The Starrett Book For Machinists' Apprentices - Howard P. Fairfield, Carl S. Dow, S. B. - 1917

THE STARRETT BOOK
for
MACHINISTS' APPRENTICES
DY
nowARD P. FAIRFIELD
Auutant P10Je11or Mac:Auu Couf'1ldw"• Worce.u.er PoJ'JltecArik lnllilul.e
.i.\'D
CARLS. DOW, S.11.

Eduar-irwAi~J l'NM:lieal JIeclurnical En,inllr'in~
&Jilor.,i,,.die/ Praefical Sup W cwk
PRICE, 50 CENTS
THE L. S. STARRETr COMPANY

Tl,~ JV"of'ld', Or~at~•t Toolmaker,
ATHOL, l\lASSACHUSFITS
COPYRIGHT 1917
THB L. S. STARRflT CoMPANY
INTRODUCTION
Laying out work preliminary lo machining is trans-
ferring blue-print instructions on to the matal. \Vhile
the blue-print gives dimensions accurately, without any
great precision in lbc drawing itself, lines laid out on
the metal are to be worked to and must therefore be
accurate. No one can consider himself a skilled machinist
unJess he can lay out his own work and, when called
upon, Jay out work for the less experienced.
To become skilled in laying out should be the aim of
every apprentice. Possessing this skill gives more op-
portunity to show ability than the running of a machine.
It is a qualification one must have for advanced posi-
tions such as toolmaker, foreman, or superintendent.
But laying out requires some knowledge of mathe-
matics, some skill al mechanical drawing, and an acquaint-
ance with machinists' fine tools and shop operations.
Attention lo details and extreme care are of utmost im-
portance. Increased labor cost, as well as material
wasted because of errors in laying out, are the penalties
of mistakes.
The apprentice, then, should lose no opportunity lo
make himself capable or laying out work. Close observa-
tion of pieces laid out by skilled machinists is one way
or beco1ning acquainted with the art. The fortunate
apprentice may also have opportunity to observe a
skilled machinist while laying out various jobs.
Tbe number of measuring and laying out tools or
instruments now purchasable is very great and the ap-
prentice must become familiar with practically all of
them. He must know what he can accomplish with each
so that he will instinctively seJect those best suited to the
job in hand.
3
T H E S T A R R E T T B O O K
Economy of time in laying out is another element of
success. Timc-savlng tools, such as the dial tesl indi ..
cator, quick-acting micrometer, and combination set,
should be among those ready for use. The co1nbina tion
set, for f nstnnce, combines a rule, square, miter, protrac-
tor, ccnlcr· square, depth gage, height gaget and level. The
fe""er the tools used, provided the ones at hand are really
good ones, lhe less the bench will be littered ,vith tools
which may be used only occnsionally.
The tools in a 1nachinist':s tool-box are a sure indica-
tion of his ability. A ,,;ell-fitted kit of fine tools helps
him hold a job in hard times and is one or the best
nssets n man can have when applying for a job. The pos-
session of many fine tools indicates a love for accurate
,vork, freedom Crom the borrowing habit, and a deter-
ntination to do work which ,vill demand recognition.
Next to having a complete outfit of fine tools is the dis--
position on the part of the apprentice to add the best
tools as rapidlf as he can afford them.
In preparing this book, the aim has been to select
those elementary features most essential to lhc advance-
ment of machinists' apprentices and students in techni-
cal an<l manual training schools. It is intended lo give
such students a portion of lhe instruction ordinarily
given by the teacher or by more experienced machinists.
It ,vill also serve as a reference book for data not to
be memorized.
T H E S T A R R E T T ll O O K
6
READING WORKING DRAWINGS
Dra,ving is the language of the engineer, designer,
and machinist. Unless a machinist can at least read
working <lra,vings he cannot be known as a skilled me-
chanic. Certain conventions relating lo vie,vs, lines,
scales, sections, and other rcpresen ta lions, are what make
up the language of drawings, and the correc.l use of
these is read1Jy learned. A set of working dra·wings
consists of
GENERAL DRA\VING, showing the entire machine
with oil the parts located in their proper relation to one
nnothcr. This drawing is usually made to a reduced
scale; for example, one-quarter or one-half size; it is
often termed the Assembled or Assembly Drawing.
DETAIL DRA,VINGS show each part of the machine
separnte]y; they are often termed "dctail,11 or "detalls."
A detail drawing should be supplied with complete data
for constructing the part, such as dimensions9 material
used, number of pieces, operations to be performed, etc.,
and should consist of sufficient , ..iews to be easily read.
In practice ~orne flrms group se,·eral details upon a single
sheet - others place a single detail upon a sheet.
SECTIONAL DRA\VIN GS show certain assembled
portions, as if a port of the stock had been sliced away
to more clearly illustrate the interior construction, often
termed "sections." Position of "section" is shown by a
full line drawn through a "vie,v" and lettered at each end.
DOLT AND SCRE,v LISTS. On these are tabulated
all boltst scre,vs, etc.9 V.'hich arc common to tbe stock..
room, and necessary lo the erecting of the machine.
l\.{OTION DIAGRAl\lS. Inslrucllon ls sometimes nee..
essary concerning the relation of certain centers lo the
motion of parts, velocity ralios, and direction of motlon;
therefore where a machine has a number of more or less
complicated motions, motion diagrams are provided.
'I
S T A R R J.: T T D O O K
8
T II E S T A R R E T T B O O I{
@I
.1 ©li..
..
•I
t ,;_"' ..
I ..........
• 1•r
0~;..
:i
.... . ....
'
~
0 !!....,.
•
-
:.a
~•.:;...~
t;::t=~?
........
t,-- --~
t;:: -::,
•• .... '.'l
-··..•i•,::
::,:
r -~
•··.:~
'i:
-~...
c.--~:~
.,•:: ,,...
THE S T A R R E T T B O O I{
VlE,VS. All 1natcrinl things have three dimensions;

length, breadth, and thickness or height. The draftsn1nn
or necessity makes nse ol some method of projection to
get his various vie,vs on o. flat surface on which only two
dimensions can be sho\vn - the method of projection in
machine-shop use places the front vie,v "'ilh the other
vie,vs grouped around in the order of their names. as
top view abov~, bottom vie,v below, etc.; each view cen-
tering on either a horizontal or a vertical center line.
FULL LINE
-- ....... ------~~-------
DOTTED LJNE
CENTER LINE
DIMENSION LlNE
◄
>4~-- --....;:,~
SHADE LINE
LINES. Fu11 lines on a drawing indicate lhe visible

lines or edges of the object. Dotted llnes indicnte hidden
or invisible lines o.nd edges. Broken lines, made up or
dots and dashes, Indicate center lines. All lay.outs
should sto.rt from center lines.
Dimension lines arc usually full lines with a break
in lhe line for dime1\sion figures and an arrow head at
each end to indicate the surfaces dimensioned. Section
lines are parallel lines dra'\\'n across a surrace ,vhich is
represented as being in section; they are usually drawn
at an inelination of 45° or 60°, and equ.o.lly spaced.
By using for sections various combinotions of full ond
dotted lines and special spacings. different materials of
construction, such as cost iron, steel, etc., can be indicated.
SCALES. \\'here convenient, all drn,~ings are made
octuol size, termed full scale. \Vhen the object ls too
10
TH E S T A R R E T T B 0 0 K
large to be conveniently represented fu)l size, the draw-
ing is made lo a regularly reduced size, called a reduced
scale drawing. The usual scales arc full-size, half-size,
quarter-size, and eighth-size, a)so kno,,·n as 12", 6", 3'.,
and 1 ½" lo 1 foot. \Vhcn working from drawings the
dilncnsion flgurc.s should be invariably followed -1neas•
urements should not be taken from the drawing.
CAST IKON STEEL CoPPER
8RASSOJt8RONZE WHITE Al.LoYs ALUMINUJ.1
ZINC-
11
T H E STARRE'fT B O O I{
ABBREVIATIONS. All information on a dra,ving is,

,vhen possible, abbreviated as follo,.vs:
CONVENTIONAL ABBREVIATIONS
Finish: Surface is Scrape: Surface R. H. : Right Hand

to be finished is lo he hand-
scraped
,.
Grin<l; Surface is . Feet II<, II.: Left Hand
to be ground
-
Face: To square ,, .. Inches ,v. I.: \Vroughl
up Iron
Bore: Use of bor- Dia.: Diameter C. I.: Cast Iron
ing tools or bars
Ream: Hole should Rad.: Radius :\(. s.: llachine
be reamed Sleel
T. S.: Tool Steel
C. R. S.: Cold
Rolled Steel
Tap: Hole is to be Thd.: Thread C. S.: Carbon Steel
tapped H. S. S.: High
Speed Steel.
-
Drill: Hole
.
IS to u. s. s.:United Running Fit. Drive
be drilled States Stand- Fit, Force Fit.
ard Shrink Fit, Taper
Fil~ Allowances
to be made in
size of shaft
SCRE\V THREADS, STH.UCTURAL RIVETING, PIPE

FITTINGS) LINE SHAFT BEARINGS, etc., are so stand-
ardized that conventional representations ore always
used by the draftsmen.
11
T H E STARRET'T B O O K
MEASURING TOOLS
lleasurements in general are those of length, area,
and volume. In machine-shop practice the measurement
of length is the com1non one. This is of such impor-
tance, and many of the measurements are of such exact-
ness. that o n1ultilude of measuring tools are being
marketed, nearly all of which are for the main purpo~u~
of obtaining linear measurements.
THE YARD. In the United States the Standard of
length is the-British yard, of ,vhlch two copies arc O'\Vned
by the United States Government. .
THE ~IETER, which is the French standard of
length, is also coming into use in the United States, -
notably in instrun1ent ,vork. The meter equals 39.37
inches.
The use of measuring tools in machine ,vork is
largely confined to the thirty-sixth subdivision of the
yard, or the inch. The in~h is subdivide(] into various
lengths, of which the ten-thousandth part is the short-
est practical shop measurement. ?tleasurements shorter
than this ore, however, common enough in scientific
laboratory work.
The practical 1nachinist and toolmaker divides his
work into t,vo classes~
(a) Flat ,vork and (b) Round \Vork. ,vhilc it can-
not be said that ench class has its distinctive line of
measuring tools, the workman who handles flat ,vork
only will usually have a so1newhat different set of meas-
uring tools from the workman on round work.
FLAT WORK
In general the worker on Oat work will need to be
provided ,vith steel rules, dividers, protractors, strofght
13
T II E S T A R R E T T B O O K
Combination Set
Toolmaker8' Calipers Micrometer Depth Gal'e

1,
THE S T A R R E T T B O O K
edges, steel squares, surface, height, depth, and thickness

gages, center punches, parallels, slide calipers, etc.
ROUND WORK
For round ,vork lhe measurements are by contact, and
the usual tools nre those having contact points. Contact
measurements are ma<le in h\'o wnys: (a) The contact
tool is first set to some standard of length, as, for cx-
aml)le, n steel rule, or a standard gage. The "set" dimen-
sion may then be used ns a standard for testing lhe ,vork.
(b) The reverse of this n1elhod .may be used for deter-
nlining sizes, viz.: by first selling the contact points lo
the surfaces of the work, aften.vard using the stee) rule
or standard gnge to read the size.
"FEEL''
The accuracy of all
- - - - - - - - contact measurements is
dependent npon the sense
of touch (feel). In the
case of skilled workmen,
as, for example, toolmak-
ers, the sense of touch is
highly developed. Using
suitable contact measur-
ing tools, the skilled me-
chanic can readily "leel"
the difference in contact
made by changes of di-
mensions ns small as
0.00025"'.
I
In the human hand

the sense of touch is most prominent in the finger-tips.
Therefore the contact measuring tool· should be held by
11
the fingers only, and in such a ,vay as to bring it in con-

tact ,vilh the finger-lips. If the tool is harshly grasped
by the fingers, the sense of touch or feel is much re-
duced. For this reason the tool should be delicately and
lightly held instead of gripped tightly.
The more coinmon tools for contact measurements
are inside and outside calipers, used In conjunction with
steel rules, plug and ring gages, and dimension blocks.
,vhile it is possible to transfer by "feet" a length
with an error not exceeding one•qunrter of one thou-
sandth inch, the results arc not ahvays easily read; for
this reason mechanics prerer lo use direct reading tools
for the more accurate contact ,vork. T,vo methods or
di reel reading arc in common use,
VERNIER CALIPERS
This tool is a combination of contact points and
steel rules. One of lhe contact points is a Jlxed part
of a graduated steel rule, ·while the other contact point
is a part or a graduated slider mounte_d upon the blade
of the first. By combining the use of the separate scales,
direct readings of one-thousandth part of an inch are
readily 1nade.
FRONT
16
'I' H E S T ,\ R R I-~ T T B O O K
VERNIER HEIGHT GAGE

Another adnptation of the vernier is the
height gage. By means of the vernier it is
easy to 1nake readings ns minute as ooe
an
thousandth part of inch. This instru-
1nent is used chiefly ,vherc close, accurate
measurements of height n1ust be obtained;
the method or using is clearly sho,vn on
page 105 ,vhere it is used in finding the
center to center distance of a pair of jig
bu lions.
By 1neans of suitable adjustn1ents, one
of ,vhich is shown on the accompanying
illustration, its use is extended to include
making accurate measurements of depth.
The tool is thus rendered porticularly de-
sirable for use in jig-1naking for the depth
or a recess inside the jig fram~ may be read-
ily obtained. The re1novable ja,v nllows the
user to 1nuke reverse measurements on th~
__._..............,~_.._,, jig fra111e.
17
T H E S T A R R E T T H O O I{
18
MICROMETER CALIPERS
\Vith the invention of the micrometer screw there
carne into use a new method of direcl readings in canto.ct
mcasuren1cnts. The great accuracy of the micrometer
scrc,v becomes evident ,vhen it is realized lhnt threaded
spindles v.yith a limit of error o( 0.001" in one-root
lengths are co1nmercially possible, In micrometer con ..
struclion with a used length of sc~c,v thread or one inch
only, the error is negligible. A micrometer head con-
sists of a spindle, threaded forty to the inch, fitted
through a threaded sJceve. having an enclosing thimble
fastened lo its outer end. Suitable graduations made
axia1Jy on the threaded sleeve combined with the grad ..
uotions on the edge or the rotating thimble give direct
readings of one-thousandth part or one inch. Blr means
of o vernier scale used on the reor of the sleeve direct
contact readings as smaU as one ten-thousandth parl or
one inch can be readily made.
llicrometer scre,vs arc mounted in a fran1e which
may be varied in shape and size to render it convenient
for the desired purposes. The contact points are also
shaped to the l}articular use desired, and instrun1ents of
this type in a variety of styles anrl or the highest degree
of accuracy. convenience, and finish ure purchasableJ
ror either inside or outside 1neasuremenls.
For meuurement by thousandths up to one-half inch.
19
Micrometer Measurements
The limit of accuracy obtained by measurin~ between contacts depends on
the a:raduatioos on the instrument. It is ~vident that as the fineness of th~
,raduatioo increases, the chances Jor mist akin• one graduation ft>r another also
increase so that eome other method of determining e:r.tremely accurate measure-
ments must be devised.
The ccmmon instrumeat for making such measurements is known as a
micrometer-caliper. Jt combines the double contact of the slide calipen with
a acrew adjustment which may be read with areat accuraey.
20
S ·r A R R E 1, T ll O O K
HOW TO READ A MICROMETER
The pitch of the serc,v lhrends on the concealed pnrt
of the spindle is forty to an inch. One co1npletc revolu-
tion of the spindle, therefore, moves it lengthwise one
fortieth (or t~·enly-five thousandths) of an inch. The
sleeYe D is 1narkcd "'ilh Corly lines to the inch, corre-
sponding to the number of threads on the spindle.
Each vertical line indicates a clislance of one•forticth
of an inch. Every fourth line is made longer than the
others, and is numbered O, 1, 2, 3, etc. Each numbered
A
A.f=RAME
B·A~NIL
C-SPINOLE
D-SLEEYE
E-THIMBLE
Jine indicates a distance of four times one-fortieth of

