Definition of Science Observations

 An organized way of using evidence to learn  To gather…

about the natural world.
 Information
 The body of knowledge that scientists have
built up after years of testing proposed  Evidence
explanations.  Data
Goals of Science Inference
 Investigate and understand nature  Follows an observation
 Explain events in nature  A logical interpretation based on prior
 Make useful predictions knowledge and experience

 Never stop questioning  Uses what you know to figure something out

Importance of Science Observations

 Science helps us to understand the world  This step could also be called "research." It is
around us and to appreciate it's complexities the first stage in understanding the problem

 It underlies our health, our work, our  Example: The tomatoes in the garden. You like
to garden, and notice that some tomatoes are
communications, our entertainment and our
transport bigger than others and wonder why.

 It permeates our lives and informs our actions Hypothesis

 Science is a way of thinking, fun, dynamic,  A tentative statement that proposes a possible
constantly changing explanation to some phenomenon or event

Importance of Science  Attempts to

explain a set
 Science contributes to our understanding of of observations
health and disease and enables medical
progress  May arise from
logical inferences
 It shows us our impact on the environment and
our world Conclusion

 It empowers us to make technological  This is a summary of the experiment's

results, and how those results match up to
advancements
your hypothesis.
 As scientific knowledge grows, so does our
understanding of the universe A Good Scientist
  What qualities make for a good  Matter: Anything that has mass and volume
scientist?
1. MIXTURE – has variable composition, the
 Curious proportions that make up the mixture vary and
can be separated by physical methods
Honest

 Open minded
 Mixtures can be classified as homogeneous or
 Persistent heterogeneous.
 Skeptical – A. HOMOGENEOUS – having visibly (to the
 Patient and careful naked eye) indistinguishable parts
Example: wine, air
 Recognize limitations
of science – B. HETEROGENEOUS – having visibly
distinguishable parts
 Believe in cause and effect
Example: wood, soil
 Concern for mankind
SOLUTION – a homogeneous mixture
Chemistry Unit Notes
Examples: air (a gaseous solutions), wine (a
Branches of Chemistry liquid solution), brass (a solid solution of
copper and zinc)
 Organic Chemistry - the study of carbon and its
compounds; the study of the chemistry of life. . PURE SUBSTANCES – have constant
composition and can only be separated by
 Inorganic Chemistry - the study of compounds
chemical reactions
which do not contain a C-H bond. Many
inorganic compounds are those which contain
metals.
Elements and compounds are pure substances.
 Biochemistry - the study of chemical processes
that occur inside of living organisms.

 Analytical Chemistry - the study of the ELEMENTS - substances that cannot be

chemistry of matter and the development of decomposed into simpler substances by
tools used to measure properties of matter. chemical or physical means

