tion patterns according to the follow-
ing procedure:
◗ Analyze field performance of each
producer, and allocate EOR oil
and RMI produced to injection-
centered patterns.
◗ Rank injection patterns on the
basis of pattern maturity and gross
MI use within each project.
◗ History match the COBRA model
of each project against field
performance at least at the field
level.
◗ Run each COBRA model at various
MI-supply rates to determine net
MI use as a function of MI-supply
rate.
◗ Determine the cut-off value of net
MI use on the basis of total amount
of MI available at GPB.
◗ Determine ideal MI rate to each
project on the basis of the cut-off
value of net MI use.
◗ Allocate MI to all new projects on
the basis of the designed MI rates
until field-performance data are
available.
◗ Operational constraints are then
applied to determine the actual
MI allocation to each EOR project
across GPB.
The actual MI-injection target for each
project is determined on the basis of the
project’s injection capacity, the theoreti-
cal optimal MI target, and the predicted
total MI available for GPB. Operational
constraints will also be considered in
field implementation of these targets.
This process is repeated quarterly to ac-
count for changes in reservoir maturity,
seasonal effects on MI-production rate,
and operational constraints. JPT
89
Purchase Your
Copy Today
Applied
Multiphase Flow
in Pipes and
Flow Assurance—
Oil and Gas Production
by Eissa M. Al-Safran
and James P. Brill
Applied Multiphase Flow in Pipes
and Flow Assurance—Oil and Gas
Production delivers in-depth
coverage of the most recent
advancements in multiphase flow
technology in an easy-to-read
format. Responding to the need for
a more up-to-the-minute resource,
this book presents applications on
the fundamentals with new material
on heat transfer in production
system, flow assurance, transient
multiphase flow in pipes, and the
TUFFP unified model.
www.spe.org/go/AppliedMulti
PEOPLE
BIROL DINDORUK,
SPE, principal tech-
nical expert and team
leader at Shell Inter-
national Exploration
and Production Inc.,
and the incoming
SPE technical director for Management
and Information, was elected as a mem-
ber of the National Academy of Engi-
neering for his significant theoretical
and practical contributions to enhanced
oil recovery (EOR) and CO2 sequestra-
tion. He is an adjunct faculty member at
the University of Houston department
of petroleum engineering and a consult-
ing professor at the Stanford University
energy resources engineering depart-
ment. Dindoruk is a global consultant
for fluid properties (pressure/volume/
temperature) and miscible/immiscible
gas injection EOR and reservoir simula-
tion. Before joining Shell in 1997, he
worked at the Amoco Tulsa Research
Center on compositional simulator
development projects. Dindoruk has
served SPE in various capacities, in-
cluding as co-executive editor of the
Formation Evaluation/Reservoir Engi-
neering Journal and as a  Distinguished
Lecturer during 2010–2011. He is a re-
cipient of the SPE Cedric K. Ferguson
Medal and Lester C. Uren Award. He
holds a BS from Istanbul Technical Uni-
versity, an MS from the University of
Alabama, and a PhD from Stanford, all
In Memoriam
This section lists with regret SPE members who recently passed away. If you
would like to report the passing of a family member who was an SPE member,
please write to service@spe.org.
Cleveland Samuel Banquer, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA
William H. Bowie, Dallas, Texas, USA
Robert W. Clum, Houston, Texas, USA
Arthur D. Fox, Santa Ana, California, USA
Robert B. Gaines Jr., Midland, Texas, USA
Michael Edward Lynch, Lisbon, Portugal
Leland H. Miller, Fayetteville, Texas, USA
Loyle P. Miller, Dallas, Texas, USA
in petroleum engineering, and an MBA
from the University of Houston.
MIKE MCCAULEY, SPE, operations gen-
eral manager, Arena Offshore, and
JIM WICKLUND, SPE, managing direc-
tor at Credit Suisse, were appointed to
the board of directors of the National
Ocean Industries Association (NOIA)
for the 2017–2018 term. McCauley
joined Arena in 2007 as a production
manager and became operations gen-
eral manager in 2012. Before joining
Arena, he held positions in production,
drilling, and reservoir engineering at
Newfield Exploration, Vastar Resourc-
es, Arco Oil & Gas, Texaco, and Getty
Oil, working almost exclusively in the
offshore Gulf of Mexico. McCauley re-
ceived a BS in petroleum engineering
from Louisiana State University. WICK-
LUND spent 15 years in the oil and gas
industry, working in geophysics and
engineering before joining the finan-
cial services industry as a research an-
alyst covering the oilfield services sec-
tor. He was head of the energy research
group at Rauscher Pierce Refsnes, now
Royal Bank of Canada, managing di-
rector and head of energy research at
Banc of America Securities, and a port-
folio manager at Carlson Capital. He
has been recognized by No. 1 rankings
in Institutional Investor, Greenwich
Surveys, and The Wall Street Journal’s
“Best on the Street.”
JPT • JUNE 2017
PROFESSIONAL SERVICES