an inch, or one tenth.
The beveled edge of the thimble is mnrkcd in twenty-
five divisions, nnd every fifth line is numbered, from
0 to 25. Rotating the thimble from one of these marks
to the next 1noves the spindle longitudinally one hvenly-
flfth of h\'enty-five lhousnndths, or one thousandth or
an inch. Rotating it two divisjons indicates hvo thou-
sandths, etl'. T,venty-flve divisior:is ,vill indicnte n com-
plete revolution, .025 or one-fortieth of nn inc.h.
To read the micrometer, therefore, muUiply the nurn-
ber of vertical divisions visible on the sleeve by hven.ty-
fivc, and add the number of divisions on the bevel of
the thimble, from 0 lo the line which coincides with the
21
horizontal line on the sleeve. For example, in the en-
graving, there are seven divisions visible on the slee11c.
llultiply this nu1nher by twenty-five, and add the number
of divisions sho,vn on the bevel of the thimble, 3. The
micrometer is open o_ne hundred and seventy-eight thou•
sandths. (7 X 25 = 175 and 175 + 3 = 178.)
HOW TO READ A VERNIER
Readings in ten thousandths or an inch on caliper
squares, micro1neters, etc., arc obtnined by lhe use of
a Vernier, named from Pierre Vernier, who invented the
device in 1631. For the Vernier caliper, the scale 011 lhe
lool is graduated in fortieths of an inch {0.25). On the
Vernier plate Js a distance divided into hvcnly-five parts,
and these twenty.fh·c divisions occupy the same distance
as twenh'-four divisions on the scale. The difference
between one of the twcnty-fi\'c spaces and one of the
twenty-four spaces is one hvenly-firth of onc..fortieth,
or one thousandth of an inch.
To read the tool, note how many inches, tenths (or
.100), and fortieths (or .025) the O mark on the Vernier
-n.·~1..a.1TA1ll'lll[TT 110,
A11"1toe.,"1.U..V.s.A.
1 2
1 0 4 56 76 ~ t
1
1111111l111l
is f'rom the O mark on the scale; then note the number of

divisions on the Vernier trom 0 to a line which exactly
coincides ,vith a line on the scale.
In the engraving above, the Vernier has been moved
to the right one and follr-t.enths and one-fortieth inches
22
(1.425"), as shown on the scale, and the eleventh line
on the Vernier coincides wilh a line on the scale. Eleven
lbousandths of an inch are, therefore, to be added to
the reading on the scale, and the total reading is one and
four hundred and thirty-six thousandths inches (1.436"') •
which is the distance the ja,vs have been opened.
HOW TO READ A VERNIER MICROMETER

Readings in ten thousandths of an inch arc obtained
ON THE ~fICRO:\tE1.'ER by the use of a Vernier, which
operates on the same principle as the Vernier on the
caliper. In this case, however, ten divisions on lhe sleeve
occupy the distance of nine divisioi:is on the thimble.
The difference bet,veen the width of one of the ten
spaces and one or the nine spaces is one-tenth of a
THIMBU!:
1./) 0
.....4
r o
(t9&70$4- 1:1.0
SLEEVE
C
division on the thimble. Now each division on the
thimble represents one-thousandth of an inch, and one-
tenth of one ...thousandth equals one len...thousandlh. To
read a ten-thousandth micrometer, first note the thou-
sandths as in the ordinary micrometer. Then observe
the line on the s1eeve which coincides wlth a line on lhe
thimble. In the diagram s)10'\\•n abo,·e there are nine
vertical di visions visible on the sleeve, and 9 X 25 225, =
so that the readJng of the ordinary micrometer would he
.225. Line marked "7,, on the sleeve coincides with a
line on the thimble and, therefore, we add seven to the
reading of the ordinary micrometer. This seven is seven
ten-thousandths (.0007), and the readings ,vill be .2257.
ZI
T II E S T ~:\ R R E T 1, B O O K
Ha(f... Jnch Micrometer
For 1ueasuremenl
by thousandths up lo
oncphalf inch.
The anvil is shortened, for
use in places where the ordinary
anvil is too long lo be inserted.
Has lock nut nnd ratchet
stop.
Quick·Adjustiqc Micrometer
Ilas ratchet slop and lock nut.
()
Six-Inch Micrometer
For measuring round ,vork tc1 4½ inches and flat
work lo G i nchcs.
T I-I 14_: S T A R R E T T B O O K
OPERATION AND ADJUSTMENT OF MICROMETERS

QUICK ~IEASURE!\fENTS. A micrometer having the
quick-adjusting feature can be instantly opened or closed
to any size v.·ithin its capacity. Pressure of the finger
on the end of the plunger allows the spindle to move
instnntly to the desired size without turning the thin1ble.
\\'hen the finger is removed, fine adjustments may be
made in the usual way.
inCBOllETER AS A GAGE. By means of a knurled
lock nut the spindle can be firn1ly fixed in J>osilion,
making the micrometer a solid gage. Turning the lock
nut contracts n split bushing around the spindle, keep-
ing it central and true.
READJUSTl\lENT FOR \VEAR. \Vhen slight wear
makes correction necessary, the readjustment is accom-
plished by various means depending upon the kind of
1nierometer. \Vith the Starrett micrometer the ::anvil is
fixed, not movable, and correction is quickly made by
inserting o spanner wrench and turning until the line on
the sleeve coincides ,vith the zero on the thimble. This
feature does away with the frequent use of a test piece.
THE STARRE1''r B O O K
TRANSFERRING MEASUREMENTS
Transferring a measurement may be n delicate Job
or not, ·wholly depending upon the degree of accuracy
sought. The most common of all machine-shop tools
for transferring measurements nrc steel rules and
spring calipers. ,vith these too1s, either in combination
or used separately, are mnde the bulk of common n1a-
chine-shop measurements, ,vhether those of inside or
outside surfaces.
STEEL RULES
These are thin blades of steel of varying lengths,
widths, and thicknesses, usually graduated in inches and
various subdivisions of the inch upon each edge of both
sides and often at the ends. The makers term the vari-
ous subdivisions or the inch by graduation numbers,
for example, No. 4 Graduation, 1st. edge 64ths; 2d. edge
32ds i 3d. edge 16ths; 4th. edge 8ths. By means of slid-
ing· or fixed attachments a great variety of length meas-
urements may be made with the ordinary steel rule..
SPRING CALIPERS
The most commonly used tool for contact n1easure-
ments is the ordinary spring caliper, ,vhich is used for
measuring over surfaces or between surfaces. In· shop
language this is called making-outside-or-inside 1neas--
urements. The legs of the spring caliper are curYed
down, lo make two opposite conlact points, lhe distance
between being controlled by n screw which works against
a tension spring. For either outside or inside measure-
ments they may be set to or they· may be rend to a
graduated steel rule. In ·this ,.vay a v.·orkman can trans-
fer lengths ,vith an error of less than 0.002-.. Where
28
specially accurate spring caliper measurements are de•
sired, fixed gages nre used for setting the contact points.
The degree of accuracy of contact is dependent upon
\\'hat the ,,·orkn1an terms "feel!' To accurately transfer
a di1nension ·with spring calipers the sense of --reel"
must be well developed by the workman, for the contact
points are at the ends of ,,ery slender arms.
Spring calipers, both for inside and outside work,
c.an be set lo dimensions either larger or smaller than
the gages used by introducing thickness strips between
the contact points and the over or inside surfaces.
Hard, thin tissue-paper may be used as thickness
strips, or, better still, steel thickness gages or u feelers."
Caliperinii Over a Flange

ff
T H E S ~r A R R E T 'I' Il O O K
SPRING DIVIDERS
In this tool tlic contacts are points at the ends of
straight Jcgs. Dividers are used for measuring dimen-
sions between lines or points, for transferring lengths
taken direct from n graduated ~tee) rule, or for scribing
r·
circles or nrcs. " Feel " does not

enter to such an cxlent into the
transrer of dimensions ,vhcn using
s1lri ng dividers as it does with
spring calipers; ho,vever, n certain
dcJicacy of touch is essential. A
magnifying glass is o ":onderful
l1elp ror the accurate transfer of
dintcnsion ,vith dividers. If a con-
siderable length is to be transferred,
it is b~st to use the type ,vhere the
points are udjustable along a bar,
known as n Universal Divider, for
the points do not then incline to
the surfaces worked upon.
TH 'E S T A R R E T T Il O O I{
FITS AND FITTING

In 111achine c-onstruction u1any of the purts bear
such a close and i1nportant relation to one another,
that a certnin amount of hand fitting is csscntinl lo make
the surface contacts as they should be. If lhe surfaces
in contact are to 1novc on cuch other the flt is classed
as a sliding or running fit. If the surfaces are lo 1nake
contact ,vith sufficient finnness lo hold them together
under ordinary use, the fit is class(.~d either as a driving,
shrink, or forced fit.
SLIDING FIT. Under this head 1nay be classed the
fitting of cross and truvcrsing slides of lathes, milling
1nachines, drilling machines, boring machines, grinding
n1achincs, and planers. In most or these fits the 1noving
and stationary pnrts nre held in contact with eoch other
by means of adjustable contact strips or gibs, someti1nes
known as packing strips. In so1nc cases, such as the
tables of grinding and of planing machinest their ,veight
keeps them in sufficiently close contact.
RUNNING FITS. The journal bearings of spindles,
crank shafts, Jinc shafting, etc., are classed under this
heading.
FORCED FITS AND SHRINK FlTS. Under this
head are classed those fits \\•here the separate parts must
become in use as jf they were a single piece; as, for
example, the crank pins and nxlcs in locomotive driving
\\'heels, the cutter heads and spindles of nu1nerous ,vood•
working 1nachincs, as;·wcll as many other cases.
LIMITS. In the case of running and of sliding bear-
ings a certain an1ount of hand fitting is necessary to
obtain desired results, and in uU coses cerlain limiting
requirements obtain. In sliding and· running bearings
lhc limits arc usually those of alignment ond of contact,
·while in either journal hearings or jn flat sliding bcur-
ings it is essential thnl certnin accurate contact between
29
the surfaces shall be made. and there ,vill also be a lin1it
of alignment ,vith other parts of the machine. For ex-
ample, in the engine lathe the ways or vees and the
cross slide of the tool carriage must be parallel lo or
at rjght•angles to the axis of the spindles within set
limits. In engine lathe construction the limit set ror
this is 0.001" in a foot of length. In testing the parts
use is made of the Universal Test Indicator with the
needle reading on n dial or upon a sector arm. The
indicator may be clamped to a lesl bar, a straight edge,
or direct to the lathe spindle; also. if desired, it can be
and often is held upon a special slider stand fitted lo
the vees of the machine.
In the . making of shrinkage and forced fits the
limits are usually those of size. The amount or pressure
necessary to place the t,vo parts together is the limiting
fact in the case of forced fits. In forcing lhe axles into
locomotive driving wheels, the specifications may Hmit
the pressure lo between one hundred to one hundred
and fifty tons. Ho,vever specified, it in fact reduces to
limits of size and the use of measuring tools. These can
be of the direct reading contact type, as lhe micrometer
and vernier bar, or of the indirect reading contact typc9
os, for example, the ordinary spring caliper used in con-
junction with thickness gages or '-feelers.'•
AllOlJNTS TO LEAVE. \Vhere pins, spindles, etc.,
are to be forced into holes, or v.bere collars, hubs,
flanges, and other machine parts arc to he shrunk on to
spindles, it is customary to make- the diameter allo\\·-
ancc upon the spindle rather than upon lhe hole. The
a111ount which it is necessary to add to the spindle or
shaft diamelcr must of necessil)· vary ,vith the length
and diameter of the hole, the metals used, and the form-
of the surrounding hub. The follo"'ing tables give cer..
tain practice.
so
T H E SrfARRETl' 13 0 0 K
Allowances for Different Classes of Fits -Table l
(Newall Engin.Mrin1t Co.)
TQ~rances in Standard Holes•

Clase
Nominal
Diameters
Upto½.. ,10·-1" 1½,.-2.. V-~o,.-3. J~,. .
-4• •H1,•-s•
High Limit +0.0002 +0.0005 +O.OJ07 +0.0010 +0.0010 +0.0010
A Low Limit -0.0002 --0 0002 --;J.0002 --0.0005 --0.0005 --0.0005
Tolerance 0.0004 0.0007 0.0009 0.0015 0.0015 0.00l5
Hi1h Limit +O.0005 +0.0007 +0.0010 +0.0012 +O.0015 +O.0017
R Low Limit 7'.00(6 -0.0005 -0.0005 -0.(X)Oi -1),0001 ----0.0007
Tolerance 0.0010 0.0012 0.0015 0.0019 O.OO'l2 O.OC1l4
I I
Allowaneee for Forced Fite
High Limit +0.0010 +0.0020 +o.0040 +o.0060 +o.ooeo +0.0100

F Low Limit +0.0005 +0.001S +o.0000 +0.0045 +o.0000 +0.OllMJ
Tolerance 0.0005 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0020
Allowanc:es for Driving Fits
D
HiKh Limit
Low Limit
Tolerance
I
+O.0005 +0.0010 +0.00151 +O.OO'l5 +o.0030 +0.0035
+0.0002 +O.0007 +0.0010 +0.0015 +0.00'20 +0.0025
0.0003 o.oom 0.0005 0.0010 0.0010 0.0010
Allowances for Push Fita
High Limit --11.0002 --0.0002 ---(J,OOO'l --1>.0005 -0.ooai -0.0005

p Low Limit ---0.0007 --0.0007 ---G.0007 --1>.0010 --0.0010 -G.0010
Toleraace 0.0005 0.0006 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
Allowances :for Running Fits t

High limit --0.0010 --0.0012 --0.0017 ~.0020 ~.0025 --0.0030
X Low Umit -0.0020 --0.00Zl -().0035 -11.0042 --11.0050 ---1)0057
Tolerance 0.0010 0.0015 0.0018 0.0022 0.002.l 0.0027
High Limit -G.0007 --1).0010 --0 0012 --<>.0015 -0.0020 -0.0022
y Low Limit --0.00l2 ~.0020 --0.002.S --0.0030 --0.0035 --<>.0040
To1eraace 0.0005 0.0010 0.0013 0.0015 0.0015 0.0018
High Limit --0.0005 --0.0007 --0.0007 --1),00]0 --0.0010 --0.0012
z Low Limit -0.0007 -0.0012 --0.0015 -0.0020 -0.0022 --0,0025
Tolerance 0.0002 0.0005 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012 0.0013
• To~rance is provided for holes. which ordinary standard reamers can p~

duce, in two grade'!i, Classes A and R, the selection of which is a question for the
user·s decision and dependent u?On the quality of the work required: some prefer
to use Class A as working limits and Class B as inspection 1imit9.
t RuDnina fits. which are the nl06t comffiQTlly required. are divided into three
.i:trad~: Class X for engine and other work where euy fits att wanted: Cius Y
for high speeds and good average machine work; Class Z for fine tool work.
31
T H E S T A R R E T T n O O K
LIMITS OF TOLERANCE
\\~ile it is possible lo f}roduce 1nachlne parts with
measurements refined lo any degree of nccuracy, ex-
treme precision may prove too cosily for commercial
work.
To avoid waste of time, labor, and money, the Taft-
Peirce .hlanufacturing Company has fornn1lated a set of
rules which defines the degree of accuracy to be expected
in those cases ,vhere specifications and drawings do not
call for greater precision than the rules provide for.
(1) Full information regarding HmJts of tolerance
should be clearly sho,vn by drawings 5ubmilted, or be
definitely covered by ,vritten specifications lo which
reference must be 1nade by notations on the dra,vings.
(2) \Vhere lhe customer fails to supply proper data
as to Ii1nits, this Company's Engineers '\Vill use their
best judgment in deciding just what limUs il may be
advisable to "'ork lo. The Company will nol, in any
event, assume responsibility for possible excessive cost
brought about through '\\'orking to closer limits than
may be necessary nor for pertnitling greater latitude
lhan may subsequently be found to be proper.
(3) ,\'here dimensions are statetl in vulgar frac-
tions \\"ith no limits or tolerance specified, it will be
assumed that a considerable margin lor variation from
figured dimensions is available; unless otherwise or-
dered, lhe Co1npany's Engineers ,vill proceed according
to the dictates of their best judgment as to ,vhat lhnits
should be taken.
(4) For an important dimensions Decimal figures
should be used and limits clearly stated on detail dra,v-
ings. Jr Decimal flgures are not used for such dimen-
sions o notation referring to lhe degree of accuracy
required must be placed prominently on the drawing.
(5) It is frequently necessary to reduce fractions
32
·THE STARRE'I'T D O O I{
representing fourths, eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds,