 Physical Chemistry - the branch of chemistry

that applies physics to the study of chemistry. COMPOUNDS – substance with constant
Commonly this includes the applications of composition that can be broken down into
thermodynamics and quantum mechanics to
elements by chemical processes
chemistry.
 Mass: Amount of matter in an object
Basic Vocabulary
 Weight: Measure of the force of attraction
between objects due to mass and gravity
 Volume: Amount of space an object takes up
 Density: Measurement of how much mass is
contained in a given volume
 Intensive properties: do not depend on the
amount of matter that is present. Examples of
intensive properties include boiling point,
density and state of matter.
 Extensive properties: do depend on the
amount of matter that is present. Examples of
extensive properties include volume, mass and
size.
More Vocabulary
 Atoms: Smallest particle of an element that
has all the properties of matter: BEFORE
– Protons- particles in the nucleus with positive
charge
– Electrons- particles orbiting around nucleus
with negative charge
– Neutrons- particles in the nucleus with no
charge
 Elements: Simplest form of a pure substance
 Compounds: Two or more elements chemically
combined to form a new substance
 Valence Electrons
 An electron on the outermost energy shell of
an atom
 Important to understand because this is a key
factor in how atoms will BOND with each other
 Octet rule – stable atom will have 8 electrons
in that outer shell
Types of Chemical Bonds
 Ionic- Two elements bond by transferring
electrons to create ions that attract together (+
is attracted to - after an electron is transferred)
 Covalent- Two elements bond by sharing
electrons (strongest bond type)
 Metallic- Two metals bond and form a
“common electron cloud”. This is a cluster of
shared electrons (weakest bond type)
 Predicting Bonds
 Ionic Bond = metal to non-metal
 Covalent = non-metal to non-metal
 Metallic = metal to metal
Chemical vs. Physical Change
– Physical Change: A change that can occur
without changing the identity of the
substance.
– Ex. Solid, Liquid, Gas (Phase change)
– Chemical Change: Process by which a
substance becomes a new and different
substance
– Ex. Fire
– Chemical Reactions
– Chemical Reaction: a process in which the
physical and chemical properties of the original
substance change as new substances with
different physical and chemical properties are
formed
– Chemical Reaction Basics
– H2 + O2 --> H2O
– Reactants- substance that enters into a
reaction
– Products- substance that is produced by a
chemical reaction
– Evidence of Chemical Change
 EPOCH is an acronym that stands for evidence
that a chemical reaction has occurred.
 – Effervescence (bubbles and/or gives off
gas)
 – Precipitate (solid crystals form)
 – Odor (change of smell is detected)
 – Color change
 – Heat (reaction either heats up or cools
down)
 Does sighting evidence of a chemical reaction
mean that a chemical reaction has
undoubtedly taken place?
 Types of Reactions
Romance Chemistry :)
 Synthesis- Marriage/Dating
 A + B = AB
 Decomposition- Divorce/Breakup
 AB= A + B
 Single-Replacement- Dance Cut In
 A + BC = AC + B
 Double-Replacement- Dancing couples switch
partners.
 AB + CD = AC + BD
Conservation of Mass
 Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
 What goes in must come out.
 So we must balance equations to conserve
mass.
Solution Chemistry
 Mixtures: Matter that consists of two or more
substances mixed but not chemically combined
 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixture in which one
substance is dissolved into another
 Solute = Substance that gets dissolved (ex.
Kool-Aid powder)
 Solvent = Substance that does the dissolving
(ex. Water)
 Acid: Compound with a pH below 7 that tastes
sour and is a proton donor.
 Ex. Citrus foods
 Base: Compound with a pH above 7 that tastes
bitter and is a proton acceptor
 Ex. Cleaning Products (soap)
Acids and Bases
- Solutions can be acidic or basic
- Acids and Bases have unique properties
when dissolved in water
- Acids = sour taste
- Bases = bitter taste
- Indicators are substances that change
color when mixed with a solution,
which helps to determine if a substance
is an acid or a base. (pH paper, Litmus
paper, cabbage juice)
Acids  3rd Law – For every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
 Proton donors (H+)
1st Law of Motion
 Acids contain hydrogen and produce
(Law of Inertia)
positive ions (H+) when dissolved in
water An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object
in motion will stay in motion at constant
 Acids = good electrolytes velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced
 Examples of acids: force.

– Lemon Juice 2nd Law

– Citric Acid F=mxa

– Carbonic Acid 3rd Law

– HCl For every action, there is an equal and

opposite reaction
Bases
According to Newton, whenever objects A and
 Proton acceptors B interact with each other, they exert forces
upon each other. When you sit in your chair,
 Bases contain hydroxide ions (OH-)
your body exerts a downward force on the
when mixed with water.
chair and the chair exerts an upward force on
 Bases = weak electrolytes your body.

