11th Maths Teachers Hand Book - FINAL

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
MATHEMATICS
HIGHER SECONDARY-FIRST YEAR
TEACHER’S HANDBOOK
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education
11th Maths Teachers hand Book_FINAL.indd 1 6/11/2018 3:22:28 PM

Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018
(Published under Uniform System of
School Education Scheme in Trimes-
ter Pattern)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational Re-

search and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II

Contents
Mathematics Teacher's Handbook
Introduction 1
1 Sets, Relations and Functions 8
2 Basic Algebra 18
3 Trigonometry 25
4 Combinatorics and Mathematical Induction 37
5 Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series 40
6 Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry 44
III

Preface
The textbook for eleventh standard is developed by a team of experts based on the new syllabi in
accordance with the guidelines of Government of Tamilnadu. The textbook contains a lot of innovative
concepts and beautiful problems. It is well known that the teacher is well experienced and equipped
with mathematical knowledge of the required level. However, it is felt that a kind of bridge is needed
to connect the authors of the textbook and the teacher in the form of some guideline to bring a kind
of uniformity in teaching. This Teacher’s Handbook is designed to be such a bridge.
Polya says “A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the
solutions of each problem”. Each problem in the textbook is selected so as to note the grain. As every
teacher has to help the students to identify the grain in each problem, this Teacher’s Handbook is
designed so as to help the teacher to do so.
Mathematics is abstract in the sense that it does not always deal with physical objects as in the
case of other subjects. To make learning of mathematics more meaningful and lively the teacher’s role
is to teach the fundamental and basic concepts of each chapter and to make students involve in peer
learning and group learning activities in finding the solution to similar problems in the exercise.
Teaching mathematics is a gift and is an opportunity only a few get. To make full utility of
the gift and the opportunity, suggestions like, how to motivate students and how to teach the subject
interestingly, are given in the Handbook. The teachers are requested to make use of these suggestions
in creative thinking classrooms.
The content of classes XI and XII are enriched to enable the students to take the national level
competitive examinations with ease and confidence.
The content can be dealt in the classroom with innovative classroom processes which enable
the students to think and understand the concepts at the higher cognitive levels. In order to achieve
this objective, a learner friendly Teacher’s Handbook has been developed.
We welcome suggestions and constructive criticisms from learned teacher as there is always
hope for further improvement.
Teacher's Handbook Writing Team
IV

e i 1 0
INTRODUCTION
“ It is better to solve one problem in five different ways, than to solve five problems in one way”
– George Pólya
The aim of this Teacher’s Handbook is to help the teacher to have an idea about the textbook, the
connectivity of the chapters, flow of sections within the chapters, concepts which are not dealt in the
previous classes, and mainly to get rid of the challenging parts of the textbook. The structure of the
textbook, connectivity and new concepts are provided in this Teacher’s Handbook under the title
“Profile of Volume I ”. This book also helps the young teacher to develop their teaching methodology.
It is well accepted that a textbook should not be just a data base of formulae, problems and solutions.
Having this in mind, the new textbook is written as a tool to develop students’ knowledge. The teacher’s
role in the curriculum is the most important one, as a teacher is one who develops the knowledge of
students. This Handbook helps the teacher to equip themselves to face the modern era students in the
class room.
Another important aim of this Teacher’s Handbook is to make the classroom live and interesting.
To do so, the teacher has to plan for each class and must know more on the concepts than what is
given in the textbook. The plan should contain an idea of the concepts discussed in earlier classes,
the concepts to be discussed on the day, the motivations to be given, problems to be solved and the
assignment or homework to be given; the homework must be designed so as make the students to have
an interest to work on the problem on their own. So a few examples of such homework are discussed
in the handbook. Each chapter of the textbook is well prepared with a lot of illustrations and examples
with pictures. However, the teacher has to give more examples connecting the happenings of the day
with the concepts to be dealt on that day.
All the places where emphasis is to be given while teaching in class are identified by subject experts
after discussion with teacher. They include new approaches, certain examples and some challenging
parts of the textbook. Such things are explained in detail separately for each chapter. Main emphasis is
given to the challenging part of the textbook. Most of the hurdles identified were in finding the logic
involved behind the problems and problems with less or no explanation. Some more problems with
interconnectivity are also identified. All such problems are addressed in this Teacher’s handbook.
Using this Handbook

A textbook is usually a route map showing a way to the target. The teacher has to travel along
with the students towards the target through the route. As everyone knows, the target is knowledge
and wisdom. The textbook and this handbook are means to attain the target. This handbook guides

the teacher to adopt a suitable teaching methodology. However, the teacher has to frame a teaching
methodology depending upon the nature of the students of the particular class and their basic
knowledge in the subject.
Explanations at some places in the textbook are wantonly left or given very briefly; if everything is
given explicitly in the textbook, then there will be no scope for the students to think. However, as one
of the main duties of a teacher is to make the students to think, the teacher ought to know all about
such parts. For example, Question 5 of Exercise 1.1, may be given to the students for a big discussion.
Such discussion will be more helpful to the students to understand the concept, than mere reading or
listening. If the answer to that question is explained in detail in the text, then the students may not get
the effect of such a discussion.
Some special questions are given without any special identification in exercises. The reason for not
giving any identification mark is obvious; many students fear to try problems marked with asterisk
(*) thinking that they are very difficult. Some hints are given to handle such exercise problems in this
handbook.
All the new concepts which do not exist in the previous textbooks are explained in detail in the
present textbook. However, some may feel that certain concepts need some more explanation. They
are also discussed in this handbook.
One of the main purposes of this Teacher’s Handbook is to facilitate the teacher to understand the
concepts well with motivations from real life situation for children to link the concept with day-to-day
events. So some examples of such motivations are given to certain selected topics in this handbook.
Certain problems cannot be solved directly under the concepts discussed. But by some suitable
technique, one can convert a problem into a problem of a type which can be solved easily. This is
in fact a well-used technique in Mathematics; (solving a system of linear equations by elimination
method, converting a minimization problem into maximization problem, many problems in
differential equations are few examples). A few of such problems, with suitable strategy to be adopted,
are explained in this handbook.
A separate chapter is devoted in this handbook corresponding to each chapter of the textbook. Each
of Chapter 1 to 6 of this handbook is divided into three sections, the first suggests some motivations
which may be given in the class while introducing the chapter. The second section discusses each of
the challenging parts of the corresponding chapter and provides hints to all identified parts. The third
section is given so as to motivate the students for further reading on the topic of the chapter.
Examples in this Handbook
As already stated, one of the main purposes of this Teacher’s Handbook is to facilitate the teacher to
understand the concepts well, before going to the class. The teacher may wish to ask the students some
questions to know what the students understood. In the course of solving a problem the teacher may
ask a formula to be used in a particular step, or a logical reasoning for a statement. If all such things

are explained in the textbook, then this way of teaching may not be possible. All the concepts involved
in a problem cannot be given explicitly. In fact, in our textbook also not all things are explained. For
example, the concepts involved in Example 1.1 are listed in detail in this handbook. Example 1.1 deals
with a simple problem whose solution is given in two lines. But the problem involves the following
concepts.
i. The concept of sets.
ii. The concept of set builder notion.
iii. The elements of  .
iv. The concept of subsets.
v. The concept of power sets.
vi. The concept of cardinality.
vii. The formula for the cardinality of power set.
One can list many more concepts needed to teach this simple example. So the teacher is expected
to recall all these concepts to the students and then to deal the example.
This listing is done for only one example in this handbook. It does not mean that Example 1.1 is
the only example involving many concepts. In fact, many concepts will be involved in every problem.
However, if something is said for an example or an exercise problem, the teacher has to search related
things in each and every problem. What is said above about Example 1.1 is just to show how to find
the concepts involved in a problem; after finding all the concepts involved, the teacher has to find a
day-to-day life situation to motivate the students towards the problem.
It is in fact better to use the happening of the day to motivate students on the topic of discussion; for
example, if a rocket is launched on the particular day, that happening may be used to motivate
• graph of functions (The equation of the path of the rocket will be helpful to locate the rocket
at any instant of time)
• solutions of equations (if an equation has no real root, then some happening may not be
possible; for example if the time taken to reach various point in space by the rocket is given as
a function f of the time variable t , and if some equation of f (t ) has no solution in , then
one may conclude that a particular point cannot be reached)
• trigonometry (usage of trigonometric functions to locate points in space)
• combinatorics (ways of placing some satellites in some possible places in orbits)
• sum of infinite series (to find approximate values of certain integrals giving radial area traced
by the satellite after converting them as infinite series)
• analytical geometry (to find the locus of the path traced by the rocket)
• vector (usage of vectors in calculating force)
• limits (the limiting velocity or escape velocity)

• differential calculus (use of derivative in calculating speed, acceleration, etc.)
• …
This long list is given to emphasis the use of happening of the day to motivate students towards the
concept going to be discussed in the class. This approach will be helpful for students to link concept
learnt in real life situation and realize mathematical thinking is useful in life.
As motivations are very important when starting a chapter or a new concept, a motivation given in
this handbook may be given by the teacher in their own style.
Profile of Volume I
Volume I of the textbook contains six chapters.