contact@AvasthiConsulting.com M.J. ENGLAND, P.E.

www.AvasthiConsulting.com Huddleston & Co., Inc. CONSULTING PETROLEUM ENGINEER
Domestic and International

AVASTHI &
ASSOCIATES, INC.
Petroleum & Geological Engineers
9805 Katy Freeway, Suite 500
Reserve Reports
Fair Market Value
Estate Appraisals
Expert Witness
215 Union Blvd., Suite 350
Houston, TX 77024-1271
Lakewood, CO 80228-1840
Worldwide Energy Consulting, Ph: (713) 209-1100 Fax: (713) 209-1104 Telephone: 303/298-0860
Engineering, Training, Shale, CCUS, and e-mail: info@HuddlestonCo.com Facsimile: 303/298-0861
CO2 EOR/IOR Project Operations
Since 1990 SERVING THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY FOR
Field Development Planning (FDP) of Onshore and Offshore OVER 60 YEARS
(Shallow and Deep water) Oil, Gas, Gas-condensate, and
Heavy Oil Fields, and Unconventional/ Shale Resources.
Exploration • Development • Surveillance
Reservoir Characterization, Engineering and Simulation
(Static and Dynamic Modeling), Economic Evaluation, CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery • Optimization MILLER AND LENTS, LTD.
EOR/IOR, CCUS, Geomechanics, and Fracturing/Stimulation
INTERNATIONAL OIL AND GAS CONSULTANTS
Global Head Office: 800 Rockmead Drive, Suite 212 Data-Driven
Houston, Texas 77339, U.S.A. • Phone: +1-281-359-2674 Reservoir Engineering
Specializing in All Phases of Reserves Evaluations,
Solutions Including Petroleum Economics,

CG A &
Reservoir Engineering, Geology, and Petrophysics
• Field development studies
• Reservoir characterization
and simulation Two Houston Center Phone: (713) 651-9455
909 Fannin St., Ste. 1300 Fax: (713) 654-9914
• Environmental studies Houston, TX 77010 e-mail: mail@millerandlents.com
www.intera.com ipcinfo@intera.com Web pages: http://www.millerandlents.com
CAWLEY, GILLESPIE & ASSOCIATES, INC. Austin • (512) 425-2000 Houston • (281) 560-4560
PETROLEUM CONSULTANTS
SINCE 1960
International Reservoir

Fort Worth Houston Austin

Technologies, Inc.
INTEGRATED RESERVOIR STUDIES
NITEC
International Petroleum Consultants
LLC

(817) 336-2461 (713) 651-9944 (512) 249-7000

Seismic Interpretation & Modeling Fractured Reservoir Characterization/Modeling
www.cgaus.com – info@cgaus.com Stratigraphy & Petrophysics Gas Storage • Unconventional • EOR • CO2 CCS Black
Reservoir Simulation Oil/Compositional/Thermal Reservoir Simulation
COUTRET AND ASSOCIATES, INC. Enhanced Oil Recovery Studies
Petroleum Reservoir Engineers Well Test Design & Analysis Provider of LYNX®, MatchingPro®,
PlanningPro® and ForecastingPro® Software
Property Evaluation, Reservoir Engineering Well Completion Optimization
Fluid Injection, Property Management 300 Union Blvd., Suite 400 Denver, Colorado
Lakewood, CO 80228 475 17th Street, Suite 1400
401 Edwards Street, Suite 810 Phone (318) 221-0482 Ph. (303) 292-9595
Shreveport, LA 71101 Fax (318) 221-3202 PH: (303) 279-0877 Fax: (303) 279-0936
www.irt-inc.com IRT_Information@irt-inc.com www.NITECLLC.com
www.coutret.com