 Examples of bases:  Consider the flying motion of birds. A

– Ammonia
– Soap
Bleach (chlorine)
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s Laws of Motion
 1st Law – An object at rest will stay at
rest, and an object in motion will stay in
motion at constant velocity, unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force.
 2nd Law – Force equals mass times
acceleration.
bird flies by use of its wings. The wings
of a bird push air downwards. In turn,
the air reacts by pushing the bird
upwards.
 The size of the force on the air equals
the size of the force on the bird; the
direction of the force on the air
(downwards) is opposite the direction
of the force on the bird (upwards).
 Action-reaction force pairs make it
possible for birds to fly.
Age of the Earth
Relative Dating
It is a basic idea, which scientists utilize to
determine the order in which rock layers
formed.
Law of Superposition
According to the Law of Superposition, layer 1
was the first layer deposited, therefore it is the
oldest layer. The last layer deposited was layer
12, and thus it is the youngest layer.
Principle of Original Horizontality
sedimentary rock layers that are not horizontal
have been tilted or deformed by crustal
movements that happened after the layers
formed.
Unconformities
A break in the geologic record is called an
unconformity. An unconformity shows that
deposition stopped for a period of time, and
rock may have been removed by erosion
before deposition resumed.
*Unconformities
These are gaps or empty spaces between
layers of rock
Nonconformity
An unconformity in which stratified (layers) of
rock rests upon unstratified rock.
Angular unconformity
The boundary between a set of tilted layers
and a set of horizontal layers
Disconformity
The boundary between horizontal layers of old
sedimentary rock and younger, overlying layers
that are deposited on an eroded surface
Crosscutting Relationships
fault or intrusion is always younger than all the
rocks it cuts through above and below the
unconformity.
Priciple of Cross-cutting
it states that the geologic feature which cuts
another is the younger of the two features.
5 Types of cross-cutting
Structural
A fault or fracture cuts through an older rock.
Stratigraphic
An erosional surface or unconformity cuts
across older rock layers, geological structures,
or other geological features.
Sedimentological
Occur where currents have eroded or scoured
older sediment in a local area to produce, for
example, a channel filled with sand.
Paleontologic
Occur where animal activity or plant growth
produces truncation. This happens, for
example, where animal burrows penetrate into
pre-existing sedimentary deposits.
Geomorphic
Occur where a surficial feature, such as a river,
flows through a gap in a ridge of rock. In a
similar example, an impact crater excavates
into a subsurface layer of rock.
Principle of faunal succession
is based on the observation that sedimentary
rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna,
and that these fossils succeed each other
vertically in a specific, reliable order that can
be identified over wide horizontal distances.
The earlier fossil life forms are simpler than
more recent forms, and more recent forms are
most similar to existing forms
The Geological Time Scale
Geological time scale
 Is a record of the life forms and
geological events in Earth’s history.
 Through studying rock layers and fossils
world wide.
 Radioactive dating helped determine
the absolute divisions in the time scale.
Timeline Divisions
 Eon (billion years or more)
 Era (hundred million years)
 Period (tens of millions of years)
Eon
 Hadean (4.6 to 3.8 BYA)
 Molten Earth was bombarded by
meteors
Eon
 Archean (3.8 BYA to 2.5 BYA)
 The oceans had formed and
microscopic bacteria spread
Eon
 Proterozoic (2.5 BYA to 542 MYA)
 Evolution of eukaryotic and
multicellular life.
Eon
 Phanerozoic (542 MYA to present)
 Evolution of life which still continuing
up to this this present time.
Paleonzoic Era
 Silurian Period (443 to 417 MYA)
 the diversification of jawed and
bony fish
Paleonzoic Era
 Devonian Period (417 to 359 MYA)
 the first major vegetation had already
happened.
 Also the age of fishes
Paleonzoic Era
 Carboniferous Period (359 to 299 MYA)
 Amphibians were the dominant land
vertebrates, of which one branch would
eventually evolve into reptiles
Paleonzoic Era
 Permian Period (298.9 to 252.2 MYA)
 the largest mass extinction recorded in
the history of life on Earth. Formation
of Pangea.
Era (Phanerozoic Eon)
Mesozoic Era – (the age of Dinosaurs “the
middle life”) which is divided into 3 periods
 • Triassic Period Cenozoic Era

• Jurassic Period  Neogene Period (23.3 to 2.58 MYA)

• Cretaceous Period  mammals and

Mesozoic Era  birds continued to evolve into roughly

modern forms.
 Triassic Period (252.2 to 200 MYA)
 The last Ice Age.
 Life of reptiles begun.
Cenozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
 Quaternary Period (23.3 MYA to
 Jurassic Period (200 to 145.5 MYA) Present day)
 The age of reptiles.  Divided into two Pleistocene and
 The first bird also appeared Holocene. Modern

Jurassic Period) Mesozoic Era  humans

Mesozoic Era  evolved about 190,000 years ago

 Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 66 MYA) Continental Drift

 The longest period of • 1910s Theory

the Phanerozoic Eon, spanning 79 • By Alfred Wegener
million years. The end of Dinosaurs.
• Before Plate Tectonics
Era (Phanerozoic Eon)

Cenozoic Era – (the age of new life) which is

divided into 3 periods

• Paleogene Period

• Neogene Period

• Quaternary Period

Cenozoic Era

 Paleogene Period (66 to 23.3 MYA)

 Mammals

 began a rapid diversification during this

period.
 – 100 km thick

– Less dense than the material below it so

it “floats”

What is the Asthenosphere?