and sixty-fourths to decimal equivalents. When a dimen-
sion of this character is expressed in a decimal equivalent
ond carried out to three, four, or five places and limits
are not specified it will be assumed that a limit of plus
or minus .0015 is permissible unless othcrv.,ise ordered.
(6) \Vhere dimensions are stated in decimal figures
derived by other processes than those cxp]alned in para--
graph five, but with limits not specified, the following
variations from dimensions slated may be expected:
T,vo pince decimals .005 plus or minus
Three ,. " .0015 " "
Four " " .0005 " ''
Five " " .0002 u ''
(7) ,vhere close dimensions, such as the location of
holes from center to center in jigs, fixtqres, machine
parts, and other exact work of like character are re.
quired, detail drawings should be prominently marked
"ACCURATE•' and clear instructions be given.
(8) The dimensions of internal cylindrical gages,
external ring gages, snap gages, and similar work speci•
fled lo be hardened, ground, and lapped. will be obtained
as nccuralcly as the best mechanical practice applying
to commercial work of the particular grade specified
will permit.
(9) As drilled holes v1.1ry in size from .002" to .015"
(and in some cases even more) over the size of the drill
used, those which require to be made accuratC!ly to defl•
nitely specified sizes should be either reamed, ground, or
lopped, and detail drawings thereof should bear nota-
tions accordingly.
(10) U. S. Stondnrd form of thread and pitches will
be used Cor ¼-inch and nil sizes above. A. S. 1\1. E. Stand•
nrd will be used ror numbered sizes bclo,v ¼ .inch. In
the absence of specifications lo the contrary, U. S. Stand-
ard form of thread will be used for all SPECIAL sizes.
33
THE STARRETT BOOK
1"' H E S T A R R E T T B O O I{
BENCH WORK
Dench ,vork includes laying out, chipping, filing,
polishing, hand reaming, hand tapping, and all the mnny
shop jobs done at lhe bench or in a vise.
LAYJNG OUT. This is the shop term which includes
the placing of lines, circles, and centers upon curved or
flat surfaces for the guidance of the ,vorkrnan. It is some-
what analogous to mechanical dr:l\ving. It differs in one
important respect, however, that ,vbile a line dra,ving
is seldom scaled and therefore exact accuracy of spac-
ing is not required; in laid out ,vork, the lines, circles,
centers, etc., arc to be follo,ved exactly. All lines, cen-
ters, etc., should therefore be exactly localed and placed,
ancl all scriber, divider, and c-enter points should~ while
in use, be exact and sharp. Particular care must be
maintaf ned lo insure fine and accurate laying out.
PREPARING THE SURFACE. If ,vork of no special
accuracy is desired, carefully rubbing chalk, or white
lead 1nixed ,vith turpentine, upon the surface of the
"'ork ,viJI be suflkient as a coating. For fine exact lay-
outs a special murking solution must be used. The one
in common shop use Is a mixture of one ounce copper
sulphate lo four ounces "'ater. A little nitric acid may
,vith advantage be added. This solution applied to a
cleaned iron or steel surface gives a dull coppered sur-
face, and the finest line scribed upon it is brilliantly
visible.
SCRIBING I.,INES. The usual scribing points are
those common to dividers, hermaphrodite colipers,
scratch owls, scratch gages, surface gages, and trammel
1>olnts. Combined with the scribing points, may be used
steel rules. bevel protractors, ·steel squares, steel straight
edges, levels, end measuring rods, microineter or vernier
height and depth gages, and the various center punches.
Abi1Uy lo so combine and 1nake use or lhe various tools
36
36
T H E ST,\RRETT B O O K
as to insure accuracy is a considerable asset to the lay•
ing-ou t n1an.
PROTRACTORS
As. made for machine-shop use the common protrac•
lor is provided with attached straight edges, and can be
used either to measure or to lay off lines at an angle to
each other. lleasurfng lhc angularily of hvo or more
lines ,vith n protractor is termed "rending lhe angles.''
As onentimes its use is determining the angle mode by
two surfaces (a beve]). the lool is usually termed a bevel
protractor, Protractors for common shop use arc grad-
uated to degrees through a length of circumference of
one hundred and eighty degrees. An attached vernier
enables the user to read angles to one-twelfth of a degree
(five minutes).
LAYING OUT PLATE. If desirable results arc to be
ff
obtained in laying out flnt work, special metal plates
upon which to rest lhe work and the tools must he pro-
vided. These are known as Ie,·eling, surface, or laying..
out plates; they furnish an accurate plane surface upon
which ,v<'rk and tools may be placed. The size of these
plates \!'aries Crom those of small areas used in laying out
small jigs, clc., to those for large pieces, having sides
several feel in length. The work may be laid directly
upon the surface of the plate or held upon leveling strips
or blocks placed on lhe plate, and the gages, squares, and
other tools used around the ,vork. In other cases it is
convenient to clamp lhe work to knee or angle irons,
,,,hich arc then placed upon the leveling plate.
CHIPPING
Formerly many of the surfaces of mochine ports
were hand-chipped ond filed to a fit. ,vhile the mechanic
in the modern shop can usually find methods of machin-
ing most or the surfaces he neecls to fit up. lhere are still
occasions when the work hos to be hand-chipped.
TOOLS USED. The com1non chipping tools are n
hand hammer and a hand chisel. The hand hammer
should weigh not less than three-quarters of 11 pound
.,nor over t,\·o pounds, nnd may be eilher of the bnll peen
or flat peen lype. A chipping hammer should balance
,vell in the hand when fitted to a handle not more than
sixteen inches long. The handle near ,vhcrc it enters
the hammer shou1d be thinned and worked down lo a
shank that is somewhat flexible, so that the shock to the
arm and hand ,vill be Jess. The face of a good chipping
hammer should crown slightly.
Chipping chisels, ordinarily termed cold chisels, are
of various sorts, ond arc often known by the shape of
the cutting end; for example, flat. cape, roundnose, dia-
mond., and gouge chisels. The steel from which they ore
38
THE STARRETT B O O K
made should be eighty to ninety point carbon, of octa-
gon cross-section, with the cutting end forged to the
desired shape, ,veil packed by the forge hammer, hard-
ened, and the temper drawn to a medium blue. The
hom1ner end of the chisel should be forged from the

octagon to a reduced round but not hardened. Fial•
chipping and co.pe chisels should be ground with straight,
sy1nmelrical, cutting edges, at as acute an ansie as the
nature of the work will permit.
89
T H E S T A R R E T T R O O K
In hand chipping the ho.mmcr handle should be
grasped near the end and lhe hammer s,vung free from
over the shoulder ,vith an easy forearm movement.
Hold the chisel loosely in the hand at nn angle with lhe
work that permits an even chip of right depth. The
vision should be directed to the cutting edge of the
chisel, rather than at the end struck by the hammer.
AYoid gripping hammer or chisel- lightly, as this rapidly
tires the hand and arm.
In shops ,vhlch have compressed nir,. use is made of
the modern pneumatic chipping hammer, ,vhich does
remarknble work of the heavier sorts.
FILING
The file is essentially a finishing tool, and in skilled
hands surfaces may be made very accurate and smooth.
Files are designated lhus (a) by their length - this
docs not include lhe tang; (b) by their cross-section, as,
for example, squnre, round, ha.If•round, triangular, Oat,
knlfe-edge, etc.; ( c) by their cut - single or double cut;
(d) by lhe degl"ce of conrscncss.
Files for some purposes are made tapered in their
length, nnd for other uses have straight sides. The de-
grees of coarseness are designated by lhe following
names as rough, coarse, bastard; 2d -cut, smooth, and
dead smooth; extra fine flies are designated by numbers,
No. 00, No. 0, No. 1, etc., to No. 8. The degree of coarse-
ness varies with the length, for example, an 8-inch file
second cul is coarser thon a shorter Ole bastard cul.
This confuses the user somewhat, unless he is familiar
,vilh prnctice.
Single-cut files are those having teeth made by single
parallel cuts across the face at an angle of twenty...ftve
degrees. In double-cut flies the teeth nre made by break-
ing up the single cuts into points by a second cut made
at an angle with the firsL
1" H E STARREI'T B O O K
Rasp flies arc those having teeth made by a punch.
Used for hoofs1 wood, etc.
HEIGHT OF \VORK. This must of necessity vary

with the height of the worker. A common rule is to have
it the height of the worker•s elbow as he stands erect.
For very light free-hand filing the work may be much
higher, in some cases the height of the shoulders.
'1
POSITION OF THE HANDS. If the worker wishes
to ovoid tiring, position is very important; position also
has direct bearing upon the quality and quantity of the
product. The worker should clasp the file handle wilh
the extended thumb on top, grasping lhe point ·with the
fingers and thumb or the remaining hand wilh thumb
on top. In heavy filing the point of the flte may be
grasped by the fingers and the palm of the hand with
the palm on top.
In hand-ftling the ·worker should train his hands,
arms. and body to carry the file across the work with
regular, even, and controlled strokes. As the file is in
no sense self-guided the ,vorker must lrain his body to
regular controlled motions if he is to do effective ,vork,
DRA\V FILING. Used to sel the grnin somewhat
smoother than regular cross-filing. The ,vorker should
clasp the blade of file near its ends In each hand and
then draw lhe file, held crosswise, along the length of
the ,vork. A fine grain surface results.
TESTJNG FLAT-FILING. Flat ,vork is testetl by the
use of steel straight edges, steel squares, bevel protrac-
tors, etc.
POLISHING
,\'here a particularly smooth surface is necessary, as,
for example, journal bearings, or \.vhere brilliancy of
finish is desired, lhe surfaces are polished ,vitb some
fine abrasive. For ordinary polishing of machine parts,
Journals, etc., common grain abrasive is used, - glued to
cloth or leather.
Grain abrasives are known by numbers, as, for ex-
ample, No. 100, which means that the particles nre of
a size lo readily pass through a sieve having one hundred
meshes to the linear inch. The finer sizes are often
known as flours.
GRADES OF EMERY
The numbers representing the grades of emery run
from 8 to 120, and the degree of smoothness of surface
they leave mny be compared to that left by files as follows:
8 and 10 repreaeut the cut of a wood rasp.
16 u 20 •• •• .. .. a coarse rough file.
24 •• 30 •• .. .. .. an ordinary rou11h file.
36 •, -1.0 ., •, .. .. a bastard file.
46 •, 60 " •, u .. a aecond cut-file.
70 ., 80 .. •• •• ., a 1mooth file.
90 ,. 100 ,. ., .. .. a superfine 6Je.
J20F and FF .. .. •• .. a dead-smooth file.
SEVERING METAL WITH HACK SAWS

Hack saws are narro,v, thin blades of hardened steel
with teeth cut along one edge, and are used for severing
metal. They are held in suitable band or power frames,
which have the necessary adjustments for holding the
blade in stilf lcnsion. It is obvious that n requires care
and good sense in using a hack-sa.w blade if good results
are expected.
If the stock lo be cut is both hard and lhin, particular
care is required to avoid injuring the blade.
.g
CU'ITING SPEED. \Yhcn hack sa,ving, under aver-
age condillons and ,vilhout a lubricant, a cutting speed
of fifty to sixty strokes per minute should be n1ain-
tained. lC the saw is used in a po\ver n1achine, and the
material is .soft steel, a cutting speed or one hundred
strokes per minute may be made, using a suitable lubri-
cant. Unanncaled tool steel should be cut under the
above conditions at not to exceed sixty strokes per
minute.
:MOUNTING THE BLADE. The blade when mounted
in a hand-lrume should have the cutting-teeth rake for-
ward; that is to say, the sa,v should cut on the for-

ward stroke. In rnachine cutting this is usually so, but
not so with s01ne makes of machines. The cutting stroke
is always the pressure stroke, nnd the return stroke is
1nade as light as convenient ,vithout actually lifting the
blade Crom its ,vork.
The blade should be under considerable tension
,vhen in use. It must be held in the plane being cut,
and all tendency to bending the blade avoided. Suitable
blades and frarnes rnay he purchased for almost every
service, and the user should consider this fact if com-
mercially economical results nrc desired.
~r H E S T A R R E T T 13 () 0 I~
HACK SAW MACHINE
Hack sa,v blades used in cutting up bar .~tock or

structural shopes ore 1nuch more efficient in a_ machine so
designed that Us several motions and adjustments can be
properly controlled. Such a machi nc is as sensitive to
the operator as a hand frame.
· The n1achine sho\\'O above has been especially de•
signed to efllciently operate hack saw blades. The base
column carries the working parts an<l the ,vork•holding
vise. By means or suitable weights, the cutting pressure
upon the blade may be regulated according to the material
being severed, and the stroke length of the blade-carrying
frame can be adjusted to use the entire blade length, no
matter ,vhat diameter of bar is being severed, thus getting
the full efficient service from each blade.
To avoid blade breakage through careless handling,
a safety device in the form of a dash pot is conneclcd
with the blade-carryjng frame to prevent lhe blade frorn
being dropped suddenly upon the ,vork. The blade-carry-
"
ing frame is raised by a foot lever leaving the hands free
ror work adjustments and measurements. The cutting
lubricant Is conveyed to the blade from a lank in the
column by means or a small rotary pump.
What Hack Saw to Use
No. 193 in hand f r.una, to cut cast steel, cast iron, tool steels and a\l solid
metals.
No. 1130 in hand fnames, to cut cold rolled stock and soft metals.
No. 1•2 in hand frames. to cut sheet metal and tubing 16 to 18 gage.
No.~ in hand frames, to cut sheets and tubing thinner than 18 gage.
No- lll for heavy hand frame work and light power machines, on toor steels.
No. lUB for light Power machine work on soft steel, and heavY hand frame
work.
No. Uf for general work in medium weight pov.•er machines.
No. 115 on electric:al conduit, pipe, bras! stock, Hght angle and cbana.el iron.
No. l55 on hi~h al)ttd machines cuttina tool steels.
No- :ZSSB on high speed machines cutting machinery 91:~I. c:ast Iron, etc.
No. J6l for euttini' an,te iron, bras.s stock and ornamental jron work.
No. lSli far heavy high speed machines, to cut tool steel.
No, 2548 for heavy hi.ch si:>eed machines, to cut cold rolled shafting and
machinery at eel.
No. M for cutting iron pi~. light structural iron, auto frames. ete.
No. 25i for extra h~avy power machina. to cut tool ~tee1.
No. 2560 for extra heavy power machinea.
46
DRILLING
DRILLS. A drill is an end-cutting loot, consisting
usually of two cutting edges set at an angle with the
axis. The more co1nmon lypes or drills ore llat - flot-
twisted - slrolght-nuted - spiral-fluted - and gun.barrel.
The most co1nmon, and for 1nost purposes the n1osl effi-
cient, type is the spiral.fluted, known as a twist drill.
T,vist driJls are n1ade with hvo, three, or four cut-
ting lips. The hvo-lip drill is used when drilling solid
stock. The three and four lip drills arc used for en-
larging holes previously cored or drilled. \Vhen drilling
solid stock with a t,vo-lippecl drill, the point of the drill
controls the cutting edges, and if the drill is correctly
ground the resulting hole wi)] be reasonably round,
slraight, and the size of the drill. ,vhen a drill is used
for enlarging holes already made, either by coring or by
pre,·ious drilling, the drill is guided by its sides and a
three or four nuted dril1 ,viii give better results.
FORM OF POINT. In
the types referred to all
except gun-barrel drills
are cone-pointed on the
cutting end. The gun-
barrel drill, used when
especia1ly straight, round,
and true holes are essen-
tial, has a blunt end with
a single cutting lip. Fie. 1
A cone-polnted <lrill of hvo or ntore cutting Bps
depends for its efficient '\\•orking upon rour factors:
(a) AH the cutting lips shall have the san1e inclina-
tion to lhe nxis of the drill.
(b) Cutting lips should be of exactly equal length.
(c) A proper Up clearance of the surfnce back of
the cutting edges.
''
T I-I E S T A R R E T T B O O I{
(d) A correct angle of lip clearance.