1. Sets, Relations and Functions
2. Basic Algebra
3. Trigonometry
4. Combinatorics and Mathematical Induction
5. Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series
6. Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry
Let us briefly see the content of each chapter by analysing what are already studied in earlier classes,
what are already dealt in the previous higher secondary book and what are new.
Sets, Relations and Functions
The concept of sets, relations and functions are already introduced in 9th standard. But a deep
treatment is given in this textbook having the need in mind. As sets and functions are essential parts of
mathematics, such a deep discussion is given. About 50% of the content is discussed in earlier classes
and the other are new.
Though the concepts are discussed in earlier classes the following are new titles:
¾¾ Types of relations consisting of reflexive, symmetric, transitive and equivalence relations are
new. They are defined deeply by using examples. In the previous book for eleventh standard,
the relation is just defined and only a few examples are given.
¾¾ Identifying or finding the range of a function is discussed deeply compared with the previous
book. Many examples are given to find the largest possible domain for a function given
analytically. Such examples are new which definitely improve the mathematical knowledge of
the students.
¾¾ Graphing functions is entirely a new concept. Visualizing a rough sketch of the graph of a

function tells us many things about the function. For example, after a thorough learning of the
section “ graphing functions ", just by knowing the graph of the function sin x , one can give
sin3 x 3
f ( x)
a point at which maximum or minimum of the function f defined by = + 17 is
17
attained.
As sets and functions are basic building blocks of modern mathematics, a thorough knowledge of
this chapter is expected from the students. The teacher has to explain the importance of this chapters
and advice the students not to skip even a single line from this chapter. Further the teacher has to
advice the student to recall the content of the tenth standard book deeply.
Basic Algebra
The number systems and their inclusions are recalled in this chapter. However, some new ideas and
concepts were introduced in this chapter. Properties of real numbers were discussed somewhat deeply.
Examples and exercises are designed so as to give a deep knowledge of the content. Most of the content
of this chapter are already discussed in ninth and tenth standards. The new concepts discussed in this
chapter are:
¾¾ Inequalities with absolute value (that is, modulus) are discussed deeply.
¾¾ Graphical representation of many inequalities is the highlight of this chapter.
¾¾ Logarithm is dealt in a deep way with many examples.
The content of this chapter will help the students in the future when they study optimization
techniques.
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is very essential to study physics, space dynamics and so on. So the teacher has
to motivate the students to study trigonometry deeply. Particularly for students planning to study
mechanical engineering, space mechanics, astrophysics, and other similar subjects, trigonometry is
very important. The teacher should highlight the importance of trigonometric identities and formulae
as they are used in various chapters in the textbook.
This chapter contains almost all standard problems. However, this chapter contains some new
concepts also. They are,
¾¾ Trigonometric identities are obtained and used as applications of triangle.
¾¾ The approach to solve many problems and to prove many identities are new.

Combinatorics and Mathematical Induction
Combinatorics is an interesting subject. Many real life examples are given in the textbook. Among
all the chapters in the textbook, only this chapter contains a lot of problems that can be understood by
all who are new to mathematics also.
The new things available in this chapter are
¾¾ the approach
¾¾ the motivation
¾¾ the inclusion and exclusion principle
¾¾ example problems and exercise problems
¾¾ problems involving the “objects are together", “objects are never together", “no two objects are
together".
¾¾ proving statements involving trigonometric identities and inequalities using induction
principle
Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series
In the fifth chapter, binomial theorem is explained deeply using Pascal triangle. Further binomial
theorem is proved for many types of indices. Inquisitive motivations are given to the concept of
convergence of sequence and series.
This chapter contains a few new ideas. They are

¾¾ Arithmetico-Geometric sequences
¾¾ Arithmetico-Geometric series
¾¾ Telescopic summation
Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry
A good motivation is given for the sixth chapter. Almost all the concepts discussed in this chapter
are available in the previous textbook. But the problems are new. Even problems of historical interest
are solved in this chapter.
It contains some new ideas and they are
¾¾ conversion of three dimensional problems into two dimensional problems.
¾¾ applications to various fields such as time and distance, demand and supply.
¾¾ problems involving progression have been dealt with in an analytical geometry approach.
¾¾ Application oriented examples and explanation for them.
¾¾ Different types of exercise problem.

Period Allocation
Chapter No. of Periods
Sets, Relations and Functions 21
Basic Algebra 10
Trigonometry 22
Combinatorics and Mathematical Induction 17
Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series 17
Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry 18
Total 105

1
CHAPTER
Sets, Relations and Functions 0, {0} { }
“Is mathematics a single science or a set of arts? ”
– V. I. Arnold
SET
TYPES, OPERATIONS, PROPERTIES
REAL LINE , INTERVALS
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
RELATIONS FUNCTIONS
REFLEXIVE, DOMAIN,
SYMMETRIC, CODOMAIN,
TRANSITIVE , RANGE
EQUIVALENCE
WAYS OF ONE-TO-ONE, SPECIAL GRAPHING

REPRESENTING ONTO FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
1.1 A Motivation
A New Story of Rabbit and Tortoise

We all know the old story of rabbit and tortoise. A rabbit asked a tortoise for a race. The tortoise
accepted for the bet. When the race began the tortoise moved slowly and the rabbit ran very fast. After
some time the rabbit took rest and slept. It wakeup only after the tortoise reached the target.
But the new story is different. The rabbit didn’t want to lose the race and at the same time it didn’t
want to finish the race in one spell. It planned to adopt a different strategy. It planned to stop at some
place and to run towards the target, again stop, again run and so on. To continue our discussion we fix
the conditions and the rabbit’s strategy.
¾¾ The race is for ONE kilometre.
¾¾ Tortoise runs with a speed of one kilometre per hour.
¾¾ Rabbit runs with a different strategy:
)) It runs at a speed of 60 Kilometre per hour.
)) It stops, runs, stops,...
)) At the first step, the rabbit halted at the half kilometre mark. It starts running when the
tortoise touches the one quarter mark.
3
զզ The rabbit halted at the kilometre mark. It starts running when the tortoise touches
4
the 1 kilometre mark.
2
7
զզ The rabbit halted at the kilometre mark. It starts running when the tortoise touches
8
the 3 kilometre mark.
4
զզ The rabbit repeats this way of running.
¾¾ - Thus “at each stage it runs only half the distance to be completed and it leaves some distance to
complete”.
We now reached the following conclusions.
¾¾ Tortoise will reach the target.
¾¾ Tortoise will never overtake rabbit.
¾¾ Rabbit will never reach the target.
Can all these statements together be true ? Something goes WRONG!
After completing this story the teacher may say,
“At the end of this chapter you can find the flaw.”
This type of motivations makes the students to follow the entire chapter with care and eager.
The teacher may use the same example to motivate the students to Chapter 5 on sequences and
series.

1.2 Hints on Identified Parts
Page 3: n ( ∅ ) =0 and n ({∅}) =

1.
Everyone knows that n ( A ) denotes the number of elements in A . In n ( ∅) , the set is the empty set
which contains no element, that is 0 elements. In n ( {∅} ) , the set is the set containing one element,
namely the empty set; the set is nothing but the power set of the empty set which obviously contains
one element.
Further, the teacher may ask cute students to identify the difference between the questions (i)
n( A) = ? and (ii) n ({ A}) = ? , where A = {1, 2,3} and bring the answers 3 and 1 from the students.
Page 4: Is it correct to say A

= ×A {( a, a ) : a ∈ A} ?
This may be explained to the students by means of an example. For example, if
{(1,1) , (1, 2 ) , ( 2,1) , ( 2, 2 )} whereas

A = {1, 2} , then A × A = {( a, a ) : a ∈ A} is {(1,1) , ( 2, 2)} .
Further, the teacher may ask cute students to give a set A for which the two sets are same and bring
the answer: “ they are equal if A is a singleton set ".
Example 1.3 : ( ( A ∪ B' ∪ C ) ∩ ( A ∩ B' ∩ C') ) ∪ ( ( A ∪ B ∪ C') ∩ ( B' ∩ C') ) = B' ∩ C' .
This example uses the following three properties:
i. If P is any set, P ∩ Q ⊆ P whatever be the set Q .
ii. If P is any set, P ⊆ P ∪ Q whatever be the set Q .
iii. If P, Q, R are sets so that P ⊆ Q ⊆ R , then P ⊆ R .
The teacher may write the problem using large brackets and make the students to identify the set
A in ( A ∪ B' ∪ C ) ∩ ( A ∩ B' ∩ C' ) and the set C' in ( A ∪ B ∪ C') ∩ ( B' ∩ C') . Then the students can
understand the content given in solution.
Further, the teacher may ask cute students to prove the identity by using Venn diagram. It is a
usual practice to use Venn diagram to prove set identities and simplify larger set expressions; but after
trying to prove the identity using Venn diagram one may feel that sometimes algebraic methods are
easier than diagrammatic approach.
Moreover, the teacher may give some more problems of this kind to interested students.
Example 1.4 Counting Subsets of a Set
When counting the objects having certain properties is difficult, a usual technique in Mathematics
10

is to count the number of objects in an equivalent set. This technique is followed in this example. Here
we prove that the number of sets having the desired properties is same as the number of subsets of the
set {6,7,8,9,10} and using it we solve the problem.

Further another technique in counting processes is to count the number of objects not possessing
the properties and subtract it from the total number of objects under consideration. For example the
number of composite numbers between 100 and 199 is 100 minus the number of primes in between
100 and 199. The teacher may give some more problems of both types to all students.