F T I
™
JAMES E. SMITH & ASSOCIATES, INC.
SPARTAN OPERATING CO., INC. PERA
P L AT T S PA R K S 310 South Vine Avenue, Tyler, TX 75702 Curtis H. Whitson
903-593-9660 • 903-593-5527 (FAX) • 800-587-9660
•
•
Consulting Petroleum Engineers
Reservoir Engineering
& Associates
smithjames@jes-engineer.com • http://www.jes-engineer.com
• Geophysical Studies and Analyses
• Reservoir Characterization and Simulation James E. Smith, P.E., Registered Professional Engineer EOS Fluid Characterization
• Oil and Gas Reserves Evaluation
• Fair Market Value and Acquisition Valuation Design & Analysis of PVT Data
• Enhanced Oil Recovery Gas Condensate Specialists
•
•
Economic Evaluation
Oil and Gas Production
lenandersen.com Compositional Simulation Expertise
• Gas Storage Design and Screening Pipe-It Integrated-Model Optimization
•
•
Regulatory Filings and Database Acquisition
Expert Witness Testimony Len Andersen
Skonnertveien 7, 1st floor • 7053 Ranheim Norway
925-A Capital of Texas Highway, S. www.FTIConsulting.com
Phone 47 7384 8080 / Fax 47 7384 8081
Austin, Texas 78746
Tel: + 1 512 327 6930
Experts@FTIPlattSparks.com
Fax: + 1 512 327 7069 800-428-4801 whitson@pera.no / www.pera.no

Worldwide Petroleum Consulting

HOT Engineering
LONQUIST & CO. LLC
Petroleum Engineers • Energy Advisors PetroTel
Leaders in Oil and Gas Technology
Exploration / Field Development / Training
www.lonquist.com
FIELD DEVELOPMENT PLANS | RESERVOIR
• Reservoir Engineering • Merger & Acquisition Support
Integrated Reservoir Studies • Lead & Prospect CHARACTERIZATION & SIMULATION |
Generation • Reservoir Characterisation • Field • Reserve Determinations • Mineral and Royalty
WATERFLOODING | ENHANCED OIL
Development Planning • Enhanced Oil Recovery • Economic Evaluations Management
RECOVERY | SEISMIC INTERPRETATION,
• Microfludic Solutions • Underground Gas • Underground Storage • Regulatory Filings and MAPPING & ANALYSIS | WELL TESTING |
Storage • Reserves Audits • Due Diligence Engineering Testimony DRILLING | RESERVES AUDITS | TRAINING
• Training, Knowledge Transfer & Development • Salt Cavern Engineering • Facilities Engineering
• Disposal Well Design
Worldwide Offices:
www.hoteng.com • Supply Studies
USA | UAE | Malaysia | Oman | Russia
Parkstrasse 6, 8700 Leoben, Austria • Mining Engineering • Graphical Information Systems
Phone: +43 3842 430530 / Fax: +43 3842 430531 Ph: +1-972-473-2767
hot@hoteng.com, training@hoteng.com Austin — Houston — Denver — Wichita — Calgary contact@petrotel.com | www.petrotel.com

JPT • JUNE 2017 91

 PRA Tarek Ahmed & Associates Ltd.
Petrotechnical Resources of Alaska, LLC
Alaska’s Oil and Gas Consultants
Taking Petroleum Engineering Training Changing Your Address?
to a New Level
Geology, Geophysics, and Engineering
www.Petroak.com For dates & descriptions Let SPE know
3601 C Street (907) 272-1232 voice of courses held worldwide, please visit us at
Suite 1424 (907) 272-1344 fax +1.972.952.9393
Anchorage, AK 99503 www.TarekAhmedAssociates.com
WILLIAM M. COBB
SiteLark
A Flotek Company
SPE Membership & ASSOCIATES, INC.
— WORLDWIDE PETROLEUM CONSULTANTS —