Figs. 1, 2, and 3 sho,v the result of careless free-hand
grinding. Figs. 4 and 5 sho,,· how lo test the length
of the cutting lips, also their inclination lo the axis.
Alter shQrpening n
drill free•hand, use the
band•feed at first and ob-
serve (a) the chips made
by the cut ting; ( b) the
size of the hole. IC the
cutting lips ore shaped to
n proper clearancet the
chips will curl as they
start from the cutting
Fm.z
edge; but if the cutting
lips lack a proper clearance the resulting chips have the
appearance of being sround off rather than freely cut.
If the cutting lips are or uneven length the hole wi11 be
enlarged o,·er the diameter or the drill. Drilllngs from
cast iron should look as in Fig. 6, and those from steel
as in Fig. 7. if the drill is properly sharpened.
Free-hand grinding
results are usually so dis-
appointing that in most
1nachine shops the drills
are sharpened in a spe-
cial drill.grinding ma-
chine. The design of this
machine is such. thnt
when it is set for grind-
ing any size of drill the FJG. 3
cutting lips are made of
equal length and of the correct form. Fig. 8 shows how
the cutting lip is located to correctly grind the edges.
FEEDING THE DRILL. To get the best results from
drills and drilling machines, the driU should advance
into the work a definitely regulated amount for each
revolution. The distoncc which the drill ndva.nces per
revolution ls termed the 1:EED, and must be adjusled
to suit the conditions under which the ,vork is being
performed. Tallie No. 2 gives the feeds per revolution
recommended by one manufacturer of drills. They are
rccom1ncnded for in·crage conditions; they con be grenlly
exceeded under so1ne conditions, but must be reducetl
for others..
FIG. f Flo. 5
Feeding the drill freehand, if skilfully done, may
answer in certain cases, but is less effective than power
reeds, except tor smnll ,vire drills.
DRILL SPEED. This is the surface or peripheral
speed of the drill in feet per minute~ and js rated at the
outer diameter. Under average conditions the peripheral
speed recommended for carbon steel drills is thirty feel
,.
~r H E STARRE1''T 11 0 0 K
to forty feet, and for high-speed drills seventy feet to

one hundred feet. \Vorking conditions may at times
cause a change in these figures. \Vhcn the extren1e outer
corners of the cutting edges "pear rapidly it is evidence
of too high a surface speed.
n
FIG. 6 FIG. 7
Tab!e No. 3 gives the revolutions per minute at
whJch lo run drills for various cutting or surface
speeds. For example, wilh a 1-ineh drill and seventy
feel as the selected cutting speed, read across from
1-inch In the Jeft-hand column and under heading 70'
find 267, the revolutions per minute.
F10.8
IO
'f H E S T A R R E T T B O O K
Speeds and Feeds for Drllllng•-Table 2
High.Speed Steel Drills
Cut
Bronze, lron, Cast
Feed Mild Drop Mal. Tool c..t
Sbe
of
Drill re:.
Brau, An-
300 oealed, Ha • Iro::,
Steel, Forir.,
120 fiO
Iron,
90
Steel.
60
Steel.
40
Feet 170 80Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet
Feet
lncbea Indiea R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M.
0.003 18300 l<B70 4880 7320 3«,0 3490 3fJ60 24-&0
i: 9150 1830
0,004 5185 2440 3660 2745 18.30 1220
0.005 6100 3456 1626 2440 1210 1&10 IZKI 807
0.006 4575 2593 1220 1830 915 1375 915 6l0
0.007 3~ 2074 976 1464 732 1U8 732 490
% O.OM 3050 1728 813 12~ 610 91S 610 407
"h•
~
-0.009
().010
2614
2287
1482
1296
698
610
1046
915
52'l
458
784
636
522
..58
348
3(i;
366 569 241
;t 0.011
0.012
1830
1525
1037
864
-488
407
732
610 305 458
Jti8
305 203
% 0.013 1307 741 3'9 52.1 261 392 261 17-4
1 0.014 1143 648 305 ,t58 229 3,9 229 153
0.016 915 519 24" 366 183 275 183 123
ltt
1%
0.016
0.016
762
~
432
371
204
175
~
262
153
131
212
196
153
131
102
81
2 0.tl6 571 323 )53 229 115 172 us Tl
Carbon Steel Drilla
Cut
Bronze, Iron, Cast Mild Drop Mal. Tool Caet
Sue
of
Drill
Feed
l:!.
Brua. An•
150 oealed, Ha , tro;:,
Steel, Fora.•
60 30
Jrvn,
45
Steel,
30
St~I,
20
Feet 85 ~ Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet
Feet
lnchu Indies R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M. R.P.M.
~.J:
l,t1
¾
0.003
0.004
0.005
!USO
4575
3050
5185
2593
1728
2440
1220
813
3fi60
IMO
l220
1830
915
610
27'5
1375
915
1830
915
610
1220
610
407
~.
0.006 2287 1296 610 915 458 6.16 458 - 305
0.001 1830 1037 ,ee 732 366 5{B 3(16 245
0.008 1525 86' 4(11 610 305 458 3a; 21)3
0.009 1307 1-41 349 523 261 392 261 174
229 153
o.on 11◄3
0.010 618 3(6 458 229 343
!1• 0.012
0.0)3
015
762
ffi4
S71
519
432
371
244
20,t
175
3416
305
262
)83
15.1
)31
U&
275
212
196
172
18.1
153
131
ll5
122
lO'l
87
77
1 0.0'4 323 153 229
0.016 (58 2!JO 122 183 92 138 92 61
1l~,
l I
2
0.016
0.016
O.ol6
381
327
286
216
186
162
102
88
Tl
153
131
115
77
66
58
106
98
86
77
66
58
51
39
...
• Copniabt. 19ll, by tbe Henry & Wright Mfg. Co.
11
T H E S T A R R E T T H O O I{
The Speed of Drills-Table 3

A feed _per revolution of .004 to .007 for drills U inch and amaller, aRd fr0111
.fXfl to .015 for larger is about all that 1hould be required.
Thia feed le baled on a peril>heral SPeed of a drill equal to:
30 feet per minute for ateel: 35 feet per minute for iron : 60 feet per minute
for brass.
It may al!IO be found advisable to vary the speed somewhat &«Ording as the
material to be drilled i11 more or- less refractory.
We believe that theae 1peeda 1bould DOt be uceedff under ordinary cir-
cumatanc.ea.
Table of Cu ttinK Speeds
Ft. per
Minute 15'
I ~ I I I I w I ,s, I I l
2S' JO' 35' 50' f(Y 70'
1~
Diam. REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE
¾e in. 917. 1223. JS28. 18:W. 2140. 2445. 2751. 3057. 3668. 4280. 4891.
¼ 459. 611. 764. 917. 1070. 122.2. l.375. 1528. 1834. 2139. 2-U.5.
~., 306. 40&. 509. 611. 713. 815. H7. 1019. 1Zl2. 1426. 1630.
¼ 2'l9. 306. 382. 458. 535. 611. 688. 76'. 917. 1070. 1222.
rn. 183. 245. 306. 367. 428. 489. 5.50. 611. 733. 856. 978.
% lS3. 2(M. 25.5. 306. 3,;7_ 408. 458. 509. 611. 713. 815.
en. s2,. 6ll. 699.
~,
'½e
%
us.
91.8
175. 218. 262. 306. 3(9. 393. 437.
153. 191. 229. 2QJ. 306. 344. 382.
12.1. 153. 18'. 21,. 245. 276. 306.
459. 535. 611.
367. "28. 489.
¾ 76.3 1oz. 127. 153. 178. 200. 229. 254. 306. 357. 408.
¾ 6.5.5 87.J 109. 131. 153. 175. 196. 219. 262. 306. 349.
l 57.3 76.4 95.5 us. 134. 153. 172. 191. 229. 267. 306.
1~ 51.0 68.~ 8.5.0 100. 119. 136. 153. 170. 20&. 238. 272.
1¼ 45.8 61.2 76.3 91.8 J07. 123.. 137. 153. 183. Zl4. 24S.
1% 41.7 55.E 69.5 83.3 97.2 111. 125. 139. 167. 195. 222.
11,i, 38.2 50.8 63.7 76,3 89.2 lat. 115. 127. 153. 178. 204.
1% 3.5.0 47.0 58.8 J0.5 82.2 93.9 106. 117. 141. 165. um.
1,~ 32.7 43.E 5'.5 65.S 16.., 87.3 98.2 109. 131. 1S3. )75.
1¾ 30.«i 40.7 50.9 61.1 71.3 81.5 91.9 lO'l. 122. 143. 163.
2 28.7 38.2 47.8 57.3 66.S 7ti.4- 86.C 95.5 ns. 134. 153.
2¼ 2-S.4 34.0 42... 51.0 59.4 68.0 76.2 85.0 102. 119. 138.
2'n 2"L9 30.6 38.2 45.8 53.5 61.2 68.8 76.3 91.7 107. 1.22.
2% 2i».8 27.8 34.7 41.7 48.E 55.E 62.S 69.5 83.4 97.2 111.
3 19.1• 75.S 31.8 38.2 44.E 51.C 57.3 63.7 76.4 89.1 102.
CUTTING COA-IPOUNDS. To maintain high cutting
speeds, it is necessary to use a lubricant. Those recom-
mended have stood the test or service:
For ho.rd and refractory steel, turpentine, kerosene,
or soda water.
For soft steel and wrought Iron, lard oil, or soda
water.
For brass, parafflne oil. _
For aluminum, turpentine, kerosene, or soda water.
For cast iron, a jet of air if anything is used - usu-
ally \\"Orked dry.
LAYING OUT. Locating lhc centers Cor drilled holes
upon the body or the work is termed "laying out." On
the smaller jobs, laying out end drilling are usually done
by the vvorkmon. Larger amounts of work_warrant a
skilled "layer out." -
Laying out for drilling comes under two heads, viz.:
APPROXIA-IATE and ACCURATE. Unless the boles when
drilled are to match up with other holes or ·with fixed
stnds, it is enough if lhe center Is laid off with a chalk
pencil and n steel rule. For jig, tool, and experimental
work, the centers must be accurately laid out and scribed
upon the surface of the work. The practice is to scribe
t,vo or 1nore lines ,vhich intersect at the exact desired
point as shown in Fig. 9. Assume that the link is to
~: Fla. 9
63
THE STARRE''fT B O O K
connect two studs. Proceed to scribe -two intersecting
lines upon one of the hubs, as shown In Fig. 9, using o
combination square fitted with a center head. Al the
intersection accurately pince a light center-punch in-
dentation. Place one leg of a sprJng divider with its
point in the center n1ark and adjust the other leg to have
its point touch lhe edge line of the hub and note the
concentricity of the center. If correct, close dividers to
scribe a circle the diameter of the required drilled hole,
setting th.e points by the scale graduations upon a steel
t )P
FIG. 10
::
rule. Locate light center-punch marks on the scribed
circle as sho,vn in Fig. 10.
\Vhen the \\ ork is Jaitl out. by another than the
9
I A
-~
I
:: FIG,U
H
driller, a second circle, having a slightly greater diameter,
should be scribed. This check ,vill show whether the
hole was drilled to the original lay out. If no impor-
tance is attached to the center to center distance of the
holes proceed as before with lhe second hub. ,vhere
the center to center distance is hnportnnt, set the points
or the universal dividers to the center length, and with
the point A, Fig. 11, in the previously located center mark
scribe on the opposite hub. Scribe a short line across
its face afterward, proceeding as before.
For all accurate ,vork use the automatic center•
punch, Fig. 12, and for henvy work the machloists'
center-punch, shown in Fig. 13.
PREPARING THE SURFACE. For
a.ccurate laying out, clean the 1nachined
surfaces and ,vet the portion to be
worked upon with the copper sulphate
(blue vitriol) solution,. \Vhen dry, the
surface will distinctly show any lines
which are made upon il. Chalk well
rubbed into the surface is sufficient lor
the less accurate jobs.
STARTING THE DRILL.
After laying out and previous
to drilling, greatly enlarge the
center holes with a ccnter-
l)Unch to assist the starting of ScJuntNG CJRcum wrnr DrvtDDS
the drill. Start lhe hole with
drill point in the enlarged center, using hand feed until
a reasonable dimple is made in lhc work. Observe if
this is central with the scribed circle, and if not central
use center gouge, as io Fig. 14, and repeat until accurat~.
TO DRA\V A DRILL. \Vhen starting a drill it often
has a tendency to slide or crowd off to one- side. Where
it is essential that the drilled hole coincide or center
with some previously scribed circle or layout, the drill
16
must be brought buck inlo lhe correct posi-
tion. This is accomplished by the use of a
small gouge-pointed chisel, sometimes called
a center chisel. and the process is termed,
"'drawing the drill." First, note toward ,vhich
side of the small dimple left by the drill-point
it is necessary to shift the drill. Then
chisel a small groove in that side of
the dimple.
If the start is very eccentric, sev-
eral chisel grooves may be necessary;
\\"hereas, if only slightly eccentric, a .. ,
mere touch of the chisel will ofien
.:;..-..-r.,....", suffice. It is readily seen that the drill
is made lo cut more easily where the
grooves are, and therefore the natural
resistance of the opposite side pushes
the drill to,vard the side cut by the
gouge-pointed chisel. Drlll drawing
can only be done previous to reach...
ing the full diameter of cut.
HOLDING THE \VORK. Careless-
ness in holding the work is respon-
sible for mnny drilling accidents. If
no special holding device is. available,
tl1f' ,vork should be held in a drilling
vise. clamped directly to the drilling-
machine table, or clamped to an angle
iron. Fig. 15 illustrnlcs a method of
holding the work safely. When once
Uie work Is clamped in position on
the drilling-rnnchine table, adjust the
table to center the localed hole with
the drill rather than reclamp the work.
HOLDING THE DRILL. In Fig.
FlG. 12 16, at A, lhe drill is shown heid dl- FIG. is
18
rcctly in the spindle. This is a good method if several
holes of the same diameter are to be drilled at o single
setting. \Vhen frequent changing of the drill is neces-
sary, as in drilling holes of numerous si~cs, using a
.single-spindle machine, some form of quick-acting collett
chuck should be used. The changes can then be mode
without stopping the machine,
I
®
Fla.1,
DRILI..ING FOR REAl\lER. ,vhen it is egsenlial that
the holes be of an exact standard diameter, it is cus-
tomary to use u drill .somewhat smaHer than the given
diameter, and after,vard ream the holes to standard size.
The amount left for reaming depends upon whether one
or hvo reaming operations arc necessary, and ,vhether or
not the reaming is to be done directly in the drilling
machine. If the drilling is done through jig bushings
and the holes are short as compared to their diameter,
Fio.15
17
a single reaming operation will often suffice. If the holes
are relatively long, the drill should be 1/64" to 1/32"
s1naller than the finished hole diameter, lo allow for
passing a machine reamer 0.005" small through the hole
which is afterward hand-reamed. This n1ethod gives
results as accurate as any, except by grinding, and is
accepted practice for good work.
DRILLING FOR TAPPING. 1
,vhcre a full thread
depth is essential the hole to be tapped should be made
with a drill of a diameter smaller than the noininal
diameter of the bolt by an amoun I equal to double the
depth of the thread. In practice the nearest commercial
size of drill is listed for drilling tapped holes.
A Flo.16
li8
T H ~: STARRET"f B O O K
Letter Slze1 of Drill• -Table 4
Diameter Decimals Diameter Decimala

lnchel of 1 Inch Inchf:a of J Inch
A
B
C
I'"' .234
.238
.242
N
0 ~e
p 2,¼.
.302
.316
.323
D .246 Q .3.12
E¾ .250 R 1¾!1 .339
F .257 s .348
G .261 T ,%, .358
H 1¾4, .2fJ6 u .368
I .272 V¾ 3T1
JK
L
,,2 .2.77
.281
.290
w2%_.
X
y 1,~2
.386
.397
.404
M 1'94, .295 z .413
Sizes of Tap Drills-Table 5
Tap Thread• Drill fOI' DrlU for U. S. Drill for

Di11111eter per Jach V Thread Standards Whitworth
,.,¾ 16, 18,20

16. 18,20
%2 ~82 l1/e4,
~i• 1%• 13/u
1u 1 %,
*e -¾e
1~2
¾6
¾
16. 18
16. 18
14, 16, 18
¼
}.(
1~,,~2.
%2
¼
,~2
1%,j.
%2
%,- 14, 16. 18 1~ 2¼,, 2¼.
~i. 14, 16 2¼... 11,u l~i:, u,_,
1%, 14, 16 2%4, ¾
12, 13, 14 ~'8 23%, .,,2
¾
•½s
~
1½e 12,
)0,
11,
14
11, 12
12
~1e %.
1~32 ½
%& '16
:ll¾J4
½
'¼e
½ "'
½
¾ 10. 11, 12 1%2¾ ¾ ¾ ¾
1'1& 10 :,1J,if3
½ 9, 10 '3/M 2%2 2o/u '%2
1*•
1
9
8
'-'44
1~p 2~'2 '%:a
See allo pqs 78. 176 and tT7.