• The plastic layer below the lithosphere =

asthenosphere

• The plates of the lithosphere float on the

asthenosphere

Continental Drift + Sea Floor Spreading = Plate Tectonics

2 Types of Plates

• Ocean plates - plates below the oceans

• Continental plates - plates below the continents

Plate Boundaries

Theory of Plate Tectonics Divergent Boundaries

Plate Tectonics • Boundary between two plates that are moving apart
or rifting
Plate Boundaries

Causes of Plate Tectonics
• RIFTING causes SEAFLOOR SPREADING
Plate Tectonics
Features of Divergent Boundaries
What is the Lithosphere?
• Mid-ocean ridges
• The crust and part of the upper mantle =
lithosphere • rift valleys

• fissure volcanoes
Convergent Boundaries • Have Collision Zones:

• Boundaries between two plates that are colliding – a place where folded and thrust faulted
mountains form.


• There are 3 types…

Type 1

• Ocean plate colliding with a less dense continental

plate

• Subduction Zone: where the less dense plate slides

under the more dense plate

• VOLCANOES occur at subduction zones Causes of Plate

Tectonics

Convection Currents

• Hot magma in the Earth moves toward the surface,

cools, then sinks again.

• Creates convection currents beneath the plates

that cause the plates to move.

Type 2

• Ocean plate colliding with another ocean plate

• The less dense plate slides under the more dense

plate creating a subduction zone called a TRENCH

Type 3

• A continental plate colliding with another

continental plate
 is an earthquake along a thrust fault that does not
show signs on the Earth's surface

Harmonic Tremor

describes a long-duration release of seismic energy, with

distinct spectral (harmonic) lines, that often precedes or
accompanies a volcanic eruption

Earthquake Interplate Earthquake

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of is an earthquake that occurs at the boundary between two
energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. tectonic plates.

Mechanism of Earthquake Megathrust Earthquake

1st Begins in Faults it occur at subduction zones at destructive plate boundaries,

these earthquakes are among the world's largest, with
2nd Stick and slip or moment magnitudes that can exceed 9.0.
“Slip-Stick Phenomenon” Slow Earthquake
3rd Release of Seismic Wave a discontinuous, earthquake-like event that releases energy
over a period of hours to months, rather than the seconds to
Seismic Wave
minutes characteristic of a typical earthquake.
 Energy wave produced
Reverse Faults
during earthquake
Formed when rock strata are pushed together
Types of Seismic Wave

• P-waves, or primary waves and the

• S-waves, also known as secondary waves.

Types of Earthquakes

Aftershock

is a smaller earthquake that occurs after a previous large

earthquake.

Foreshock Tear Faults or Strike and Slip

is an earthquake that occurs before a larger seismic event Also known as a strike-slip fault. They are formed when plates
(the main shock) and is related to it in both time and space. slide past each other horizontally.

Blind Thrust Earthquake

 • Dormant

• Volcanoes

• “quiet” for the last hundred to thousands of years,

but still have potential to erupt.

• Extinct Volcanoes

• No eruption in historical times

• No signs of erupting again

Parts of volcano
What is a volcano?

A conical mountain formed around a vent where

lava, pyroclastic materials, and gases are erupted.

Types of Volcanoes
The OCEAN
. Volcanic activity:
 It is a body of saline water that composes a large
– Active part of a planet's hydrosphere.
– Dormant 5 Principal Oceanic Areas
– Extinct  Atlantic Ocean,
Active  Arctic Ocean
volcanoes  Indian Ocean
• activity in the last few centuries  Pacific Ocean
• Ex: Vesuvius, 79 A.D.  Southern Ocean
• (50 times in 2000 yr) In Ocean Zones
• Ex: Mt. St. Helens (1980)
Ocean Zones • Earth, Moon, and Sun are lined up
(shoreline to open ocean)
• High Tides are higher and Low Tides
 Intertidal Zone are lower than normal

 Neritic Zone

 Oceanic Zone

 Benthic Zone
Gravitational Effect of the Moon
Intertidal Zone
 Neap Tides
 Area between high tide line and low tide line
• Earth, Moon, and Sun form right
 Organisms adapted to harsh, changing angles
environments
• High Tides are lower and Low Tides
Neritic Zone are higher than normal
 Area over the continental shelf

 Area of greatest density and diversity of marine life

Oceanic Zone

 From the continental break out to open ocean

Benthic Zone

 The Ocean Floor

 Underlies all the other zones The Hydrologic Cycle

Tides There are five processes by which water moves

throughout each of the earth’s spheres
 The rise and fall in sea level is called a tide.
a condensation
 Caused by a giant wave.
aprecipitation
 One low-tide/high-tide cycle takes about 12 hrs
and 25 min. a infiltration

 Tidal range is the difference in ocean level a runoff

between high-tide and low-tide
aevapotranspiration
Gravitational Effect of the Moon
WATER
 Spring Tides
What is cool about WATER?