Example 1.9 n P P P

Though n P P P 4, the teacher may ask the students to list the four elements and bring
the answer as follows:
P (1.1)
P P , (1.2)

P P P , , , , (1.3)
If student feel some difficulty, then the teacher may explain as follows:
Equation (1.1) needs no explanation. To explain (1.2) call {∅} (that is P ) as A and denote ∅
by p . Then A = { p} and P P is P ( A) which is equal to {∅, A} . So P P ,

(replacing A by {∅} ).
To explain (1.3) call P P as B . Then B = { p, A} and hence
P B , p , A , p, A .
Replacing p and A by ∅ and {∅} we get (1.3).

Further, the teacher may ask cute students to list the elements of the set P P P P and
to go one more step.
Exercise 1.1 Question 1(iv)
The teacher may ask the students to give the reason for the term  − {−2} in the definition of the
x−4
set under consideration and get the answer, “when x = −2 , x + 2 becomes 0 and hence is not
x+2
defined".
11

Exercise 1.1 Question 2
This question has many answers. For example, { x ∈  : x = 1} and { x ∈  : x 2 =

1} are two possible
answers. The teacher may insist the students to give more and more different answers.
This question is to be discussed deeply. From the wordings “Justify the trueness”, one should not
take that the statement is true and justification is asked. The statement may very well be false.
At the very first site many may tempt to say that the answer is true. But it is not so. For example, if
A = {1, {1} } , then
{1} ⊆ A and {1} ∈ A.

The teacher may use this problem to make the students to understand the concept of set deeply.
Somebody may argue that A given above is not at all a set. No. It is definitely a set. It contains two
elements, namely, 1 and {1} . Using this example, the teacher may explain that it is not necessary for
a set to have only one category of elements. The teacher may ask students to give some more examples
to establish the trueness of the statement and write the power set of A .
Further, the teacher may use this situation to explain the concept of counter example. It is a nice
situation to explain that to prove a statement is wrong, it is enough to give one example not satisfying
the statements. Students may be asked to check the validity of the following statements.
(i) All integers are even numbers.
(ii) If x ∈  , then x > 0 .

(iii) 3 ≥ 2 .
(iv) 3 ≥ 3 .
Without telling the answer, the teacher may bring the answers “ false, false, true, true” from the
students.
Note below Theorem 1.1.
The proof is not necessary for the students. The reason for giving the data is to help the students
who may appear for some competitive examinations. However, it is better for the teacher to know
the proof (hints are given for proofs). But the teacher need not teach this to students in the class. If
a student is very much interested in knowing the details, then the teacher may direct the student to
refer to any combinatorics books.
=
To prove the results, taking the set A {1, 2,3,…, n} we arrange the all the ordered pairs in a matrix
form as
12

(1,1) (1, 2) (1,3) … (1, n) 

( 2,1) ( 2, 2) ( 2,3) … ( 2, n) 
( 3,1) ( 3, 2) ( 3,3) … ( 3, n) 
 
    
( n,1) ( n, 2) ( n,3) … ( n, n ) 
 
 
=
i. Any set of pairs together with D {(1,1) , ( 2, 2) ,…, ( n, n)} form a reflexive relation. As there are
2 2
n 2 − n pairs other than those in D , 2n −n subsets of such pairs; hence there are 2n −n reflexive
relations.
ii. From any subset of the lower part, including the diagonal, of this matrix we can associate a
2
symmetric relation so that the association is a bijection. As there are n + n elements in the lower
2
 n2 + n   n2 + n 
   
 2   2 
part, there are 2 subsets and hence there are 2 symmetric relation.
Illustration 1.1
The concept of cryptography may, in the beginning, be explained using terms like “code words”
and “nick names". Cryptography is a formulated coding-decoding system. Even if a student does not
follow this illustration, it will not affect his further follow-up of the subject. The one given in the text
is not the only cryptosystem.
Further a project may be given to interested students to study and explain a modern cryptosystem.
“Cardinality of a set" means the number of elements in the set. As an equivalence relation must
contain all of the pairs ( a, a ) , ( b, b ) and ( c, c ) , any equivalence relation must contain at least these 3
elements. As we discussed in the textbook, the relation {(1,1) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 3,3)} is an equivalence relation.
So it is an equivalence relation of minimum cardinality. Since there is no other equivalence relation
of cardinality 3, we used the definite article the in the question. Similarly the universal relation is an
equivalence relation of maximum cardinality.
Further, the teacher may ask the students to answer the same question for a set containing n
elements. By using this question on a set containing n elements, the teacher may explain the concept
of generalization which may help them to see plane and sphere as generalizations of straight lines
and circle; they can identify the commonness in the equation of a straight line in the plane and the
equation of a plane in the three dimensional space and the commonness in the equation of a circle in
the plane and the equation of a sphere in the three dimensional space.
13

Example 1.20
This function is not a strange one. It is the function x 2 in the positive side and − x 2 in the negative
side. The main aim of giving this example is to prove the one-to-one. It is proved in the solution part.
As this is an important function, it is decided to give the range also. The concept of increasing function
and continuity are used in finding the range. At this level, the students are unaware of these concepts;
but in a later stage they are going to know these concepts before they pass this class. Since the terms
“increasing” and “continuous” are used in day-to-day life situations, the teacher may explain these
concepts using some graphs. Finally giving the graph of the function x x they can bring the range
from student’s mouth.
Figure 1: x x
Example 1.23
The aim of giving this problem is to give practice to students in finding the range of functions of
different kinds. The students may not be aware of the inequality −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 . The teacher may just state
and use the inequality. However, they are going learn this type of inequality in Chapter 3.
The proof of ( f + g )  h = f  h + g  h is easy. Indeed,
(( f + g )  h ) ( x ) =
( f + g ) ( h ( x )) =
f ( h ( x )) + g ( h ( x )) =
( f  h )( x ) + ( g  h )( x ) .
The most important thing in this example is the other part. First the teacher has to explain the
phrase “ what can you say about ” and make the students to understand that they are asked to tell the
validity of a similar statement in the new context. Thus the students have to judge the validity of the
statement f  ( g + h )= f  g + f  h .
Though the teacher knows the answer, they may bring the answer from the students as follows. The
teacher may ask the students to prove that f  ( g + h )= f  g + f  h . The students will start as
( f  ( g + h)) ( x) = f ( ( g + h)( x)) = f ( g ( x) + h ( x))

14

=
and they will hesitate to write “ f ( g ( x ) ) + f ( h ( x ) ) ” because the function f need
not satisfy f ( a + b=
) f ( a ) + f ( b ) . At this stage taking any function f not satisfying
f ( a + b=
) f ( a ) + f ( b ) , and taking g and h as identity function, the students may construct
counter examples. For example, if we take f ( x ) = x 2 , then
( f  ( g + h ) ) ( x ) =f ( ( g + h )( x ) ) =f ( g ( x ) + h ( x ) ) =f ( x + x ) =f ( 2 x ) =4 x 2
whereas
( f  g )( x ) + ( f  h)( x ) =f ( g ( x )) + f ( h ( x )) =f ( x ) + f ( x ) =
( f  g + f  h)( x ) = x2 + x2
showing that f  ( g + h )= f  g + f  h is not true.
Further, the teacher may use this situation to explain a way to construct counter examples. It is a
nice situation to explain that to construct a counter example to prove a particular statement is wrong,
one can try to prove the “wrong" statement and from the point at which one cannot proceed, one can
try to construct a counter example.
The aim of this problem is to improve the students to identify the mathematical part of the problem.
Some times in competitive examinations the students find such questions. By seeing the terminologies
used in the problem, students skip that question saying that they do not know that particular branch
of science. In our problem the mathematical part is to determine whether the function s ( t ) = −16t 2
is one to one or not. The domain is not specifically given. From the problem, the students can get the
information that the variable t represents time. As time cannot be negative, the students may assume
that the domain of the function is a subset of nonnegative reals. Obviously the function is one-to-one.
The students need not worry about the validity of the formula given in such problems.
We refer to what is said in case of Exercise 1.3 Question 14. The students need not worry about
the exchange rates. The only mathematical part of the problem is the composition of the two functions
f and g which can be easily done by students.
As above, the teacher’s duty is to make the students to identify the mathematical part of the
problem. It is to find the inverse of f ( x=

) 3x − 4 . Note that the domain and the codomain are set of
15

numbers. As nothing is said explicitly about the set numbers in the problem, we may take it as  or
 and find the inverse. But as it is asked about the symmetry about the line y = x , w take the number
set as  . Note that the function has the inverse g ( x ) = x + 4 when considering the number set as 
3
. If we consider the number set as  , the function has no inverse.
Further, the teacher may explain, the nature of symmetry using the word “symmetry" just as
English word by drawing the curves and make the students to recognize that the graphs are symmetric
about the line y = x .
Graphing Functions
The aim of this section is to make students to draw the graphs of some complicated functions
using known functions. So the teacher before completing the section may consolidate the content of
the section as
Functions Resultant
y = − f ( x) is the reflection of the graph of f about the x -axis.
y f (−x)
= is the reflection of the graph of f about the y -axis.
y = f −1 ( x ) is the reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x .
y =f ( x + c), c > 0 causes the shift to the left.
y =f ( x − c), c > 0 causes the shift to the right.
y = f ( x) + d , d > 0 causes the shift to the upward.
y = f ( x) − d , d > 0 causes the shift to the downward.
=y c f ( x), c > 1 expands the graph vertically and moves away from the x -axis.
=y c f ( x), 0 < c < 1 compresses the graph vertically and moves towards the x -axis.
=y f (c x), c > 1 expands the graph horizontally and moving it from the y -axis.
=y f (c x), 0 < c < 1 compresses the graph horizontally moving it away from the y -axis.
16