18
Handy Equivalent Tabla
Made of Spring Steel
►ro
/
t 0
NO.(ij590
fHt L.S.StAAAEn CO.
1110. {i)ss,
Ii.. A11-Q.,HASS U.S.A. T~ LS.~T.,t.RR£T"f CO.
J;;tO.,.KA$Si. U.S.A.
1, TAP ORllS j l
fOR . DR!t.L SrzE
M,\CHN: SCRO/ TAPS TABU:
,,.
1.ETTl:R Sli:£5
- .. ~t=t=:!it::r,~~
!
: ,~
I ,
't -
.~-
,
.,,_
,.__....c ......<M',' -
,.I •-
t4· 4 4
•I
I •
I • ,,
I • • 1055
I ; - ... Jg;~
-,
I -
I -
I •
f0R STEEL \o\ORI( USC •

TAP ~LL.lt ONE. OR TWO
51Zf:S ~ 'TlWl, ~T
H ' -
µ ,~,f•Xiti"'f"'l.-jl-i• • t
- / J - - i -t:~--~r;- :.,~
80
SIZES OF TAP DRILLS. Because of the large num-
ber of screw thread standards in use, many tables would
be required to cover an selections of tap drills.
The sizes of tap drill ror all pitches of V threads may
be found by the follo,\'ing formula.
1.400
Tap drill = D - - -
T
in which T = nllmher of threads per inch
D = dia. or tap or thread
EXA~IPLE. - \Vhat diameter
of tap drill should be used for a
¾ X 10 tap?
1.400
Tap drlll= .75 - - -
10
= .75 - .14
= .61
NOTE. For U. S. Standard
threads use same formula, but
1.3 should be used in place of
1.4.
FJc.17 DRILLING l4ARGE HOLES.
T,vh;t drHls are sold, ranging in
size from No. 80 ,vire gage lo four inches in diameter.
As the drill increases in diameter the web is corre-
spondingly thickened, and os the cutting edges at the
,veb do not cul as effectively as they do oulside the ,veb
thickness, considerable pressure is required to lorce the
lorger drills into the work nt an efficient cutting feed.
For this reason many workmen first drill o lend hole,
using o drill whose diameter approximates the web thick-
ness of lhe larger drill, as shown in FiJJ- 17. A lead hole
will also assist in centering the drill upon an inclined
surface. However. if the inclination is considerable it
is necessary Jo butt nlill or hand chip a spot giving
81
T JI ~~ S T A R R E T T B O O K
sufficient surface to work upon. The practice of some
firms is lo use in place of a single large drill a relatively
smaller one, after,vard enlarging the hole by so1ne method
of counterboring at a much less expense for tools and
at as rapid a production rate as by entire drilling.
BOI.T HOLES. ,vhcn the bolts are for holding pur-
poses only and are not used for aligning the several
pieces, it is customary to drill the holes through which
the bolts pass sornewhal larger than the bolt diameters.
Th's nllov.·s for a variation in the boll sizes and for in-
accuracy in locating the centers.
DEEP HOLE DRILLING. Under this name may be
classed the drilling of hoJcs through the axes of spindles
-lathe, milling-1nachine, and grinder - and that special
line of drilling known as gun•barrel drilling. \Vhile for
spindle dril1ing it is possible to use ordinary t,vist drills
with extended shankst it is customary in efficient drilling
of this sort to use special drills designed for the purpose.
Fig. 18 shows a special hoJlow drill often used f'or
drilling axial holes in lathe spindles, and Fig. 19 shows
the machine with the drill guides in working position.
FtG.. 18
In all cases of deep-hole drilling U is belier to rotate

the work rather than the drill. The drill must be started
exactly concentric with the axis or the machine. For
this reason a slnrti ng-holc the exacl diameter of the dri 11
Js first counterbored.
COUNTERBORING. There are many cases in which
it is desirable to enlarge a hole throughout a portion of
et
T H E STAI\RETT Ji O O K
F10.19
its length. If a drill is used for this purpose there is

no certainty thot ,the two diameters will be concentric.
The practice is lo enlarge the already drilled hole by
using a cutting too) having a pilot or leader to guide the
cutting edges. This tool is kno,vn as a counterbore, and
its use is termed counterboring. In Fig. 20 are shown the
lool in operation and its purpose.
FJG. 20
68
T H E STARRETT BOOK
84
.THE STARRE'fT H O O K
THE LATHE
CARE OF THE LATHE. The engine lathe is capable
of producing the largest variety oC product of any of
the n1achine-tool family. Especial attention should be
given to applying a suitable machine oil to all the bear--
ings, tor improper lubrication of the wearing surfaces
is one of the immediate causes of e~cessive ,vear. A
medium-size flexible-bottom squirt can is best for this
purpose, and oiling should be frequent on those bear•
ings ,vhich are given the ~everest service, either from
excessive pressure or from high-speed rubbing. All oil
hol cs should be kept free and clean, and where possible
should be protected fro1n entering dirt. Those bearings.
as, for example, the ways upon which the carriage moves,
which by construction arc hard lo protect-from dirt,
should be frequently cleaned and reoiled. At least once
u ,veek the lathe should receive an all-over cleaning,
and the bearings should be washed out with kerosene.
A plugged oil hole prevents the proper lubrication of the
bearing.
INDICATING AND ADJUSTING. Upon the condi-
tion of the centers, rests to a large degree the accuracy
of the work produced. After attention to lubrication
the competent workman proceeds to prepare and test
the centers. Remove both centers and after cleaning
them and the tapered holes note whether they return to
their places with a successful flt. The "dend" or foot-
stock center should have a hardened point to resist wear.
The cone-points of the centers should be smooth and an
exact sixty degrees. The centers should align with each
other in the vertical and horizontal planes, and the '4,live"
or head-stock cone...point should rotate truly concentric
with its axis.
The trial .and error method of adjusting the centers
in alignment is to ftrsl bring the cone-points nearly into
88
T H 14: S"fARRETT H O O I{
contact. ancl by adjusting the fool-stock frame upon its

cricket bring them into as exact truth as is reasonably
possible. ,Vith the foot-stock clamped in position lo
receive the ,vork. surface the diameter of a trial piece
for a length sufficient to allow testing its diameter at
se,•eral places. If the dia1netcr increases or decreases
as the tool passes along the length of the ,vork, readjust
the foot-stock and repeat the lest until the required
CONTAcr POINTS
fl.JU. IIZ[
c.J!r Iii:
0
UNrYDsAI., D1,u, TEST INDICATOR

FIG. 21
degree of accuracy is obtained. To test the live center

for conccntricity, place in the lool-post a universal test-
fndJcator, as shown in Fig. 21, with the feeler in touch
with the cone-point. Rotate the head-stock spindle
slowly by hand and note the dial. Ir the dial sho,vs an
eccentricity In excess or the allowed limits ror the job
88
lo be done, the cone-point should be machined true. In

cases where it is customary to have the live as well as
the dead center hardened, the cone-point mu.st be trued
by some grinding attachment. as, for example, a tool-post
grinding fixture. By many ,vorkmen the live center is
left unhardened, and can be trued with a square nose-
culling tool, and afterward lightly filed to a smooth sur-
FIG. 22
lace. To test either center for its proper conc..poinl

angle use is made of a center gage, shown in Fig. 22.
TEST INDICATOR. This is a tool for indicating
1ninute contact variations upon a graduated dial or upon
l'1
Trulns Work in Chuck
Truinai JI&' on Face Plate
'
Indicator Used with Surface Gage on Bench Plate

88
a graduated are. The graduations are usually one bun•
dred in a complete circle ,vith an easily read width of
spacing. The instrument is built in such a way that one
of these spaces represents a movement of the contact-
point of 1/1000 inch.
Various mechanisms ore employed for multiplying
the movement or the contact-pointJ all of which arc
based upon a combination of short and long arm levers.
USE. The test-indicator may be used with advantage
in any of the common 1nachine tools, to in-
dicate eccentricity in the lathe, milling ma-
chine, or grinding 1nachine; lo indicate uni-
formity of height in the planer, shaper, boring
mnchineJ or milling machine; to indicate par-
allelisf!l, and to test for alignment in any_
1nachine.
\VORK CENTERS. lfost turned work is
done upon the lnthe centers, and it becomes
necessary to provide suitable cavities in the
,vork, coned to· flt the cone-points. This is
termed "centering the work,0 and consists in
first locating the position of the cavities and
afterward drilling and reaming them to form
and size. Best practice in this respect is to use
a combination drill and center reamer, as it
insures exact concentricity in the drilled nnd
reamed hole.
LOCATING THE CENTERS. lt is evident
that the centers should be so located that the
entire dia1neter ot the turned job shall finish
to size. Beside this, efficient turning demands HB:ltM,\P&ao-
that the chip taken shall be of practically uni- DlT£
fdr1n depth as the work rotates against the CAJJpna
cutting tool. For these reasons so1ne degree of accuracy
in centering is necessary. \Vhcre the turned job is made
..
from ordinary black bar stockJ the centers may be located
LATHE TOOLS
I 2 3 4 5 6
l Llf'T•IL\Nt) SmB TOOL -& R!GBT•HAND OlAMOND Poorr

2 RlCRT•BAND SIDB TOOL 5 L2Fr-RAM) DJAMOm> PolNT
3 RIGHT-BAND BENT TOOL 6 ROUND-NOSB TOOL
7 8 9 10 II 12
1 CUmNG-ow TOOL 10 RoUCHINO T0aL

8 THRIW>JN0 TOOL 11 BcwNo TOOi.
9 BllNT THRlfA1>JNO Too.r 12 b.'Sll>B TRUADING TOOL
TO
by scribing lines at an angle across the ends, using a
combination square wilh a center head and the provided
scriber. In place of this tool a hermaphrodite caliper
may be used to scribe the ends of the stock. The center
is located with a center-punch et lhe intersection of the
scribed lines and the coneentricity tested by spinning
the bar upon the lathe centers. If necessary, the center-
punch 1narks are shifted. If lhe piece is bent it must,
ofter centering, be straightened lo reasonable truth. For
exact turned work the centers should afterward be lightly
rereamed to correct the errors in their alignment due to
the straightening of the bar.
\Vhen the" Job is lo be turned from a forging, it b
usual to roll the forging on straight edges and scribe
lines across lhe ends, using a surface or h_eight gage.
In such cases the forging is so localed ·with "te!crence to
the straight edges as to give a fair average of the surface
~rrors due lo forging.. It is also usual lo leave a greater
excess of stock for finishing purposes upon a forging
than upon rolled bar stock. \Vhen the centers nre well
located the holes may be drilled under a drill-press or
in a hand-lathe, as convenient. \Vhere much bor stock
must be centered a special self-locating centering machine
is often used.
LATHE TOOLS. A set of tools for use in the engine
lathe is shown in the chart on page 70. While in com-
mon shop language all these are known as cutting tools,
technica11y speaking, many of lhcm separate the stock in
a manner that is analogous lo cro,vding off the 1nelnl
rather than by pure cutting action. Cutting in its proper
sense is a splitting action, and a properly ground and
properly set culling tool is a ,vedge in that it splits off
the excess stock. Among the common lathe tools, the
side tool and the diamond-point tool are the best exam-
ples of wedge or splltting action.
The nose of a cutling tool has several sides, two of
n
T H E Sl'ARRETT B O O K
which £>Orne together al some angle to form a cutting
edge. The angle formed by these surfaces must be sum~
cient for strength, nnd to furnish enough metal to con-
duct away the heat generated by the cutting action. For
turning ordinary soft steel and son gray iron an angle
of sixty degrees is good practice. For harder materials
the angle may be increased. In the case of forged lathe
tools, the ,vorking end of the tool is forged upon lite end
of a short piece of square or rcctanguJar bar stock. The
length and size of the shank of the forged tool depend
upon the size of chip and lhe machine used.
'RAKE. The angle which lhe upper side of lhe tool
makes wilh the horizontal is termed the rake. If the
l>::P
i______
'I
CUTTINO
ANGL~
•I
I
L---------:... ~
: FIIO'tT\
Clc.A"A.Jc~
FrG. 23
slant is away from lhe work it is termed front rake; If

in the direction of the axis of the workJ it is termed side
rake. A cutting tool may have its upper face forged and
ground with either n front or a side rake or a combina-
tion of both. (See Fig. 23.)
CLEARANCE. By clearance ls meant the angle which
the llndcr side or the tool makes ,vith the vertical. As
in the case of "rake" the clearance directly away from
the axis of the work or lathe ls termed front clearance,
71
that along the axis of the work side clearance. ,vith
the tool in cutting posltion the clearances must be in any
case not less than three degrees, and in most cases not
more than ten degrees.
RIGHT-HAND TOOLS. These are tools having the
rake, clearances, and cutting edges formed to turn or
sc1uare from the right towards the left.
LEFI'-HAND TOOLS. \Vhen the rake, clearances,
and cutting edges are formed to cut from the left to the
right the tool is known as a left.hand tool.
SETTI~G THE LATHE TOOL. It is very important
that the lathe tool be properly set in relation to the axis
of the work and the dire~tion of the cut. ,vhile there
arc exceptions, notably that or the diamond point, lathe
tools are usually set with the cutting point al-the exact
heish,t or the axis of the lathc4 In the case of the dia-
mond point, the front clearance is usually forged to
nneen degrees or over. It is necessary, therefore, to set
the point above the alti.s height to obtain a working clear-
ance or not to exceed ten degrees'. Unless the cutting
tool has a bent shank it is usually set nt right-angles to
the surface or the work.
GRINDING LATHE TOOLS. Lathe tools made from
carbon tool steel should be shar,ened by grinding upon
a wtt emery-grinder, or upon an ordinary water-drip
grindstone. If made from the newer high-speed steel
the grinding should be upon a dry and rather coarse
abrasive wheel. The grinder should have a suitable
work-rest upon which to support the tool in sharpening
the larger tools, or for resting the hands in the case of
the smaller tools.
For purposes of safety, the work rest .should be firmly
and securely clamped as close as possible to the used face
of the wheel. The grinding may be done upon the pe-
riphery of a disk-wheel or upon the sides of a cup-wheel,
as de.sired. In any case the wheel should rotate to force
'II
the tool upon the rest rather than fro111 il, and should
run true and in balance. Efficient cutting depends \fery
largely upon the correct sharpening, as well as the cor-
rect setting of the cutting tool, and great core should be
taken ,,.,hen grtnding a lathe tool to have the several
faces true and inaking correct angles \\"itb eoch other.
The manner of doing this is a pretty good index of the
workman. The usual lathe-cutting tools have well-de-
• I
..
' '(. .,..15•,
\
,
.
,y
,
FJG.!4
.fined cutting edges, and the angularity of the surfaces
which meel lo form the cutting edge can often be meas-
ured with a bevel protractor, and in the case of a sixty-
degree angle the center gage is suitable. This tool is
also used to test the S)ngle when grinding a vee-pointed
thread tool, es illustrated in Fig. 24.
TESTING THE CUITING ANGLES. As the usual
machine construction materials arc not excessively hard,
a cutting angle of not far from sixty degrees may
be maintained on such tools as the side tool and the
diamond point. In this case the angle can be tested by
use ot the usual center gage. ,vherc cutUng angles other
Ti
thnn oo• arc used, also for testing clearances, the uni•
versal Bevel Protractor is useful.
TOOL HOLDERS. The high cost of the materials
used for modern cutting tools has resulted in the mar-
keting of a vuriely of holders designed to bold cutting
points. In this manner a large number of relatively
inexpensive cutting points ore made lo interchange in
a single shank or holder. One form of tool-holder is
made .to hold points forged in the regular forms sho",."
in the. chart, page 70. In some examples, however, the
holders ore made to carry short bils broken from s<11u1re
bar stock and niter-ward sharpened into some resen1-
blance to the true forged shape. {See Fig. 25.)
FIG. 2S
l\rATERIAl..S POR CUTTING TOOLS. These are