 Most of the earth's surface consists of water.

At least 70%.

 Saltwater 97%

 Glaciers 2%

 Freshwater 1%

 By weight, the average man is approximately

60% water.

The birth of water

Properties of Water

Universal Solvent

Water is the solvent of Life!

Solute – substance dissolved in a solvent to form a

solution
Properties of Water
Solvent – fluid that dissolves solutes
Covalent bonding vs. Hydrogen bonding
Example: Ice Tea – water is the solvent and tea and
sugar the solutes

Properties of Water

Cohesion, Adhesion and Surface Tension

cohesion = water attracted to other water

molecules because of polar properties

adhesion = water attracted to other materials

surface tension = water is pulled together creating

the smallest surface area possible

Properties of Water
Capillary Action  protects life on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming
Because water has both adhesive and cohesive the surface through heat retention.
properties, capillary action is present.
 It reduce temperature extremes
Capillary Action = water’s adhesive property is the cause between day and night.
of capillary action. Water is attracted to some other
material and then through cohesion, other water Different layers of the Atmosphere
molecules move too as a result of the original adhesion.
 Troposphere
Ex: Think water in a straw
 Stratosphere
Ex: Water moves through trees this way
 Mesosphere
High Heat Capacity
 Thermosphere
In order to raise the temperature of water, the average
molecular speed has to increase.  Exosphere

It takes much more energy to raise the temperature of Troposphere

water compared to other solvents because hydrogen  begins at the surface and extends to between
bonds hold the water molecules together! 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km
Water has a high heat capacity. (56,000 ft) at the equator.

“The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass  it is where all weather takes place.
required to raise the temperature by one degree Stratosphere
Celsius.”
 extends from the tropopause to about 50 km
Hydrophilic (32 mi; 170,000 ft).
Loves the water. It allows other substance to blend  Temperature increases with height due to
in. increased absorption of ultraviolet radiation by
Hydrophobic the ozone layer.

Water-repelling. Substances are keeps away from The Ozone Layer

the water.  The stratosphere contains a thin layer of ozone
Earth’s Atmosphere which absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun.
Atmosphere of Earth
Mesosphere
 is a layer of gases surrounding the
planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity.  It extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km
(50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft).

 It is the layer where most meteors burn up

upon entering the atmosphere.
  is the coldest place on Earth and has an  Carbon Dioxide - .037%
average temperature around −85 °C (−120 °F;
190 K)  Other gases make up the rest

Thermosphere Weather & Climate

 the thermosphere extends from 80 km above Weather & Climate Definitions

the Earth's surface to outer space. • Weather- “the state of the atmosphere with
 The temperature of this layer can rise to 1,500 respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness,
°C (2,700 °F) calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness”.

 The International Space Station orbits in this • Climate – “the average course or condition of
layer, between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 the weather at a place usually over a period of
mi) years as exhibited by temperature, wind
velocity, and precipitation”
Exosphere
High Pressure
 The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere
extends from the exobase upward. • Higher pressure than what is

 It is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. normal for that altitude.

 The particles are so far apart that they can

travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding • Brings clear skies and fair weather.
with one another.
– The sinking cold air warms as it does
so and becomes stable.

Low Pressure

• A low pressure region (depression

or cyclone) is caused by rising air.

• Clouds, rain, and very strong winds

occur.

4 Basic Cloud Types

Composition of Atmosphere
Cirrus
 Nitrogen - 78%
a wispy white cloud at a high altitude (4 to 8 miles), also
 Oxygen - 21% announcing a soon change in weather.