Graphing Functions (using graphs not considered so far)
In the textbook many functions not known to the students are considered. The theory given in the
section can be given by means of a general curve. But the aim of using curves of functions like sin x
is to introduce the curves of standard functions as a by-product.
“Graph” is a small free software, which is very useful for mathematics students as well as teachers.
Using this software, one can draw many graphs accurately and one can even use colors to distinguish
graphs. With the help of this software, one can find the length of the path between two points on a
curve, integral of a function on an interval and many more mathematical computations. The function
may be given in the usual form or in the parametric form. This software is a GNU product sponsored by
Free Software Foundation. The teacher may use this user friendly free software to teach mathematics
efficiently. The web address is given in the reference.
1.3 Compression of Functions

The section on graphing function is very much helpful to compare functions. If f and g are
two functions from  →  , (or from a subset of  to  ) then we can compare the two functions.
If the curve of f lies above that of g at a point x , then f ( x ) > g ( x ) and if it lies below, then
f ( x ) < g ( x ) at that point.

But we can compare two functions at a point only if both are defined at that point. So to compare
two functions entirely the domain of the two functions must coincide. For example, if T is a function
defined on [ 0,1] and is a function defined on [ 0,1) then we can compare them at all points of [ 0,1)
but not at the point 1 . If we try to give any conclusion about the function R at x = 1 , we will get some
confusion. In that case our speed of learning will be in tortoise’s speed.
One may wonder about the difference between [ 0,1] and [ 0,1) . If at all, the difference is just one
point. One may think that a single point is negligible when comparing with infinitely many points;
but it is not so. If we understand this our speed of learning will be in rabbit’s speed. The teacher has
to make the students to understand these types of differences.
Further...
We know, for any two real numbers, “If a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a=b”. What can you say about
1. “If a < b and b < a, then a=b”?
2. “If a < b and b < a, then a ≠ b”?
It is interesting to note that both are true.
17

2
CHAPTER Basic Algebra log e x
“The worst form of inequality is to try to make unequal things equal.”
– Aristotle
BASIC ALGEBRA
Linear Polynomial
Real number System Absolute Value
Inequalities Functions
Rational Irrational The number Graphical Quadratic

numbers numbers line representation Functions
of linear
inequalities
Rational Properties Inequalities Quadratic

functions of real involving Inequalities
number absolute
value
Partial
Fractions Exponents and
radicals
Equations
involving
Logarithm absolute value
2.1 A Motivation
THINK OF A NUMBER ......!
• Double it...
• Add 6
• Divide by 2
• Take away your 1 st
number
• Is the answer....
18

The teacher may give one or two “Mind Reading Puzzles" to motivate the students. Usually the
puzzles start as “Think of a number" and the puzzle ends with “the number you started is 6" or “your
answer is 58".
A small mind reading puzzle:
1. Think of a number (any positive integer)
2. Square it.
3. Add the result to your original number.
4. Divide the answer by your original number.
5. Add 24 to the result.
6. Subtract your original number from the result.
7. Take square root (it is possible)
8. Tell: “the final answer is 5".
The teacher may motivate the students by telling after completing this chapter one can solve many
of such problems.
After completing the chapter, the teacher may help the students to “solve" completely the puzzle by
taking the starting number as n find the final number in terms of n . The teacher may show how to
create such puzzles.
The Real Line
When discussing problems on subsets of  it is better to draw the real line and discuss the
problem. Real line is a very nice pictorial representation of  . If x and y are two real numbers so
that x < y , then it is clear that x lies to the left of y . If one point is known, then we can immediately
say something about the other point. For example when solving the inequalities 2 < x < 6 , we can
immediately conclude that x lies to the right of 2 and to the left of 6 and hence we may say that all
real numbers strictly between 2 and 6 constitute the solution set. So it is better to draw the real line
whenever we solve some problem in  .
Inequalities Involving Modulus Functions
When dealing with inequalities involving modulus function the pictorial representation gives more
information. Further, the teacher has to make the students to feel that a − b is the distance between
a and b . In particular x is the distance of x from the origin. For example, when solving the
inequality x − 7 > 3 , we can immediately conclude that all real numbers to the right of 10 and to
19

the left of 4 constitute the solution set and write ( −∞ , 4 ) ∪ (10,∞ ) as the solution set. Even though
{x ∈  : x − 7 > 3} =( −∞ , 4 ) ∪ (10,∞ ) , writing the set as the part ( −∞ , 4) ∪ (10, ∞ ) of the real line
gives more intuition about the set than writing the set as {x ∈  : x − 7 > 3} . So it is better to draw
the real line whenever we solve some problem in  . However, the teacher has to make the students
to practice the pure algebraic ways explained in the textbook to solve inequalities. This will enable the
students to work with pure algebraic expressions and inequalities.
As we discussed about Question 14 of Exercise 1.3 in Page 22, the problem here is to identify the
mathematical part involved in this problem. As we mentioned already the teacher should not solve
exercise problems completely. So only a hint may be given to the problem. The teacher may tell the
students struggling to solve this problem to take the amount of 30% acid solution to be added as
x ask them to form the inequality by computing the percentage of acid in the new mixture. (The
72 + 0.3 x
unsimplified inequality is 15 < < 18 .)
600 + x
The teacher may further ask a general mathematics question about the upper bound of the
percentage of acid in the mixture after adding any amount of any amount of 30% acid solution. This
problem may be used in future to motivate the concept of limit.
The Absolute Value Function
Some students may hesitate to write x = − x because of their wrong understanding of the minus
sign. The teacher has to identify such students and explain with examples that nothing goes wrong
in writing x = − x when x is negative we have x = − x . This should be clear for the students to
continue in this chapter.
When dealing with the equation x = y , we write “ x = y implies that x = ± y ". A student may
ask “why don’t we write y = ± x ?". Well. The teacher has to explain him that both mean the same and
ask him to solve some problems, for instance Example 2.3, by writing so and make the student to feel
that both are correct.
Natural Logarithm
The bases for logarithm are discussed in the textbook in detail. When the base is e , the function
1
has many important properties. For example when we say the derivative of log x is , it means that
x
the base for the log function is e . So when studying higher mathematics, by log x we mean only the
logarithmic function to the base e .
Before the invention of calculators, big numerical calculations are done using only logarithm to the
20

base 10. As it is used by everyone, it is called common logarithm. The natural logarithm is denoted as
n . So n x is same as log e x . It is suggested that whenever we write n x it may be pronounced as
“natural logarithm of x " or n of x .
Logarithm - Base Change
The concept of logarithm is defined for a general base. However, the bases e and 10 are important
among them. The formula
log c b
log a b =
log c a
helps us to convert bases. For example to find the value of
log 2 16 + log 4 8 + log8 32

we have to make them all to a common base. In this problem it is natural to use 2 as the common
base. In this case we get
log 2 8 log 2 32
log 2 16 + log 4 32 = log 2 16 + +
log 2 4 log 2 8
3 5
=4 + +
2 3
43
=
6
So to simplify expressions involving “log” we convert all of them to a convenient common base.
But in this problem, all the numbers we used are integral powers of 2 . So we used base 2 and easily
converted logarithmic terms into rational numbers. But when this is not the case, for example if we
want to find the value of log 2 34 + log 5 67 + log 7 23 , we have to use already calculated table values.
Usually the table values are given for natural logarithm and common logarithm only. So we have to
convert all logarithmic term into any one of these two bases. As we are using numbers to the base 10
for all our numerical work in our day-to-day life, it is better to use base 10 .
Let us find the value of log 2 34 + log 5 67 + log 7 23 by converting all term to base 10 .
log 34 log 67 log10 34
log 2 34 + log 5 67 + log 7 23 = 10
log10 2
+ log10 5 + log10 7
10
1.5315 1.8261 1.3617

= + +
0.3010 0.6990 0.8451
= 9.3118
The teacher may ask the interested students to do the same problem using natural logarithm and
see to get the same answer.
21