known as cnrbon steel (lool steel), high-speed steel, and
a new product of the electric furnace sold under the
trade nan1e of "Stelllte/1 Carbon steel, or, as it ,vas
formerly termed, "tool steel," is high in carbon, eighty
point to one hundred and twenty-five point, and when
correctly heated and afterward plunged in cold water,
hnrde11s to a very high degree. Unfortunately for high-
speed cutting the bardness is drawn at a comparatively
lo,v heat, and care must obtain not to overheat or blue it.
HJgh.speed steel is a special steel having its com•
position alloyed with tungsten and perhaps vanadium
or n1olybde11um. While heat treatment does not give it
the exceeding hardness or lool or carbon steel, high-
71
THE S T A R R E T T Il O O K
speed steel has the peculiar prop<!rty of retaining its

hardness at ten1perntures considerably in ex.cess of those
which readily soften tool steel. Tools made fron1 high-
speed steel are used al speeds, feeds, and culs which
heat the tools and chips lo a dull red.
Stellite is a new cutting n1aterial composed of chro-
mium, cobalt, and son1etimes tungsten. It is cast into
form and cannot be forged. Its hardness is equal to the
diamond, and under favorable conditions mnrv<!lous turn-
ing moy be done.
MANDRELS. \\'here the work is to be turned true
with a hole through it, as, for example, turned pulleys,
work ..centers must be provided for holding it on the lathe
centers. The conunon way is to force or drive Into
the work-hole a bar having center holes in its ends. This
bar should be classed as a tool-room tool, and is properly
known as a mandrel. although often. called an arbor.
A standard set of mandrels varies in diameter and 1n
length. according to the shop conditions. They are
made of either tool steel hardened and ground true with
the centers, or fro1n soft machinery steel. case-carbonized
and afterward ground. The ends for a short distance
are reduced in diameter and provided with flats for
clamping o·n the dog. l\fandrels usually taper at the rote
of 0.0005" in an inch. The diameter of the hole fitted
by lhe 1nandrel is sta111ped upon the larger end. As the
quality or the work depends upon the truth of the man-
drel it ·should be tested upon dead c-enters with a test-
indicator before being used. To use, drive or force it into
place, using n .h·landrcl press for forcing or a lead hainmer
for driving, carefully removing dirt, chips, or pieces of
lead from the centers before placing the work in a lathe.
Lathe drive with the usunl lathe-dog as for any job done
on the centers. Avoid forcing or driving the mandrel
into a hole that is neither round nor straight. Also ovoid
scoring the mandrel with the cutting tool.
78
SCRE\V THREAD CUTTING. A screw thread is a

helical groove cut or f'ormed into the surface of a bar,
rod, or bolt, or inside a nut. For ordinary machine
screws, bolts, studs, etc., the threads are made ,vilb
special tools called threading dies. These are screwed
upon lhe bolt, screw, or stud to be threaded by rotating
either the ·work or the die. Threading dies are used
both by hand and in power-driven machines.
SCRE\V THREADS. There are numerous screw-
thread stondards in more or less general use. The so-
called United States standard is in this country the more
generally accepted one, and is therefore illustrated in
Fig. 26 and Table 6. It will be noted that in addition
to a definite form of thread cross-section each diameter
has a specified number of threads per inch._ of length.
The United Slates standard thread, when secli~ned, shows
a truncated sixty degrees triangle ,vith the space and
the land alike.
PITCH AND LEAD.
Pitch in a thread is the i..... PITCH-·---J /WIDTH
distance measured from the f ~~Of FLAT
center of one thread to I'
lhe center of an adjacent OEPTtj
thread. If the screw thread OF TH ?- .
is a single heli1'., the lead is
equal to pitch. Ir the helix
is double. the lead is double Ftc. 26
the pitch. \Vhile sl rictly speaking pitch is the reciprocal
or the number of threads per inch, as, tor example, 1/7,.
pitch for a screw thread 7 per linear inch, shop men
speak of it os 7 pitch, '\Vrilten, 7 P.
THREADING IN A LATHE. When screw threads
arc cut in nn engine lathe, lhe point of the cutting tool
is shaped to the exact form of the spnccs.bet,veen threads.
By means of a lead screw a.nd a train .of gearing the tool
is compelled to move along the axis of the work at a
'IT
U.S. Standard Screw Threads-Table 6
, Dimensions of Nute
if i ... Arealn
Sq. Jnc:bea
aud Bolt Heads
?~ 0
~; r~
1~ ~
~
" ~-e ,ra

~
"'
~ ~ ~
l ~x
.... c At Root
o.
5~ i Of
Bolt
of
Thread ij ~ -~
¾
¾e
20 0.185
18 0.240
Q°'
)
¾
,~(.
i5t--i
0.049
0.026 ½
0.076
0.045 1,~2
J.--i
0.578 0.707 ¾
0.686 0.840 ~8
¼
1,64-
¾ 16 0.294 ~6 0.068 11/ia
0.110 0.794 0.972 ¾ 1~~2
%0 14 0.345 2 ~e. 0.093 2 ➔-:12
0.150
:17Jo, 0.196 0.126 ¼
0.902 1.105 ~'18 2o/iw
½ 13 0.400 1.011 1.237 ½ T./2.s
%s 12 0.454 1 ~92 0.248 0.162 !tl/22 1.119 1.370 'he 3lfaoi
¼11 0.507 1;s2 0.307 0.202 I½, 1.227 1.502 ¾ 1~~~
¾10 0.620 "~i, 0.442 0.302 I¼ 1.444 1.768 ¾ ¾
¼9 0.731 ¾ 0.601 0.419 11Aa 1.660 2.033 ¼ l%s,
1 8 0.838 ~64 0.785 0.551 l½ 1.877 2.298 1 13/is
I.¾ 7 0.939 3¾J:, 0.994 0.694 11 ¾6 2.093 2.563 l},'e 2 ,12
l¾ 7 1.064 lo/a2 1.227 0.893 2 2.310 l¾ 1
2.828
l¾ 6 1.158 1¾2 1.485 1.057 2¾tt 2.527 3.093 l¾ 1%2
I½ 6 1.283 1u,s2 1.767 1.295 2~•'8 2.743 3.358 l½ l¾a
1% 5½ 1.389 }2~6~ 2.074 1.515 21½e 2.960 3.623 l!•i 1~~2
1¾ 5 1.490 11~~% 2.405 1.746 2¾ 3.176 3.889 1,,, 11/e
I¼. 5 1.615 12~,,2.761 2.051 21 ¾e 3.393 4.154 l¼ 11 %2
2 4½ 1.711 1'%, 3.142 2.302 3J,i 3.609 4.419 2 1,,.
2¼ 4½ 1.961 2¼" 3.976 3.023 3½ 4.043 4.949 1¾
21/
,,4
2½ 4 2.175 2•%, 4.909 3.719 3½ 4.476 5.479 2½ }1'11
2¾ 4 2.425 2s;6.., 5.940 4.620 4¼ 4.909 6.010 2¾ 2¼
3 3½ 2.629 21;1.8 7.069 5.428 4¾ 5.342 6.540 3 2o/ie
3¼ 3½ 2.879 21 ¾6 8.296 6.510 5 5.775 7.070 3~i 2½
3~ 3¼ 3.100 31%, 9.621 7.548 51/s 6.208 7.600 3½ 21 ~i.
33 41 ~ 3.317 3¾ 11.045 8.641 5¾ 8.131 3¾ 2¼
6.641
4 h1 3.567 3¾ 12.566 9.96.1 6¾ 7.074
8.661 4 3¾e
4¼ 21/a 3.798 3:i#~~l 14.186 11.340 6½ 9.191 4¼ 3¼
7.508
4½ 2¾ 4.028 4%2 15.904 12.750 6½ 9.721 4½ 3~18
7.941
4!i 2¾ 4.255 4~ii6 17.721 14.215 1¾ 10.252 4¾ 3¾
8.374
5 2½ 4.480 4,,.6
19.635 15.760 71/, 10.782 5
8.807 3 1 *8
5¼ 2½ 4.730 4 ¾e 21.648
1 17.570 8 9.240 11.312 5¼ 4
5½ 2~/, 4.953 5¼2 23.758 19.260 8¾ 9.673 11.842 si, 4~,
5¾ 2¾ 5.203 5,~2 25.967 21.250 8¾ 10.106 12.373 5¾ 4¾
6 2¼ 5.423 5~i 28.274 23.090 9½ 10.539 12.900 6 49h,
CouaTBST OF ., MAawa:KY "
See al9o pagea 55. 56. 168 and lfl>.
'18
definite rate of advance as the work• rotates. As the
train of gears usually furnished with an engine lathe
can be ehnnged to give different rates of advance, it is
In this manner possible lo cul lhreads or a .large variety
of pile.hes. In practice a set of several gears having dif-
ferent numbers of teeth are furnished with each lathe.
Those furnished will usually provide for cutting all the
threads within the usual range of the lathe with which
they come. These arc known as "change gears/' and
thejr use is obvious.
SEJ..ECTING CHANGE GEARS. Given the number
of threads per Hnear inch lo be cut and the number of
threads per linear inch of the lead screw, the problem
is to select gears giving the desired ratio of cut to lclld
screw. For example, it is desired that single seven
threads per linear inch shall be cul upon 'I 1 ¼-inch
bolt, and it is found by scaling that the lathe lead screw
has single five threads per linear inch. The ratio of elll
to lead screw is then that of .seven to five ( 7/5). The
change gears selected should, therefore, be as seven is
to flve. If both members of a fraction are multiplied
by the same number, the ratio is not changed. This
allows of raising the fraction to suit the gears ,vhich arc
, a 35
in the set fL1rnished; for example, -- X - = -. II gears
5 5 25
having thirty.Rve teeth and twenty..five teeth, respec-
tively, are found in the furnished set, the selection of
these gears will give, ,vhcn rightly placed, the desired
tool advance for cutting seven threads per linear inch.
The directions above refer to the most simple form
of lnthe. Various 1athe manuracturers have introduced
different arrangement~ of the gearing, but with any lathe
the above procedure v,dll give correct results if it is first
determined whet number of threads per inch will be
cul if gears of the same number of teeth arc placed on
spindle stud and lead screw. This number caned the
79
Lathe Set Up for Thread CuttJne

Note Thread Stop at A
80
1'' H E S T A R R E T T B O O K
4(1athe scre,v constant" should then be considered as

being the number of teeth on the lead screw gear even
though it is not the actual number.
PLACING THE CHANGE GEARS. The com1non
engine lathe hos projecting through its headstock a .shaft
known as the "stud.'. Thls projects a sufficient distance
SIMPLB TRAIN OP Ga.us POI. TIIRFAD CUTnNo

81
to allo,v of mounting gearing and usually the upper
cone for the feed belt. Gears mounted or to be mounted
upon this projecting slud are termed "stud gears." Those
mounted upon the projecting end of the leod screw are
known as lead gears. ,vhen the number of threads to be
cut is more per linear inch than that of the lead scrc,v,
the smaller of the selected gears is placed upon the
"STUD'' and the larger upon the Jead serc,v. In the
example, the 25-tooth gear would be placed on the stud
and the 35-loolh gear on the lead scre,v. Reverse lhe
order if the number of threads per linear inch is less
than thal of the lead screw. The number of teeth in the
large idler gear has no bearing upon the results, as it
simply conveys the 1nolion of the upper or stud genr to
the lower or Jead-scre,v gear. In the above it is assumed
that the stud rotates in unison with the lathe spindle.
CO?tf POUNDING THE GEARS. As a means of en-
larging lhe rnngc of threads per linear j nch possible lo
be cut with any set of change gears. most Jathes arc
provided ,vith an adjustable con1pound auxiliary stud
which is provided ,vilh hvo locked gears having a ratio
each to the other of t,vo to one. As an exan1ple of their
use, assume that a gear having ninety teeth wos needed
upon the lead screw to cut a given number of threads.
It the set of gears furnished failed to provide a ninety
gear, but did provide one of forty~fi ve teeth, placing
this on the lead screw and meshing the hvo to one com-
pound stud into the train comp]etes the desired ratio,
and advances the tool as H the 90-tooth gear had been
used.
THREAD TOOL. A1nong the tools listed on poge 70
is shown the ordinary threadi ng-lool point. Jt is obvious
that this or any other rorm of point must be formed and
tested to give the correct form of thread. The point
sho,vn has sides at an angle with each other of sixty
degrees. The point can therefore be tested 'With a center
a
T H E S T A R R E T T n o o I{
CoNPOVND GaARs f'OR THuAD CUTnNo

gage or rule. The sa1ne gage may also be used in setting
the tool square with the axis of the work (see page 74).
GRINDING THREAD TOOLS. It is hnporlant that
the point of the tl1rcad tool shall conform to the outline
of the groove between the adjacent threads, and that
the surfaces belo,v the cutting edge properly clear the
stock being cut. \\'hen grinding a thread tool, particu-
83
lnr care should be given to have the clearances sufficient
for the lead of the thread.
SETTING THE TOOL. Set the tool point at the
exact height of the lathe centers, and ot right•angles to
the axis of· the lathe.
USES OF CUTTING LUBRICANT. Use lard on
when threading steel, wrought, and malleable iron. Cut
the cast metals dry.
TlluAD CtrrnNC TOOL Sn AT HEIGHT OF U.THE CEN1U
RIGHT AND LEFT THREADS. A right•hand thread

results when lhe threading tool is advanced from right
to left as il cuts. If the tool when cutting advances
from left to right the resulting scre,v has a left-hand
thread.
l.lEASURING AND TESTING SCRE\V THREADS.
For ordinary purposes screw threads ,vhen cut are fitted
to some threaded bole. This may be n hardened and
ground gaget or may be e.n ordinary threaded nut,
depending upon the accuracy of the work. ,vhere lhe
quality of the work de1nands speeial. accuracy, or where
8'
standard threaded gages arc not available, the thread

is tested by measurements made with calipers. If the
point of the thread tool has been carefully and exactly
formed and accurately set in place, measuring the diam-
eter at the root of the thread may give sufficiently accu-
CALIPBRS FOR TE911NG TRRJw,s

rate results, nnd this may be done with a set of thin
point spring calipers. \\'ben greater accuracy than this
is required, micrometers having special thread-measur-
ing points are resorted to' (see Fig. 27). In all this it
is assumed that lhe thread tool is ground, set, and oper-
oted to give an exact thread outline.
lfEASURING LATHE WORK. \Vork done in the
engine lathe is of such a variety that a considerable list
of measuring tools mny be needed to cover all cases.
Ordinarily, however, the dinmeter measurements can be
81
T H E S T A R R E ·r T B O O K
made wlt_h spring calipers, micrometers, or some of the
usual bar calipers. Cylindrical plug and ring gages,
as well as limit snap gages, are also used for diameter
measurements, and many of these may be used in meas~
uring the shorter lengths. For lhe lonser measurements
or length, steel rules are provided with or without sliders.
The n1ore occnralc measurements are usually made by
using a micrometer.
Fie. 21
TAPER TURNING. ,vhere two perts are to flt firmly
together when in use, as, for example, centers into lathe
spindles, and it it desirable lo have them easily remov-
able, what are known as Laper-fits are used. For this
purpose several rates of change in diameter have become
stmndards. Pages 87 and 88 give the n1ore common stand-
ords. The Brown & Sharpe Standard is in general use
for lhe spindle tapers in milling machines. The l\lorse
taper is the one commonly used for all drills and dri11-
ing mnchinery. Either of these may be used for the
tapered hole in lathe spindles, while some lathe manu-
facturers have establlshed standards of their own.
86
Brown & Sharpe Taper Shanks-Table 7
""''"'
"' ..""..
~ .........
TANII
L
1" f
I I d
~
I I s
I J
I
Taper~ ft. ia ~ in., except for No.10 shank. where the tal)er is 0.5161 in. per ft.
0 il
--lio~ i
j
,W 4)
co GI
....0 ~
t 1;l Cl
'l.i
=
iS::
'Ei,
~
0 j>,
....= ~£ -O:,., ........ .... 0
BC)
~~
0&1
-
]! u
e·CI Eo .!~
0 li CID"l 0 .cl
=~ !~ ~~ .....Ill.E--ia
,0
._ I\,) I'll
~~
0 "'
e.:~ o;s:: ~~
:,r:-
I'll
·-1
0 ...
1.c '"':lo e ...5i
,Q
! .,,0
ca-
C >.
4J :it
yO
~
II,)
z 0'4 i:S 1/) w ...i~ :tt:a::