Waterflood & EOR Studies

Reservoir Modeling and Membership in the Society of Geological & Petrophysical Analysis
Reservoir Simulation
Engineering Services Petroleum Engineers is a continuous
Unconventional Resource Evaluation
well of career-enhancing opportunities Reserves & Property Valuation
for E&P professionals. Gas Storage & CO2 Sequestration Analysis
Please Contact: Expert Witness • Technical Training
www.sitelark.com
12770 Coit Road, Suite 907, Dallas, TX 75251
Telephone: 469-222-5436
E-mail: dbiswas@sitelark.com
www.spe.org/join Phone (972) 385-0354 www.wmcobb.com
FAX (972) 788-5165 office@wmcobb.com

ADVERTISERS IN THIS ISSUE

BASF SE Rock Flow Dynamics Technip/FMC
Page 19 Cover 3 Page 61
Beicip-Franlab Saltel Industries, a Schlumberger company Tendeka
Page 17 Page 83 Page 23
C&J Energy Services Saudi Aramco Thru Tubing Solutions
Pages 21, 67 Page 15 Page 13
Cameron, a Schlumberger company Schlumberger Visuray
Page 7 Cover 4, Onsert Page 5
Enventure Global Technology SNF Floerger Weatherford
Page 51 Page 85 Pages 4, 47, 57
Halliburton Artificial Lift TAM International
Page 39 Page 2
Halliburton Production Group
Page 43
Halliburton Production Solution JPT ADVERTISING SALES
Page 41
Hexion Mike Buckley Jane Bailey
Page 11 Advertising Sales Manager Advertising Sales Manager
Americas, Asia Pacific, and South Asia Europe, Middle East, Russia, and Africa
KLX Energy Services
Companies (A–L) Tel: +44 (0) 1227.266.605
Page 9 Tel: +1.713.457.6828 jbailey@spe.org
LEUTERT mbuckley@spe.org
Page 8 Craig W. Moritz
Dana Griffin Assistant Director Sales & Exhibits
Majus Ltd Advertising Sales Manager Tel: +1.713.457.6888
Page 79 Americas, Asia Pacific, and South Asia cmoritz@spe.org
Mohawk Energy Companies (M–Z)
Tel: +1.713.457.6857
Page 3
dgriffin@spe.org
National Oilwell Varco
Page 87
ADDRESS CHANGE: Contact Customer Services at 1.972.952.9393 to notify of
NCS Multistage, LLC address change or make changes online at www.spe.org. Subscriptions are USD 15
Page 45 per year (members). JPT JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY (ISSN 0149-2136)
Nissan Chemical America Corporation (NCA) is published monthly by the Society of Petroleum Engineers, 222 Palisades Creek
Page 35 Drive, Richardson, TX 75080 USA. Periodicals postage paid at Richardson, TX, and
additional offices.
OneSubsea, a Schlumberger company
Cover 2 POSTMASTER: Send address changes to JPT, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-
3836 USA.

92 JPT • JUNE 2017

 FROM GAME STATION TO WORK STATION
Plug GPU and Play tNavigator

FULL PHYSICS WITH NO SHORTCUTS SINGLE EXECUTABLE FOR WINDOWS & LINUX

Optional GPU acceleration is available, free of charge, in all new tNavigator releases,
starting March 2017. Blackoil, compositional, thermal compositional models are supported,
as well as every industry-standard input keyword formats. Specific acceleration factors
are model and hardware dependent. TNAVIGATOR.COM/GPU

RFD-023 _JPT.indd 1 2/3/17 4:10 PM

 Lift IQ
PRODUCTION LIFE CYCLE
MANAGEMENT SERVICE

Reduce lifting costs and improve production by

making your well and reservoir data work smarter
Gauges and sensors on artificial lift equipment deliver large volumes of real-time data, but this information alone cannot improve well
performance. Lift IQ* production life cycle management service transforms data into solutions by integrating 24/7 monitoring and
surveillance with expert engineering analysis, rapid identification of remedial actions, and remote operations. The result is improved
equipment uptime, lower operating costs, and optimized productivity—for a single well or an entire field.
Make your data work for you.

Find out more at

slb.com/liftiq

*Mark of Schlumberger. Copyright © 2017 Schlumberger. 17-AL-243577