A hint may be given to the problem. The teacher may tell the students struggling to solve this
problem to take the consecutive odd numbers as 2n + 1 and 2n + 3 and ask them to form the
inequality. (The statement “both of them larger than 10” gives 5 < n and the other inequality is
( 2n + 1) + ( 2n + 3) < 40 .)
Exercise 2.9
In Exercise 2.9, the students are asked to resolve some rational functions into partial fractions.
Some rational functions are given as improper fractions. All the examples dealt in the section are
on proper fractions and no example is given on improper fractions. The teacher may first leave the
section without cautioning about this and emphasis the students resolve such fractions. Usually the
students will do the problem in the way they resolve proper fractions. Mostly the students will end-
up with wrong answers. The teacher may then ask the students to write the partial fraction in their
answer into a single fraction and compare it with the rational function they started. After the students
identified the error they made, the teacher may start discussing resolution of improper fractions into
partial fraction.
By this approach, the teacher may tell the importance of verifying the results after obtaining it and
the method of “learning from errors”.
Multiplicity of Roots
While explaining multiplicity of roots the teacher may introduce the term repeated root and use
them alternatively.
Example 2.40
While solving the problem in Example 2.40, it is assumed that the number of digits in 28312 is
n + 1 . Usually when we denote an unknown we usually let the unknown as x , n , a and so on. Instead
of assuming the number of digits as n , it is assumed that the number of digits is n + 1 . Nothing is
wrong in this assumption. This is not new. When considering three consecutive terms in an arithmetic
progression we let the terms as a − d , a and a + d . The teacher may give an workout to students
to solve the problem by assuming that the number of digits is n and make the students to feel that
nothing is wrong in such assumption.
Page 62, Steps to Solve Quadratic Inequalities
When explaining the steps to solve quadratic inequalities, the statement
“If there are no real solutions, then one of the above inequalities holds for all x ∈  "
can be explained using the graph of the parabola y = ax 2 + by + c ; if ax 2 + by + c > 0 , then the
22

curve lies above the x -axis and hence it will not cut the x -axis. So it has no real root. Similarly in the
other case, the entire curve lies below the x -axis and hence has no real root.
x−2 x−2
When x = 2 , the fraction has no meaning and for all other x , the fraction is
x−2 x−2
x−2
meaningful. It is clear that if an x satisfies ≥ 0 , then x − 2 must be positive and hence x > 2 .
x−2
(when writing x > 2 here, the teacher may say x must be greater than 2.) Hence the correct solution
to this problem is ( 2,∞ ) . But in the answers given at the end, it is wrongly printed as the first option
is correct.
A student may argue that the first answer is also correct. Of course, the following statement is true:
x−2
If ≥ 0 , then x ∈[ 2, ∞ ) .
x−2
But ( 2,∞ ) is the most suitable answer.
The teacher may ask the interested students about the trueness of the statement
x−2
If ≥ 0 , then x ∈ [ 0,∞ ) .
x−2
and argue to bring the answer true from the students.
Inequalities like x − 2 ≤ 4 are discussed deeply in the textbook. Using the technique applied for
such inequalities, the teacher can make the students discuss inequalities like x − 2 ≤ x − 4 . Let us
solve the inequality x − 2 ≤ x − 4 . Clearly on the real line, all points to the left of 2 are nearer to 2 than
to 4 and similarly all points to the right of 4 are away from 2 than from 4. Again on points between
2 and 4 all points to the left of 3 are nearer to 2 than to 4. So all points x to the left of 3 satisfy the
inequality x − 2 < x − 4 . Also 3 is of equidistant from 2 and 4 and hence the solution set for the
inequality x − 2 ≤ x − 4 is ( −∞ ,3] .
The teacher may help the students to tell the solutions of such inequalities immediately by giving
some more inequalities of this kind. Even the teacher may discuss inequalities like 1 < x − 2 ≤ x − 4 .
23

2.3 Graphical Representation of Non–Linear Inequalities.
In the textbook many inequalities are discussed. Graphical representation of linear inequalities is
well explained with suitable examples. The teacher may explain the graphical representation of even
nonlinear inequalities. For example, the inequality x 2 + y 2 ≤ a 2 represents points inside and on the
circle x 2 + y 2 =
a2 .
Usually the curve representing an equation divides the plane into different regions. Let f ( x, y ) = 0
be the equation under consideration. It is clear that a point (a, b) lie on the curve if and only if it
satisfies the equation; that is, if and only if, f (a, b) = 0 . For all other points ( p, q ) , one and only one
of the following is true.
i. f ( p, q ) is not defined.
ii. f ( p, q ) is defined and not equal to 0.
In the second case, we have two options.
f ( p, q ) < 0 or f ( p, q ) > 0.
If our inequality is f ( x, y ) < 0 , then the point ( p, q ) is in the required region if f ( p, q ) < 0 and
it is not in the required region if f ( p, q ) > 0 or if f ( p, q ) is not defined. The points on the boundary
Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4

x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 sin x < y < cos x y < x
points are be included or not included according to the existence of equality sign in the inequality
under consideration.
A few examples are given in Figure 2 ,Figure 3 and Figure 4.
If we take a = 2 in the inequality x 2 + y 2 < a 2 (Refer to Figure 2), the point (1,1) satisfies the
inequality whereas the point (4,5) does not satisfy the inequality. In the inequality | y |< x (Refer
to Figure 4), the point (−1,1) has no meaning as −1 is not defined. So we say that the point (−1,1)
does not satisfy the inequality.
24

3
CHAPTER Trigonometry θ
“Trigonometry is a sine of the times”
– Anonymous
TRIGONOMETRY
Basic Trigonometric Inverse

Trigonometric Appllicatiotn
Angles Trigonometric Identity Trigonometric
Equations to Triangles
Identities Functions
Compound
Trigonometric angles,
Different Sys tem
functions and Multiple and
of angle
their properties submultiple
measurements
angles Properties of
Triangles
Conditional
Relation between Trigonometric Identities
degree and ratios of
Radian quadrantal
angles and Cosine
real numbers Sine Formula
Formula
Signs of Napier Projection

Trigonometric Formula Formula
functions
Half-Angle Heron's
Formula Formula
3.1 A Motivation
Height of the Flag Post
6 ft
10 f t
85 f t
25

The teacher may ask the students to find the height of the flag post of the school. The students
may not find a way of doing it without climbing-up the post. But the teacher may ask the students to
measure the length of the shadow of the post in an evening and at the same time measure the length of
a student’s shadow. For example, if the shadow of a student of 160 cm height is 120 cm and the shadow
of the post is 12 meter, then the student may say, “then the post will be of 16 meter high". With this
example the teacher may recall right angled triangle, similar triangle and the concept of trigonometric
terms like sinθ and cosθ .
The students may be asked about finding of the distance between the sun and the earth, the moon
and the earth and so on. The students may give different answers and the teacher may ask some
other students to counter the answers. One of the most convenient ways is using trigonometry. As the
students know about cosθ and sinθ in the basic study of trigonometry, the teacher can say that many
formula developed for this purpose, involves cosθ and sinθ .
Moreover, any signal like cell phone signals are now analysed using a series called Fourier series:
∞
Σ an cosnx + bnsinnx
n=0
for suitable an and bn . Only using such series, signals and waves like ultra violet ray, ultrasonic waves,
from various celestial objects are analysed.
Using all such examples the teacher may motivate the students towards the importance of
trigonometry. As the teacher knows the usage of trigonometric functions while studying differentiation
as well as integration, the teacher has to repeatedly ask the students to remember all the formula
studied in trigonometry throughout their mathematical carrier. The teacher knows very well that this
is the reason for including trigonometric functions in matrix multiplication, determinant, drawing
curves of functions and so on. So they have to insist the students to remember the trigonometric
formulae.
3.2 Hints on the Identified Parts
Conversion of Degree into Minutes
In Chapter 3 Trigonometry under section “Degree Measure”, it is discussed about writing angle, as
degree, in two forms. One is “ just degree using decimal expansion " and the other one is “ degree,
minutes, seconds ". An example is given in the textbook converting angle in the first form into angle
in the second form. The other way is just given as a note. The teacher may ask the students to prove
the other way. If students cannot get through, then the teacher may give a hint to convert minutes into
degree by showing
1
51' =51× =0.85°
60
26

and ask them questions to bring the answer
1
35" =×
35 0.0097222 =
= 0.0097°
3600
59°51'35" = 59.8597°
Exercise 3.1, Question 7
The teacher may give the hint
1
1 x x 2 x3 ... , if x 1.
1 x
Since 0 < θ < π

2
we have sin 2θ < 1 and cos 2θ < 1 , and hence
1 1
1 + cos 2θ + cos 4θ +  = 2 =2 ;
x=
1 − cos θ sin θ
1 1
hence we get sin 2θ = and cos 2θ = . Substituting this in the similar computation of z , we get
x y
xy
z= . From this we can prove the required result.
xy − 1
The following hint may be given to students: Taking
 2π   4π 
xcosθ= ycos  θ + = zcos  θ + = k
 3   3 
we get,
k k k
=x = ; y = ; z
cosθ  2π   4π 
cos  θ +  cos  θ + 
 3   3 
Using
1 1 1
xy + yz + =
zx xyz  + + 
x y z
1 1 1
One can prove that, + + =0 from which we get we get xy + yz + zx =
0.
x y z
27

The following hint may be given: Expanding the left hand side of the given equality
3
cos (α − β ) + cos ( β − γ ) + cos (γ − α ) =−
2
We get
2 [ cosα cosβ + sinα sinβ + cosβcosγ + sinβsinγ + cosγ cosα + sinγ sinα ] =
−3.
Now, 3 can be written as
cos 2α + sin 2α + cos 2 β + sin 2 β + cos 2γ + sin 2γ .
Using these two, after simplification, we get
[cosα + cosβ + cosγ ] + [sinα + sinβ + sinγ ]

2 2
0.
=
Since the two terms are nonnegative we get
cosα + cosβ=
+ cosγ 0 and sinα + sinβ=
+ sinγ 0.
For a hint, the teacher may ask the students to apply componendo and dividendo rule, to get the
result immediately.
Using the result (1 + tan A )(1 + tan B ) =

2 , if A + B =
45 and grouping the terms as,
( )( ) (
 1 + tan1 1 + tan 44   1 + tan 2 1 + tan 43  
   )( )
we see the product is equal to a multiple of 4.
The following hint may be given:
 1
 1   cos  7 2 
Writing cot  7  as cot  7 1  =

and multiplying the numerator and the denominator
 2  
 2    1  
sin  7 
 2 
 1 

by 2cos  7  we get
 2 
28

 1   1 + cot 15 2 2 + 3 + 1
cot
= 7  = .
 2  sin 15 3 −1
Again multiplying the numerator and the denominator by 3 + 1 and simplifying, we get the required
results.
2cos 2θ
Writing 1 + sec2θ as
cos2θ , and other terms similarly and applying the result obtained in Example
3.32 one may get the answer.