- IA (I)
-
A B C D E F C I{ -K L M
-l 0.239 1,s.2 l¾s 0.200 1%s l¼tt J&.10 ~ O.llS ¾o
~.
~11
2 0.299 )11r12 l½ 0.250 1~. l¾~ 11¼4 ½i 0.166 ¼ %:t
3 0.375 lB¼:i Bs 0.312 l½ l~~ 11 %a Ye 0.197 ltJ.41 '1.11
3 0.385 211.1 2¼ 0.312 11'-', I¼ li¼:i ¼ 0.197 I\.),
3 0.395 21~~.:.J 2's 0.312 z 2~i 1e;-a~ % 0.197 ~u, ~lG
•'
0.402
0.420
1,~
2•he
1u,~, 0.350 11/L
2,,:1 0.350 ]1½8
1'¥,
}lfu
l" Jl~
lt¼-1
1 ¼ti
...
~141
0.2?.8
0.228
l~W2
l.%2 ~"
~s:!
~•1
5 0.523 2,,:1 .2,1n 0.450 P½.11 0.260 ¼
5 0.533
5 0.539
21 '!,-ii, 2l'ts
221,,:? ~is
0.450 2
0.450 2~s
i~
21/,
11,~,
21/tft
¾
¾
0.2fi0
0.260
¼
¼
6 0.599 25 1.a:.1 ~i 0.500 ~8 2¼ 21 ~-&t H
r-, 0.291 %s %2
6 0.635 32 ~·12 3•'
,.f, 0.500 3¼
2~,
3H 31¼, 0.291 'f/2 .,
,,_,
~:I
z,,~, ...,,.,
7 0.704 3¼ 3~31 0.600 2'Aa 218-112 1glll 0.322 1,1)1
1 0.720 3\ir J1%11 0.600 th 3 22~1t) 0.322 1%:IJ ~\e
7 &.ns 3~8 3 1 %■ 0.600 3 3¾ 1 ~in 0.322 1%2 ¾•
7 0.167 4~ 41,,, 0.600 4 4¾ 31%2 11)11 O 322 1%11 ~~fl
8 0.898 4 f, 4~ 0.150 3~ii, 31½.B 32 '!~ 1 0.353 ~!I
,,.
1¼12
8 0.917
9 l.067
411/ie
'4%·'ie 0.750
0.900 4' 4~
4~
36~'M l
31-~ H}
0.353 »ta
0.385 "14
l>,f,:r
'B,11
g 1.077 5 4¼ 0900 4+'. 4 ·Hs l1 0.385 ~.,
10 1.260 511,..~ 62:Jil, J.0,U6 5 Mi 42 ~:S2 1~~8 0.447 lt¼,2 ~\e
1.04,6 5?o 51r,iJ1 0.447 2 ~ii2 %.
10 l.289
10 1.312
ll 1.496
61 !-~2 61¾:1
71/i• 61¾-,
62 %2 &?~llz
1.0446
~.
@ 2
1.250 Slo/.i.
51 !¾e
61 ~B2
61/11\
~o
51 %2
ltie
I'Vio
1~16
0.447
0 447
2 ~19
1 ¼ui
J~i,
~,.
1A•
11 1.531
12 1.7'¥!
13 .2.073
71 ~~9 11 r;a.1
8½.o
~t"
71 ~11.1
11•,-111'
1.250
1.500
1.750
2.000 ea,,.
1~~
7a'
.-t
6J,i
1;.
7¼
61%2
~,.
61%, 11/2
l'Ytn
B' 0 510
0.447
0.510
~,
¾
~1•
1,~
~~
14 2.34-4
IS 2.615
16 2.885 10%
91%2
l
9%■
~it 2.250 8:1/,-1
2.500 9¼ !ij
8¼1
81'¾3
9
1411.1 0.572
P½.o
l¾
0.572
0.635
•~s. ~"'
2%11
l'},h
~-,
~,
17 3.156 . ., . . . . . 2.150 ~ 9? . .. .
. ...
. ... ..... .. .... ......
.... ....
18 3.421 . .. . .. . . 3.000 ]OJ,~ 10~ "' • ■ Ill I
87
T H E S T A R R E T T H O O K
Mone Standard Taper Shanks-Table 8
~t{~•t i~~~
·r
1
I f1
SOCl<!TOA
~P, .. C>I.E
-
-"«I~
- -=~ ....
cl...... ~ ..1 -g ... 1:-=
- ~t
~J aJ C. .:a: 'o >. :I C,11
-»
...
.: ! .. 0
-.c: C: 0 .c ft! "' ::I
~I
p
0 IQ
.8 ~tit-: c"°
~~ !. t,l "C~
z
e• E2co
....
:i f-c ~A. E
'Ci~ is~
00
'C :
C
Cl
..,
C/)5:;
bO
;ii
o l. ca
~
Q;:t,:
s:: ..
IIJ~
.g~ ~~ ;it ~
,:.,:~
~~ i="e> ·-
~::ii:: ~~ f-,
..
..:.=..i::
Q "' ~ H
- - -- - - - - - - - -- -- -- ---- -- --
D A p B H K L T t w s
- - - --· - - -- - -· --- - - -- - - -
,1.
~ ~
0 0..252 0.356 2 ~ii~ 2¼, 11~,. i,~ ~it, 0,16() 2",a% .623
1 0.31:9 0.475 2~ . 0 2~ • 2¼e ¾ ¾fl ~ t 0,213 2~8 .600
2 0.572 0.700 2~in 3~111 2~ 2¼ ~11
'A ¼ 0.200 2,s .60'l
3
"56
0.778
1.020
1.475
0.9:ffl 3'1.a 3¾
1.23] 4-J.ls 4~~
].748 53/i, 6
3¼
4¼
5¼
3¼e
37 s l¼
,f,l~ie l½
11/141
,~
~e
½
~I 0.322
1-,,30.478
'8 0.635
4~,
3'11
5~4
.602
.62.1
.6.10
2.116 2.494 7¼ 8'1/i, 1,11 7 1¾ ¾ 0.760 8 .626
1 2.7Stl 3.270 10 ll~e 201,8 9% 2~ ""
ns He l.135 lH~ .625
Shott Shanks
7~,
0
1
2
3
4
5
0.271
0.388
0.600
0.816
1062
l.532
0.356 ]~
0.-'75 1¾
0.700 2
0.938 2~11
1.231 3114
1.748 0111
)8¼2
~le
2'½.e
3¼
4½e
Mh
12¾: Jl~it
]1'1_c,
2;~"
21,,
3'½i,
4i,,e
12;,,
J2Tj:.,
VS.!l
28 ¼2
33 ~R2 2
~"
11!-i,e
l'ie
1%.e
1¾
¼
'1e
7
~~e
~
1/,
111
l
~-~,
~ti
¼
5111
0.1951
0.260
0.3B7
0.514
0.6'39
1:
2
2"'
21 ~~a
31~,
1.0U .,'¾t
.625
.600
.602
.602
.623
.630
6 2.201 2.494 5~i;i 'Ah 5¾ S¾i!i 2¾ He I¼ 1.2(,6 6¾ .626
7 2.857 J.2';0 '11 o/i:. 91 ½a S¾e 7~1 Jl!ia H2 M8 1.642 9o/Je .625
The dimensi011s given above for regular (full length) Mone taper shanks are
those which have been accepted as etandard and are used b.1 most man1Jfacturen.
In a recent catalo,rue of the Morse Twist Drill & Machine Co., boweve-r, a table- is
aiven in whkh the length of the tang and, consequently, the whale len~h of the
shank is s1i•htly in<:reased. The increase in length. however, ie so slight that it
d0e:1 not prevent the 9hank from titting into the ordinary standard taper socket.
88
TURNING TAPERS. Ordinary tapers are rated at
the amount ,vbich the diameter changes in a foot's length;
as, for example, the Brown & Sharpe taper of ~ inch
per fool. To turn a taper it is necessary lo use a lathe
provided with a taper attachment or to adjust the foot-
stock of the engine lathe sufficiently off center to give
- - --- - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _---,1
.
-~-----.------ '
---
~.,..- -~ ------
''
~----i-~---I
- -
'
I
TAPER TtntNING IN I..AfllB
89
THE S T A R R E T T 8 0 0 I{
the required rate of diameter change. As all taper attach-

ments are gra<!uatcd to read direct, they are easily set
for the required taper. Adjustment of the foot-stock of
an engine lathe is not so simple as the taper attachment.
In setting the taper attachment, the axial distance the
center points arc apart is not important, while this dis-
tance must be considered in setting over lhc fool-stock
of the lathe.
AMOUNT TO OFFSET CENTERS FOR GIVEN
TAPER. If the distance the center points enter the
work or the mandrel is ignored, lhc mandrel length can
be considered as lhe distance apart of the center poinls.
The calculation necessary to determine the distance which
the centers shall be offset, is that of multiplying the
length of the work or mandrel in feet by one-half of the
required taper in inches. To turn o Brown & Sharpe
taper on a piece of work nine inches long the problem
,vould work out as follows:
.500 9 3
X - = 0.1875 = -
2 12 16
and the foot-stock would be set over ,ie inch.
In the above illustrative example both length and
amount of taper are given, but the amount of taper is not
always kno"'D. Suppose a piece is 8 inches long and a
taper is to be turned on one end, the tapered portion to
be 4 inches tong. ·The difference in diameters of these
4 inches is to be ¼ inch. How much must the tan stock
be offset? If the taper is ½ inch in 4 inches it would be
1 ½ inches in a foot and the tail stock ,voul d be moved
over one-hall of 1 ¼ inches or ¾ inch, if the piece were a
Coot long, but as it is only 8 inches or % of o foot long.
the tail stock should be moved over % multiplied by %
or 1h inch. Had the piece been 18 inches long, the tail
stock should be moved over % multiplied by % or 1 %
inches.
90
THE S T A R R E T T BOOK
It has been assumed ror these simple calculations

that the lathe centers merely touch the ends of the piece,
thus 1naking the length of the piece the same as the dis-
tance between centers. But in actual work the distance
the centers enter the piece must be considered. The
calculation should be as accurate as possible to avoid
continuaJly changing the tnil stock to get a reasonably
good taper fit. The necessity of considering the distance
the center enters the piece depends somewhat upon its
length. If the piece is very long, the actual to.per will
differ considerably fro1n the calculated taper. If each
center enters the piece one-fourth inch they ,vould enter
a total or one-half inch~ and the length of the pJece
should be re<luced by one-half inch in the calculation.
\Vhile turning the taper the calipers should b_e used fre-
quently so that it may be soon determined whether or not
the tail stock is correctly placed.
For coning pulleys, set the foot-stock a,vay from the
operator when adjusting. In most taper work, however,
the center ls offset towards the operator.
SETTING THE TOOL. The tool-point should be set
ot the exact height of the axis of the lathe.
TESTING THB TUilNED TAPER. To test the taper
os it is turned, ground, or filed, it should be pressed
lightly inlo a standard lopered hole and worked hack and
forth sufficiently to mork the places ,vhcre bearing occurs.
If the work has been lightly covered wilh some marking
pigment, the bearing points will be 1nore distinct. Core,
however, 1nust obtain that the coating is not sufflelent to
smooch, as it will deceh"e the workman. Adjust taper-
selting until a correct fit is obtained.
ECCENTRIC TURNING. \\'bile for the most part the
Jathe ls used for work exactly concenlrlc ,vith the axis,
it can be used for turning ,vork not concentric with the
axis. \Vork of this sort is tern1ed "eccentric," and an
example of such work is seen in the eccentrics which
81
Amount of Taper In a Given Length. When the Taper per