 Water Vapor – 0 to 4% Cumulus

thick, fluffy clouds that look like a big pile of cotton balls,
usually announcing a nice or sunny day
Nimbus
• a dark, gray cloud, usually holding rain or
another form of precipitation
Stratus
a cloud that forms in low (sometimes fog), dark layers,
that usually covers all of most of the sky
Elements of Weather
• Wind - Caused by the earth’s surface
being heated unevenly by the sun.
• Temperature – The hotness or coldness of the
atmosphere.
• Precipitation - Moisture from the sky e.g. rain,
snow etc.
• Humidity - The amount of water vapor in the air.
• Cloud cover - The amount of cloud in the sky.
• Sunshine – Sun’s exposure.
• Air pressure - The "weight" of the air .
Temperature & Humidity
• Temperature - Air higher in pressure is usually
cooler air and air lower in pressure is usually
warmer air.
• Dew point - Temperature at which the moisture
saturates the air.
Other terminologies
• Monsoon – seasonal changes in atmospheric
circulation. Amihan or northeast wind “Cool
breeze” Habagat or southwest wind “Humid”.
• Cold Front – is the leading edge of a cooler
mass of air, replacing (at ground level) a
warmer mass of air.
• Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) - band
of clouds, usually thunderstorms, that circle
the globe near the equator.
Global Wind System
• These are wind patterns named after the
direction from which they blow
• The globe is encircled by six major wind belts.
Type of Breezes
• Sea Breeze - a wind that blows from the ocean
inland towards land.
• Land Breeze - a wind that blows from the land
towards ocean.
ECOLOGY
 The study of living organisms in the natural
environment
 How they interact with one another
 How the interact with their nonliving
environment
Hierarchy of Living Organisms
Population
A group of organism of the same species which live in the
same habitat at the same time where they can freely
interbreed
Community
All the populations of the different species living and
inter-acting in the same ecosystem
Ecosystem
Community + Abiotic environment, interacting
Biomes

Is a group of ecosystems with similar climates and SAVANNA

organisms
 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

LAND
Hierarchy of Living Organisms
RAIN FORESTS
Organism- Population-Community-Ecosystem
 There are 2 main types of rain forests:
-Biomes Temperate Rain Forests and Tropical Rain
Forests.
An area’s biome is determined mostly by its climate
(temperature and precipitation) TEMPERATE RAIN FORESTS

There are 4 major land biomes and 2 major water biomes  Temperate”= having moderate temperatures.

There are 5 major land biomes and 2 major water  Northwestern coast of U.S. is a temperate rain
ecosystems forest.

 Land  Receives more than 300 cm of rain per year.

 FOREST  Huge trees: Cedars, Redwoods, Douglas Firs.

 RAIN FORESTS DESERTS

 TAIGA FOREST  Desert = An area that

receives less rainfall per
 DECIDUOUS FOREST year.
 TEMPERATE RAIN FORESTS  Some deserts receive NO
 TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS precipitation at all during
one year.
 Water
WATER
 FRESHWATER
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
 RIVER
 Freshwater ecosystems include streams,
 POND/LAKE rivers, ponds and lakes.

 ESTUARY POND / LAKE

 DESERT  Bodies of standing or still freshwater.

 TUNDRA  Lakes are larger and deeper than

ponds.
 GRASSLAND
  Ponds: Shallow enough for sunlight to
hit bottom (allowing plants to grow
there).
 Lakes (and large ponds): Too deep for
plants to grow on the bottom, so algae
grows and floats on top of water.
 Estuary: Where freshwater of a river meets
saltwater of the ocean.
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
 Marine ecosystems include estuaries, intertidal
zones, neritic zones, and the open ocean.
Activity
Predation
 An interaction in which one organism kills
another for food is called predation.
 The organism that does the killing is the
predator.
 The organism that is killed is the prey.
Mutualism
 A relationship in which both species benefit is
called mutualism
Commensalism
 A relationship in which one species benefits and
the other species is neither helped nor harmed
is called commensalism
 Example: The red-tailed hawks’ interaction with
the saguaro. The hawks benefit by having a
place to build their nest, while the cactus is not
affected by the hawks.
Parasitism
is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species,
where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense
of the other, the host.
Two types:
• Endoparasite
• Exoparasite
Competition
This relationship is when two species are competing for
the same resources.
Two types:
• Intraspecific Competition
• Interspecific Competition
Ecological Niche
Is a term describing the relational position of
a species or population in its ecosystem to each other.
Energy and organisms
Autotrophs
Organisms which can synthesise their own complex,
energy rich, organic molecules from simple inorganic
molecules (e.g. green plants synthesis sugars from CO2
and H2O)
Heterotrophs
Organisms who must obtain complex, energy rich,
organic compounds form the bodies of other organisms
(dead or alive)
Detritivores
Heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead organic
matter. (e.g. earthworms, woodlice, millipedes)