Writing
π π π π π 1 π π π π π
sin cos cos cos cos =  2sin cos  cos cos cos ,
48 48 24 12 6 2 48 48 24 12 6
and using the formula 2sinAcosA = sin2 A we move one step; and continuing the process, we get
the result.
The teacher may give the following proof and ask the students to fill the gap.
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π
cos cos cos cos cos cos cos
15 15 15 15 15 15 15
 π 2π 4π  8π    3π 6π  1
=LHS  cos cos cos cos  π −    cos cos 
 15 15 15  15    15 15  2
1 π 2π 4π 8π   3π 6π 
= −  cos cos cos cos   cos cos 
2 15 15 15 15   15 15 
Applying the result obtained in Example 3.32, we can get the required result.
29


Steps to be used to solve the problem.
1. Take x = tan A ; y = tan B ; z = tan C .
2. Apply the formula for tan ( 2 A + 2 B + 2C )
2 tan A
3. Apply the formula tan 2 A .
1 tan 2 A
Exercise 3.8, Question 3(ix)

Applying the formula
tanA + tanB
tan ( A + B ) =
1 − tanAtanB
we get
9tanθ − 3tan 2θ
= 3.
1 − 3tan 2θ
That is,
π
tan3θ = tan .
6
Thus the solution is
nπ π
θ = + , n ∈.
3 18
Exercise 3.9, Question 7(i)

Application of sin formula is the main tool to solve the problem. The following are some intermediate
steps. The teacher may ask the students to fill the gap.
A A
( b + c ) sin = 2 R ( sinB + sin C ) sin
2 2
Now, apply the formula
 B +C  B −C
sin B + sin C =
2sin   cos 
 2   2 
30

A  π A π  A  A
( b + c )=
sin 2 R  sin  −  cos  −  B +    sin
2  2 2 2  2  2
Since,
B C B π  A B  π A π  A 
− = −  − +  =B− + =− −  B + 
2 2 2 2  2 2 2 2 2  2 
On simplification, we get the required result.
The teacher may ask the students to refer to Example 3.63 to solve the problem.
We know that
b2 + c2 − a 2
cos A =
2 bc
Also,
1
∆ = bc sin A
2
By using the above two formulas, we get the required result.
In ∆ABI , (Figure 5) use law of sines to get the required result.
15°
135°
30° 45°
A 5km B
Figure 5
31

Here use law of cosines to get the required result (Refer to Figure 6).
10km
A B
6km x
60º
Figure 6
Here use area formula to get the required result (Refer to Figure 7).
0
12
a=
60˚
b=60
Figure 7
Here use law of cosines to get the required result (Refer to Figure 8).
d
30˚
β
α
C
E
Figure 8
32

Objective Type Questions
Hints may be given to selected problems as follows:
Question 3
x x
I = 4sin 2 x + 3sin 2 x + sin + cos
2 2
x x
3 + sin 2 x + sin
= + cos
2 2
x x
= 3 + 1 + 2 Maximum value of sin + cos is 3
2 2
(Refer to Example 3.53) Maximum value of sin x is 1. Thus, the maximum value is 4 + 2 .
Question 4
 π  3π   5π   7π 
1 + cos  1 + cos  1 + cos  1 + cos 
8 8 8 8
 π  3π   3π     π  
1 + cos 1 + cos
=  1 + cos  π −   1 + cos  π −   
 8  8   8     8  
 π  3π   3π   π
1 + cos  1 + cos  1 − cos  1 − cos 
=
8 8 8 8
 2 π  2 3π 
1 − cos 1 − cos
= 
 8  8 
π π π
= sin 2 sin 2  − 
8  2 8
1 2 π 2 π
=  4sin cos 
4 8 8
1
=
8
Question 5
2 + 2 + 2cos4θ = 2 + 2 (1 + cos4θ )
= 2 + 2 × 2cos 2 2θ
33

= 2 + 2 cos2θ
2 2 cos 2 since cos 2 is negative in the third quadrant
= 2sinθ
Question 14
We know that sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2C =

2 + 2cosAcosBcosC
Given that sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2C =

2
Thus, 2cosAcosBcosC = 0

⇒ cos
= A 0 or cos
= B 0 or cos
= C 0
π π π
= =A
or B = or C
2 2 2
Thus ∆ABC is a right angled triangle.
Question 15
The minimum value of sinθ + cosθ is 1.
Maximum value of sinθ + cosθ is 2 .
(
Thus, f (θ ) is in the interval 1, 2 . )
Question 16
cos6 x + 6cos4 x + 15cos2 x + 10

cos5 x + 5cos3 x + 10cosx
cos6 x + cos4 x + 5cos4 x + 5cos2 x + 10cos2 x + 10

=
2cos5 xcosx + 5 × 2cos3 xcosx + 10 × 2cos 2 x

=
2cosx ( cos5 x + 5cos3 x + 10cosx )

=
= 2cosx
3.3 Three Approaches for Trigonometric Functions

The teacher has to be ready to face questions like the following:
We know sin 0° =0 , cos 0° =0 , sin90o = 1 and cos90o = 0 . But when introducing sinθ and cosθ
34

we are provided with the following procedure to find sinθ and cosθ :
Draw a right angled triangle with one angle θ ; then
Opposite Side Adjacent Side

=sin θ = and cosθ .
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse
We have two questions:

•• How can we draw a triangle with one angle 0 ?
•• How can we draw a triangle with two angles 90o as the total of the angles of a triangle is 180˚?
To answer such questions, teacher may rewrite the definition of sinθ and cos θ as follows:
Let a ray starting from origin making an angle θ with the positive direction of x -axis be drawn.
Let Y be any point on the ray and X be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point Y to the
x -axis. Let r be the distance of the point Y from the origin along the ray. (Note that r is defined as
the distance from the origin to Y and not as the distance between the origin and Y .)
y − coordinate of Y x − coordinate of X
Then sin θ = . cos θ = and other quantities tan θ , secθ ,
r r
sin θ
co secθ and cot θ be defined in the usual way like tan θ = .
cos θ
This may be explained using the following four figures.
Y
Y
+ve
+ve
ϴ ϴ
+ve X X -ve
Figure 9 Figure 10
X -ve +ve X
ϴ ϴ
-ve -ve
Y Y
Figure 11 Figure 12
When the angle θ is an integral multiples of 90˚. That is, when θ is 0, ±90o , ±180 and so on. In
fact, these things have to be discussed after studying the concept of limit if we adopt the definition
35

through right angled triangle. However, when θ is 0˚,the Y -coordinate of the point Y will be 0 and
0
hence sin 0o= = 0 . The teacher may ask the students to discuss cos 0° , cos 90o , and some more
r
such quantity.
The teacher may use this to explain the concept of extending a definition to a larger domain. While
extending like this the basic definition should be meaningful in the new words. The definition of
sin θ using right angled triangle is meaningful only in the first quadrant, whereas the new definition
matches with the old one and at the same time it holds for any angle.
This chapter is the place where students start to learn sine and cosine as functions. So the teacher
has to take time to explain this. Students come across sin θ in three different approaches:
1. Through right angled triangle.
2. Through circular measure of angle.
3. As a function from  →  .
This is also the place where they study angle in radian measure. So the teacher has to insist the
students to write like sin 30o instead of writing sin 30 , when writing in degree measure.
Using the circular measure approach explained in detail in the book, the teacher has to link the
three approaches.
Further...
• Prove that a line through origin cannot make angle 30° with both x-axis and y-axis
simultaneously, using trigonometry.
• The sum of the angles of a triangle drawn on a sphere (spherical triangle) need not be 180°
36

4 Combinatorics and
n!
CHAPTER Mathematical Induction
“A good head and a good heart are always a formidable combination”
– Nelson Mandela
COMBINATORICS
Principle of
counting
Relation between
Combination Permutation and Permutation
Combination
Properties
Permutation of Permutation of
not all distinct distinct objects
Combination with
criteria like atleast,
utmost, inclusion Permutation with Permutation with
and exclusion restrictions restrictions
no two objects objects are objects are no two objects objects are objects are
are together never together together are together never together together
4.1 A Motivation
A Passenger in a Bus
37

The teacher may explain the following situation and ask the question given at the end.
The last bus of the day for a village is starting from the bus stand fully crowded. It is a cold rainy
night. An old man, standing alone, was stopping the bus to get in. In humanities consideration, the
driver stopped the bus so that the old man can get in. he got in and the bus started its way towards the
village. After some distance another woman with a child stopped the bus so that she could also get in.
At first the driver refused to stop but on seeing the child he stopped the bus and allowed the lady to get
in. Then after some distance, another man tried to stop the bus to get in. Now the question is
Can one accommodate a person into the bus whatever be the number of person inside the bus?
After asking this question the teacher may allow the students for a discussion. There may be two
opinions. Students of humanity nature may vote to accommodate the person. A few students may take
a stand against. The teacher without telling any answer may leave the problem stating that
“ We shall continue this after completing this chapter".
The Inclusion - Exclusion Principle
This principle is explained in detail in the textbook. While explaining the concept, an example is
considered. Some text is missing at the end. In fact, the number of positive integers divisible by 2 or 7
(but not both), is n( A ∆ B) according to the notations used in the textbook. The typing came to an end
after finding n ( A ∪ B ) . So the teacher is asked to instruct students to include the following two lines:
n ( A∆B ) = n ( A ∪ B ) − n ( A ∩ B ) = 571 − 71 = 500.

Thus the number of positive integers divisible by 2 or 7 (but not both), is 500.
Example 4.19
When solving this problem one may form the equation n ! = 24n and get ( n − 1)! =
24 from which
one can get n = 5 . Whenever the teacher suggest more than one way to solve a problem the teacher
may tell the students to find more and more techniques to solve such problems.
The Rank of a Word in the Dictionary
This term is defined as the place at which the given word comes when writing all the words formed
by the letters of the given word in the dictionary order or lexicographic order. The teacher may ask
the students to first form all possible words using the letters in the word “CAT" and arrange them
in dictionary order. Mainly the teacher has to explain that by a word we mean a sequence of letters
without worrying about the meaning. Next they have to explain about the reason for not including
words like “A", “AA" and “AAC" in the above arrangement. A simple reason is if we include words
38

like “A", “AA", then we have to include infinite number of words just using “A" only. When discussing
rank of a word, it is customary to write the words using all letters used in the given word. So we use
the word word, as a string formed by using all the letters, once and only once, of the given word. The
teacher has to note that our aim is not to arrange words (mostly meaningless) in a dictionary; our aim
is learn combinatorics using this example.
If a letter is repeated, say twice, in the given word, then the letter is used twice in the listed word.
The teacher may give some workout by giving words like “WELL".
To solve the problem a hint may be given for the third sub question. The numbers between 999 and
10000 in which at least one of the digits is repeated is same as the total number of numbers between
999 and 10000 minus the numbers between 999 and 10000 in which no digit is repeated.
This may be linked with the problem of counting the number of consonants in English. Instead
counting the consonants we may count the number of vowels and subtract it from 26.
The Induction Principle
The mathematical induction is a very good tool to prove many results. Most of the students may
not know the formula to compute
14 + 24 + 34 + …+ n 4 .
But at the end of mathematical induction section the student must be able to challenge to prove the
formula to add the first n terms of the series 14 + 24 + 34 +… provided the formula is given.
The mathematical induction also helps us use our words carefully! If somebody asks a place to
stand in a ground, can we give a place whatever be the crowd in the ground? If we say “yes", then we
cannot argue against the following:
If there are n persons in the ground, then after giving a place, the strength will be n + 1 . By
induction principle, one can say that we can give a place to any number of persons; even to all persons
in the world. This is not possible.
So we, well versed with induction principle, have to answer the question only after knowing some
more facts like the number of persons in the ground, the capacity of the ground and so on.
4.3 Some interesting puzzles

The teacher may give many puzzles like
i. All horses are of the same colour.
ii. All natural numbers are equal.
iii. All natural numbers are even.
39

5 Binomial Theorem, Sequences
CHAPTER and Series
“Identify the sequence of stages that leads to turning your dreams into reality”
– Sunday Adelaja
Binomial Theorem & Sequences and Series
Pascal Triangle
Binomial Sequences Series

Theorem
Arithmetic Finite Series Infinite Series

Progression (AP)
Geometric Arithmetic Series

Progression (GP)
Telescopic Telescopic
Method Method
Harmonic Geometric Series
Progression (HP)
Arithmetic
Series
Arithmetico- Arithmetico-Geometric
Geometric Series
Progression Geometric
Series
Fibonacci Binomial Series

Sequence Arithmetico
Geometric
Series
Logarithmic Series
Exponential Series
5.1 A Motivation
Chess Board
40

The teacher may ask the students to tell the number of squares in the chess board; the immediate
answer will be 64. Then the teacher may ask the students about counting other square, for example the
4 squares together in the left-top. So the students may tell it is much more than 64. Using permutations
and combinations, the teacher may get the answer as 12 + 22 + 32 +  + 82 . Telling them to wait till the
end of the chapter to find such sums.
The teacher may ask the students to find the last digit of 112018 . Everyone will feel, if they do not know
any technique, the problem is a toughest one. The teacher may tell the students that after completing
this chapter everyone can easily find it out.
After reading the problems solved in the books and the exercise problems, the teacher may use one
or two to motivate the students towards the chapter.
Hints on Identified Parts
The notation Cr is used in this problem. This notation is used by many authors. This notation Cr
replaces the notation nCr when n is fixed throughout the problem.
Arithmetico-Geometric Series
The teacher may solve, (or at least give some hints to solve) some more problems in Arithmetico-
geometric series. As mentioned earlier, the teacher can ask the sum of some series which are not
Arithmetico-geometric series, but can be converted into Arithmetico-geometric series. For example
the teacher may ask to find the sum of the series
1 2 1 1 1
12 + 22 + 3 2 + 42 3 + 52 4 + ….
5 5 5 5
If we denote the given series as S , then
1 1 1 1 1 1
S =12 + 22 2 + 32 3 + 42 4 + 52 5 + ….
5 5 5 5 5 5
After subtraction, we get
4 1 1 1 1 1
5
S= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 + 22 − 12 + 32 − 22 2 + 42 − 32 3 + 52 − 42 4 + 62 − 52 5 +….
5 5 5 5 5
)
On simplification, we get
4 3 5 7 9
1
S =+ + + + +…
5 5 52 53 54
which is an Arithmetico-geometric series. Using this we can find S .

41

Telescopic Method
Telescopic method is also known as difference method. The following problems can be discussed
under telescopic summation.
1 1 1
• Find the sum: + + + ….
1⋅ 3 3 ⋅ 5 5 ⋅ 7
• Find the sum up to n terms: 1 ⋅1!+ 2 ⋅ 2!+ 3 ⋅ 3!+ 4 ⋅ 4!+… .
In the first problem the n -th term tn of the series can be written as
1
tn =
( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)
1× 2
=
2 ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)
=
( 2n + 1) − ( 2n − 1)
2 ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)
1 1 1 
=  − .
2 2n − 1 2n + 1
This can be solved using telescopic method.
In the second problem the n -th term tn of the series can be written as
tn = n ⋅ n ! = ( n + 1 − 1) n != ( n + 1) n !− n !.
From this we write S n = ( n + 1)!− 1!.
The students may need some hint to solve this problem. The following hint may be given:
1
 p−qn 1 p − q
1 1
1 + 1+ 
p  2 p  n  ( p + q) + ( p − q)  n  p+q n p + q 
=
n
=   =    ≈
q  2q   ( p + q) − ( p − q)  1−
p−q
 1 p − q
1− 
 p+q n p + q 
The greatest coefficient of the binomial expansion is nC n when n is even and it is nC n −1 and nC n+1
2 2 2
when n is odd. Since we have strict inequality " > " in the question, there must be only one middle
42

term. Therefore n must be even and hence n = 20 .
5.3 Binomial Series – A Useful Technique

In the textbook, binomial theorem is discussed for positive integers and then for rational indices.
Students aiming at competitive examinations have to have certain expansions in memory. For example,
1 −1
(1 + x) −2 , (1 − x) −2 , (1 + x) −1 , (1 − x) −1 , (1 + x) 2 , (1 + x) 2 are some of the important functions for which

such expansions are used widely in competitive exams.
However, there is a simple method to write any such expansion. For this we need the notation
 n  n(n − 1)(n − 2) … ( r terms )
 = .
r  r!
It is interesting to note that the right hand side of this notation is nothing but the one we used for
n n
Cr . We can use this notation   for any real value n , positive or negative, even be zero and for
r 
non negative integer r.
 −1   −1   −1   −1   −3   −5 
 1     − 1  − 2   1     
−
 2  =  2  2  2   −   2   2   2  −5
For example, and=
hence  2  = .
  3!  3 6 16
 3  
Using this notation we can write (1 ± x) n for any real number n as
n  n  n 
1 +   x +   x 2 +   x 3 + It is very interesting to note that this expansion holds even
(1 + x) n =
1 2 3
for n = 0 and for any positive integer n .
Applications
Since polynomials are used to describe curves of various types, peoples use them in real world to
graph curves. For example, rollercoaster designers are using polynomials to describe curves in their
rides.
Combinations of polynomial functions are used in economics to do cost analysis.
43

6 Two Dimensional
( x, y )
CHAPTER Analytical Geometry
“Where there is matter, there is geometry”
– Johannes Kepler
TWO DIMENSIONAL ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Pair Of Families Of
Locus Straight Lines
Straight Lines Straight Lines
Slope - One point form Standard form Angle between

two lines
Two - points form

T General Form Condition for
parallel and
perpendicular
lines
Angle between
Slope - Intercept form
i off straight
pair t i ht
lines
Intercept form Equation of

pair of
bisector lines
General form
Special Form
Normal Form Parametric Form
6.1 A Motivation
GPS - How it works?
Many smart phones now a day have a facility called GPS. What is GPS? GPS is the abbreviation for
Global Positioning System. It positions the phone in the globe.
A system of satellites in the sky in a network is used to locate the positions. Each of the satellites
repeatedly sends signals that contain the location of the satellite and the time of transmission. As
signals travel at the speed of light, they reach a GPS receiver at slightly different times. The GPS receiver
can tell how far away each satellite is by how long it took for the satellite signal to reach it.
44

Let us think of four satellites S1, S2, S3, and S4. The distance of the receiver from S1 determines
a sphere in which the receiver is. The distance of the receiver from S2 determines another sphere in
which the receiver is. These two spheres together determine a circle on which the receiver is. This
circle together with the third sphere determined by S3 determines two possible points for the receiver
and the fourth sphere corresponding to S4, fix the location of the GPS receiver.
Many people think that the GPS receivers transmit data to satellites! In reality, they only receive
signals (that is why they are called receivers) and then mathematics does the rest. Analytical geometry
helps us to locate the points in plane, space and so on.
The concept of locus is very important in almost all fields of movement. Analytical geometry is
the basic level tool to know about locus. So the teacher may motivate the students to study analytical
geometry.

GLOBAL POSITION
Locus
The term “locus” is defined as the path traced by a moving point. As every path in real life is
continuous, intuitively we feel that any “locus” is “continuous” (the term continuous will be given a
more mathematical meaning in Chapter 9). This is not so. For example locus of a point moving at a
distance 3 from x -axis is the union of two lines y = 3 and y = −3 . (See Exercise 6.1, Question 2)
Moreover, the locus of a point need not be a function from  to  . For example, the locus of a
point moving at a distance 3 from y -axis is the union of two lines x = 3 and x = −3 . These curves
45

cannot be written as a function of x (To write the equation of the line x = 3 as a function on  we
need parametric representation).
The teacher may insist the students to take note of these two points
i. The curve given as a locus need not be a “continuous" curve.
ii. Not all loci can be written as a function y of x like y = f ( x ) .
If P ( x, y ) is the midpoint of OR , then R is ( 2 x, 2 y ) . As R lies on y 2 = 4 x , we have
(2 y ) 2= 4 × ( 2 x ) which implies that y 2 = 2 x . The teacher may make the students to note that the
resulting curve is also a parabola.
Exercises 6.1, Question 14
There are two curves in this problem and we have to find the common points. One curve is the
locus of a point which moves in such a way that it’s distance from x -axis is 3 units. Clearly the locus
is y = ±3 . The other curve is the locus of a point which moves in such a way that its distance from the
point ( 5,1) is 5 units. Clearly the locus is a circle with centre ( 5,1) and radius 5. It is asked to find
the common points to these two curves.
The teacher may ask the students to construct different problems so that the lines may cut the circle,
may be tangents, one cut the circle and other do not, and so on.
The teacher may insist the students to write all steps starting from what they take as x -axis, what
is their y -axis, what is the domain and so on.
As it is asked to find the equation relating to the quantity of the gas in the cylinder, f ( 0) has to be
taken as 14.2 and not as 29.5 . The teacher may use the graph of this problem to introduce the concept
of periodic functions.
The problem can be settled at once we open the vertical surface of the cuboid into a rectangle (This
can be done only by a mathematician without any strain!). However, then the problem is to discuss
about a straight line joining the two corners of a rectangle (see Figure 13).
All the questions asked in the exercise may be easily answered using Figure 13.
46

Figure 13
Image
The term image is used in the textbook here and there, in the common man sense. For example see
Example 6.30, Question 13 of Exercise 6.3. The teacher may tell the students that the image of a point
with respect to a line is taken as the mirror image considering the line as a mirror and the point as the
object. Mathematically, if P' is the image of a point P with respect to a line  , then it means that P'
lies on the perpendicular drawn from P to  , P' lies on the other side of  and the distance of P' to
 and P to  are equal.
The teacher may help the students by bringing the function
1.50 x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 10
f ( x) = 
15 + ( x − 10 ) if x ≥ 10
No hint is need for this problem. The teacher may ask the students to draw a help figure, and settle
the problem step by step. Finding point of intersection, finding midpoint, forming equations are all
well known to the students.
The teacher may tell the geometrical meaning to the students and ask them to settle the problem
analytically.
Euclid Geometry and Analytical Geometry
Need of Geometry arouse during the issues of land partitions in ancient times. Now Let us pose a
question. Is it possible to prove that a line intersects at only two points on a circle by using Euclid’s
method? Definitely not. In Euclid Geometry, the notion of points, lines, planes are not defined.
Their meanings are assumed. Euclid’s Geometry contains many axioms.
In the Modern Era, we ought to make the computer to understand the meaning of Geometrical
Concepts. At this juncture, Euclid’s Geometry lacks rigour. But analytical geometry settles all this
issues. In Analytical Geometry a circle is nothing but a second degree polynomial equation and
47

a straight line is a linear equation. By solving this two equations analytically one can easily prove
that at most two points in can satisfy both the equations simultaneously. In other words, a
straight line and a circle can intersect at most at two points.
Similarly we can prove many axioms assumed in Euclid Geometry through Analytical Geometry.
References
1. George Pólya, How to Solve it, Doubleday Anchor Books, New York, (1957).
2. Ya. Perelman, Figures for Fun, Mir Publishers, (1958). (Indian Edition by Nava Karnataka
Publications, Bengaluru.)
3. Richard Courant, Herbert Robbins, What is Mathematics, Oxford University Press, New York
(1996).
4. Math Fun Facts. 〈 http://www.math.hmc.edu/funfacts 〉
5. http://www.padowan
48

MATHS – XI
List of Participants – Teachers’ Resource Book
Authors
1. Dr. R. Vembu 8.Veeraragavan C.S

Associate Professor (Retired), SBK College, PGT, Sri Krishnaa MHSS,
Aruppukottai – 626 101 TVS Nagar,
Coimbatore.
2. G.Palani
Assistant Professor, Dr.Ambedkar Govt 9. Dr.K.Venkateswaran
Arts College, Vyasarpadi, Chennai Academic Director ,
AVB Matric HSS,
Coimbatore – 641020
3. Madhivanan
Headmaster,
Model School, Art and Design Team
Karimangalam,
Chief Co-ordinator and Creative Head
Dharmapuri, 635205
Srinivasan Natarajan
4. A.Balamurugan
Illustration
PGT,Adhiyaman GBHSS,
S.V.Gokulakrishnan
Dharmapuri Dt
Layout & In-House
5.N.Kalaiselvam Pakkirisamy Annadurai
PGT, Corpn. School
Nungambakkam,Chennai Co-ordination
Ramesh Munisamy
6. Palani Sivapragasam
PGT
Tiruvalluvar HSS
Gudiyatham
7. Dr. K. Thirumurugan
PGT,Govt HSS
Valuthavur
Villupuram District
49

11th Maths Teachers Hand Book - FINAL

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY-FIRST YEAR

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Department of School Education

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NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational Re-

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

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Mathematics Teacher's Handbook

1 Sets, Relations and Functions 8

4 Combinatorics and Mathematical Induction 37

5 Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series 40

6 Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry 44

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Teacher's Handbook Writing Team

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Using this Handbook

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Examples in this Handbook

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Volume I of the textbook contains six chapters.

Sets, Relations and Functions

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¾¾ Graphical representation of many inequalities is the highlight of this chapter.

¾¾ Logarithm is dealt in a deep way with many examples.

¾¾ Trigonometric identities are obtained and used as applications of triangle.

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Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series

This chapter contains a few new ideas. They are

Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry

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Chapter No. of Periods

Sets, Relations and Functions 21

Combinatorics and Mathematical Induction 17

Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series 17

Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry 18

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REAL LINE , INTERVALS

WAYS OF ONE-TO-ONE, SPECIAL GRAPHING

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Page 3: n ( ∅ ) =0 and n ({∅}) =

Page 4: Is it correct to say A

{(1,1) , (1, 2 ) , ( 2,1) , ( 2, 2 )} whereas

This example uses the following three properties:

i. If P is any set, P ∩ Q ⊆ P whatever be the set Q .

ii. If P is any set, P ⊆ P ∪ Q whatever be the set Q .

iii. If P, Q, R are sets so that P ⊆ Q ⊆ R , then P ⊆ R .

Example 1.4 Counting Subsets of a Set

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set {6,7,8,9,10} and using it we solve the problem.

P P      ,  (1.2)

by p . Then A = { p} and P P     is P ( A) which is equal to {∅, A} . So P P      , 

To explain (1.3) call P P     as B . Then B = { p, A} and hence

Replacing p and A by ∅ and {∅} we get (1.3).

Exercise 1.1 Question 1(iv)

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This question has many answers. For example, { x ∈  : x = 1} and { x ∈  : x 2 =

Exercise 1.1 Question 5

A = {1, {1} } , then

P P , (1.2)

by p . Then A = { p} and P P is P ( A) which is equal to {∅, A} . So P P ,

To explain (1.3) call P P as B . Then B = { p, A} and hence