Foot is Known-Table 9
'S
11
!l-1
Taper per Foot
(UOO
½1 %. ¼ ¾ % ¼ % 4i 1 I¼
-- ------------ --
.oom ,0002 .0003 .0007 .0010 .0013 .0016 .0016 .0020 0.0006 0.0(83
I
¼
.oom _OOOj .000'/ .0013 -.0020 .0026 .0031
.rmt .0010 .0013 .0026 .0039 \ .0052 .0062
.0010 .0015 .0020 .0039 .005~ , .0078 .OO';M
I
.0013 .0020 .002() .0052 .001s i .-0104 .0125
.0016 .002-t • •oo.13 ,006.S .0098 , .0130 .0156
I
.oo.13
.0065
.0098
.0130
.01~
,0039 I 0.0052
.0078 · 0.0104
,0117 0.0156
,0156 0.0208
.0195 0.0260
0.0065
0.0130
0.0195
0.026(1
0.0326
i!:
~
.0000 .0029 .0039 .0078 .0111 I .0156 •. 0181
.0023 .0034 .0046 .0091 I .0137 I .01821.0219
,00'})6 .0039 r .0052 .0104 I .0156 .0208 .0250
.Ol9S
.O?.28
.0260
.0234 I 0.0312
.0273 ! 0,036,5
.0012 '/ 0.0417
0,0391
o.°'56
0.&621
lti•
~
•½•
.0029 ,O(),U .oo.59 .0117 .•0176 : .0234 .0281
.0033 .0049 .0065 .0130 ; .0195 ) .0260 Jl3l2
.0006 .0054 .0072 .0143 1.0215 i .01.86 .004-t
.0293
.M26
i
.Ol58
i
.0352 , 0.0469
.0391 0.0521
.!MJO 0.0573
O.C6a6
0.0651
0.0716
¾ .0009 .0059 .0078 .0156 .02.3' .0312 .0375 .0391 .0469 : O.061.S 0.0781
,.
1~. .0042 .0003 .0085 .0169 .02.54 . .0339 ,0(06
.0046 .OOG8 1 .0091 .0182 ,0273 j .D365 .0437
.0423
.°'-56 I
.0008 I 0.0677
.0547 0.0729
0.0846
0.0911
1~. I
.0049 .007'3 .0098 .0195 I .0293 t .0391 .0469 .0488 .0586 0.07el 0.0977
1
2
.0052
.Gl04
.0078
.0156 ~
.0104
.0208
i
.0208 .0012 .CM17 -~ .0521
.0on1 .0625 ! .0633 .1000 .1042
.0625 , O.Olm
.1250 j 0.1667
0.1042
O.:.D.'J
3 .01S6 .C>'D' .0312 .0625 I .0937 .1250 .1500 · .1562 .!ij75 , 0.2500 0,3)25
.0208 .0012 .0417 .08331.1250 .1667 .2000 .2083 .2500 0.3333 0.·'167
'6
5 .02fi0
.0312
.0391
.04EB
.0521
.0625
!
.1042, .1562 1 .2083 .2500 ,260(
.1250 \ .1875 .2500 .3000 .3125
.3125 0.4167
.3750 0.5000
(1,5208
0.6250
7 ,o.,gs .0547 .072'J .1458 ..2187 .2917 .3500 .3646 .4375 0.5833 0.7292
8 .Otl7 .0625 .08.13 .1667 I .1500 : .3333 .4000 .4167 .5000 0.6667 0.&133
9 .0489 .0703 .0937 .1875 .2812 .3750 ... 500 .4(187 .5625 0.7500 0.9375
.0521 .0781 .10.2 .2083 .3125 .,167 .5000 .5208 .6250 0.8333
10
11
12
0573
.oms
.0859 .1146
.0937 .1250
.229'l .3437 .45&3 -~ .sm
.2500 .3750 .5000 .6000 .6'2.50
.687S 0.9167
.7500 1.0000
1.0417
1.1458
1.2500
operate the val vcs of steam engines. If the work has a
hole through it, us in the above exan1plc 1 the hole is first
finished to required din1ensions. A rnnndrel is then used
for carrying the ,vork on the centers. \Vhile the n1andrel
has been built on one set of centers exactly true ,vith its
axis, tor eccentric turning it has n second set of cenlers
\.\'hlch arc offset the amount required ror the eccentricity
specified. In the case of eccentrics made solid with the
FJG.28
shaft, the two sets of centers, one for turning the shaft
and the other for finishing the ·eccentrics, are made
~ide by side in the ends of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 28.
\\'hen the specified ececntriciJy is too extreme lo
allow both pairs of centers coming within the limits of
the diameter of lhe shaft, special ends may be cast or
forged on the ends of the workt and ean afterward be
machined off. In crnlik-shaft turning, special attach-
ments are provided for the ends of the shaft. Special
eccentric turning chucks .1uay be made to hold the work.
CHUCKING. Chucking includes, not only the mount-
ing of the ,vork in the chuck. but performing the neces-
sary operations on it while so held. The name "chuck"
Is given to a line of tools having a variety of forin, all
98
- - - -STr\RRET'T
T H E
---· 11 0 0 I{
-----
94
of which are designed to hold work or tools upon th~
nose of Q spindle. In general the heavier sorts are
mounted upon a face-plate which sercws upon the end
of the spindle, while smaller sizes are fitted "·ith o taper-
shank which flts tightly into the tapered hole in the
spindle. The smaller sizes are used for carrying tools,
such as drills, also scre,vs, sluds, wire pins, etc.; and arc
kno,vn as drill-chucks.
The larger sizes or~ widely used for holding work
for 1nachine operations, and are sometimes called uwork-
chucks." On their face they are provided with adjust-
ing juws movoble regularly to and from the center; these
ja,vs are so designed that a considerable variety of work
may be readily held and successfully worked upon ,vith
common cutting tools. The jaws are moved by means
of scrc,vs or gears1 and ca:n be adjusted in.dependently,
the chuck being called an independent jaw..chuek; orJ
all the jaw~ may be made lo move together, in which
case it is known as a Universal chuck.
HOLDING THE '\'ORK. The work must be clamped
firmly in the chuck "·bile being machined. Care must
also be laken that the clamping of a slender piece is
not so firm ns to distort or spring ft. If ,vork slips,
tools may be broken. and if held too tightly and sprung
or crushed, the work i.s injured and in some cases en-
tirely ruined.
TRUING THE \VORK. Adjusting the chuck-Ja,vs
so that the work will run as true as desired is termed,
"truing up the work!' This is preliminary to any tool-
ing which may be done on the job. Often this truing
of the work con be accomplished hr holding a piece
of chalk to just touch the work, leaving a plain mark-
ing- this method is used ·when chucking rough pulleys
for drilling out the hole in the hub. ,\'here greater
accuracy ls required, the work is indicated with a Uni-
versal dial test indicator.
96
THE B O O K
CHUCKING TOOLS. \Vith lhe ,vork located in the
chuck it moy be tooled with ordinary lalhc tools, such
as sho,vn in the tool-ehart (page 70). or it may be drilled
with two, three, or four fluted twist drills, ancl reamed
with machine reamers, or specia] shell bits and coun-
terbore5.
CHUCKS ON TURRET LATHES. In turret lathc-
work, for bar..stock, the chuck is a port of the regular
tool equipment; these chucks are often of special design,
so made that they open and close by hand-operated
levers or automatically-operated cams.
KNURLING. The surfaces of adjusting scre,vs and
small machine parts are often given a regular rough sur-
face for easy gripping. In the machine shop this is
done by using a tool known as a ''knurl" or "knurling
tool," which consists of one or more indented rollers or
knurls mounted to rotate in some form of holder.
These knurls are forced

into and f'ed along the stock
until the indented design has
been sufficiently imprinted
into the surface. \Vhen neatly
FIG. 29 and effectively done the re--
suits give a fine gripping sur-
face and a rother pleastng effect to the eye. The knurling
tool may be fed along the surface of the work by hand,
but usually the power traverse feed is used. The process
ls repeated if one passage of the tool does not give suffi-
cient depth.
Fig. 29 shows knurling on o micrometer.
98
T H E STARRETT B O O K
TOOL-MAKING
Under the name "tools'' are listed the various small
or tool-room tools used either by hand or in various ma•
chines. So important has their use become that large
Industries ere devoted to their n1anufacture, and most
1nachine-building firms now buy their more common
tools rather than maintain a tool-making plant of their
own. For exan1plc, drills, reamers, milling cutters,
counterbores, colletts, etc., are usually purchased in the
open market. Every skilled machinist, however, should
kno,v the principles upon which such tools are 1nade,
and should be oble to make any or al1 of them.
DRILLS. Drills are now largely of the twist type,
nnd the most efficient are machined and milled from
solid bar-stock, and for this purpose both carbon-tool
~tccl and high-speed steel are being used. The prevailing
type has a straight or a tapered holding shank, spiral-
milled flutes o.nd a conc..poinl with effective cutting lips
as noted under drill sharpening. The flutes or. lands
toper slightly from full diBmeter •
size at the cone-point
to several thousandths inch smaller nt or near the hold-
ing shank. To prevent rubbing on the sides of a hole,
the flutes are also cleared back from the front edge
throughout their length. The grooves are milled v,tith
cutters having a form that gives the maximum' chip
capacity, yet leaves the culling edge of the drJll-lip a
straight line.
Several makers of twist-drills increase the lead of
the twist when milling the grooves; such drills are known
as "increase twist" drills. The web is as thin lls con•
sfstent with the required strength, and with some makers
is thicker near the shank than at the point. Drills
are carefully heat-treated~ straightened, and ground to
diameter.
REAMERS- The lcrm '•reaming" is given lo the proc•
9T
THE STARRE1"T B O O K
ess of enlarging a drilled hole. Reamers are of h\"O well-
defined types, kno,vn as "fluted" reamers and "rose,.
reamers.. The flufcd reamer is one ha,·ing numerous
flutes on the circumference of the c.utting portion of
the tool. In other ·words, the cutting is don c on the cir-
c um(eren ce instead or at lhe end, as with o drill.
The number of flutes on the surface of a reamer
varies with the diametert and with some n1akes the num-
ber of flutes is greater for a given diameter ,vhen the
reamer is to be used in a machine instead of for hand
reaming.
As ils name implies, a fluted hand reamer is made
for hand use, and is seldom ca11cd upon to enlarge a
hole more than .007" for any dinmetert and not more
than .003" in lhc smaller sizes.
In the cnse of machine or lathe reamers, the ,length
of the flutes for any given diameter is. fifly per cent
Jess lhnn lhe standard length for hand reamers. The
depth of flute is usually somewhat in excess of that of
hand .reamers. In most cases machine reamers are used
for enlarging drilled holes lo a diameter which only
allows sufficient stock for hand reaming. \Vhen lhe holes
are not lo exceed a diameter in length, machine reamers
n1ay be used for finishing the drilled hole lo its full
diameter; but v;hen straight, round, accurate holes arc
to be of exact diameter the better practice is to first drill
1/32" lo 1/16" under size, enlarge to hand reaming size
with a n1achinc reamer, and then carefully hand ream to
exact size.
ECCENTRIC FLUTES. Formerly fluted reamers had
an odd number of flutes, such os nine or eleven. Although
this method eliminated chaltering lo some exlen~ It had
the disadvantage or making it difficult to caliper the
di ameler of Lhe cutting edges. Eccentric flu Ung, as fl
is called, consists in milling the flules with uneven spac-
ing to obviate chattering~ bul having the1n exactly oppo-
98
S T A R R E T T B O O I{
site, so thot a diameter n1easurement moy be made wilh

a micrometer.
A rose-rean1er is an end-cutting tool, and is often
used in place of a drill in cored ho)es. It is never made
for hand use, and in general practice is seldom used for
exact diameter.
l\ULLING CUTIERS. In lathe work the cutting tool
is fixed and the work rotates. In a milling machine the
cutter rotates and work is fed against ii. The rotating
cutter, tern1ed a 'nlilling cutler," has an almost unlimited
1
variety of sizes and shapes for m}lling regular and irreg-

ular forms. Milling cutters are made from some of the
tool steels, heat-treated lo give the right cutting quali-
ties, the stock coming to the tool•maker in the form of
rough blanks, carcfu)]y nnnealed. \Vhere the culler has
a hole through it this is first drilled, bored, or reamed to
a dlanreter somewhat smaller than that in the finished
cutter. The reason for this is that an the exact lrue sur..
faces must be finished aner the cutter has been hardened
- some grinding process being necessary ,vhich requires
an excess of stock.
\Vhen the length of the cutler is greater than about
one-half inch, it is usual lo chamber the hole to a shape
that renders il necessary to diameter grind the holes al
the ends only. In cutlers of considerable length the
saving in grinding by this procedure is considerable..
The sides of the blanks are usually recessed, giving a hub-
and-rim effee.t nt the sides of the cutter. An even num..
ber of teeth i.s preferable, and these arc spaced to a clr-
curofcrenUal pitch varying from three-eighths to three-
qunrters inch for ordinary culler sizes.
\Vhen the teeth are milled into the solid blank, a
cutter giving a space angle of sixty degrees is preferred
for cutting the peripheral teeth, while one of seventy
degrees is generally used for the side teeth. \Vhere
milling cutters are 1nade in quantity, special space cutters
89
T H E S T A R R 11: T 'f H O O 1~
are worked out to give the maximum chip room con-

sistent with tooth strength.
After the cutter has been hcat--trealed to the proper
hardness, it is finished to the specific dimensions by
grinding.
GRINDING THE HOLE. Unless special methods
and tools arc employed the hole is complctc!y finished
a.s the first operation of grinding. This is accomplished
by holding the cutter trued in a chuck screwed on the
spindle of a Universal grinder and grinding out the hole
to standard size, usirig an internal grinding altochmcnt.
GRINDING TIIE SIDES. Pig. 30 sho,vs how to
grind the sides with the cutler held flat against a face-
plate. If the cutler is to be used for deep cuts, the face-
plate ls set to give a slight concavily to the sides of
the cutter.
FIG. 30
CLEAitANCE OF THE TEETH. The teeth of milling

cutters are given a slight clearance back from the cutting
edges; fl ve degrees is usually sufficient.
100
JIGS AND FIXTURES

Jigs and fixtures are special devices designed to put
manufacturing upon an efficient basis. Three distinct
purposes are served by tha use of jigs: (a) Reduction of
cost ))Cr piece; (b) interchangeability of parts; and (c)
accurate production.
Jigs and fixtures are usually made from cast iron or
steel. Their use practically does away with fitting, as
this term is known in shops not using Jigs.
JIG DESI~N. A jig is n device for holding the
work nnd for locating the tool work to be done upon it.
A good example of this is sbo,vn in the drill jig, Fig. 31.
Jigs are of the plate type which lies upon and is
clamped to the surface of the work; of the open-box
type; and of the closed-box type.
In designing a jig, the piece is first drawn upon a
sheet of paper, which is sufficiently large to allo,v locat-
ing the views somC! distance apart. This permits build-
ing the jig in the drawing around the ,.coupon:' as the
piece is onen called. To start the design, first determine
and lay down the locating points or stops, then arrange
the clamping device. A jig should be so designed that
the "·ork can be put into position ln only one way.
Provide for supporting the thrust of the cutting tools
in such a manner as to avoid springing the work. ~lake
the jig as simple as possible~ avoiding every feature In
desisn that complicates the workman's use.
\Vhile in the larger shops the Jigs are designed by
the draftsmen, in many shops the too1-makcr both de-
signs and builds the jigs, nnd in no other way can a
,vorkn1an so clearly show his ability and ingenuity as
in the building of jigs.
JIG BODY. The jig body is usuolly of cast iron,
which Is first rough planed or milled on all surfaces
which are to be finished. These surfaces are then flnish
101
planed to final dimensions. In some cases jig bodies

are finished by grinding jn a surface grinder.
LOCATING BUSHING HOLES. If no particular
accuracy is demanded, the holes for bushings can be
Jocated directly by careful attention to ordinary laying•
out methods, and lhe hole drilled and reamed dirccUy.
~· .
..., l.
\
.
I I ' ~-.. '
•-ww•••~••-• , ( l
r J ' ~
...~.,,.-.
r;f,'.::I
; ! f':.~: : I
..
r•·:---• .......-.--~....,__...,__.
' '
... . . .,.
1 • I • I
: ·. -~-~:.::-:_·:;·------;-·--c;
~ '-l: _____,. _____ __..., __I
_ _.I :• ..,4
\ ~
.._ - -::;.::.:.-!~~,----..... ---·
':-=-~.._•~3'
FIG.31
'When the allo,vable error is very small a more accurate
scheme must be followed, and the best of several rneth..
ods for the average lool-muker is that kno,vn as the
button method. In this the holes are located by hiying
out scribed cenler Jines and locating intersections where
the boles are to be centered. Instead of drilling antl
reaming lhe bushing holes, holes are drilled and tapped
to fit the button screws. The jig buttons arc sma1l,
accurately ground cylinders, as sho~rn in Fig. 32. Tllese
are held by means of the .screws, lightly clamped in place,
102
T H E STARRET1"' B O O K
and exactly ]ocatcd to centers by accurate 1ncnsurements.

The highest possible accuracy in locating holes is secured
hy this method.
Flo. 32
BORING HOLES. The holes for the hardened bush-

ings arc usually bored by swinging the jig bocly upot1 a
face-plate in an engine lathe. The jig body is then
shirted upon the facc-plutc until a button indicates true
([)
FrG. S3
103
with a Universal Dial Indicator, as shown in Fig. 33.
The jig body is then clamped tightly u1>on the face•plntc.
After removing the jig bullon, the hole is first rough-
Bunor:s IN Pl.Ac£
AoJUSTING BurroNs TO SmB OP Pu.TE
ADJUSTING BVlTONS W1TH MICROMETER.

18'
T H E S T A R R E T T D O O K
105
106
drilled approxilnatcly to size, and a ftcnvards carefully

bored exactly lo size. This prepnres the hole for hold-
ing the hardened steel bushing; the process is repeated
for all the previously located buttons.
JIG BUSHINGS. If the holes in a casl•iron or soft-
steel jig body were left ns bored, they would soon lose
accuracy by ,vearing off center. To prevent this wear
the holes arc lined with hardened and carefully ground
bushings, pressed or driven tightly into place. These
bushings are made ,vith a hole having a diameter equal

to that of the loot which passes through them. The
bushings are sufficiently long to support the drill. In
case the jig bushings must be removed frequently, they
are kno,vn as slip bushings, and the hole in which they
slip is lined with a steel lining. itself hardened and
ground. In son1e cases the bushing locates the '\\'Ork as
well as the tool, and if so the bushing screws through
the body of the jig and against some prominent part of
the work, as a boss for e?(ample.
107
T H E S T A R R E T T B O O I{
TOLERANCES. In all constroclion ·work a certain

amount of inexactness is allowable. In other words,
it is impossible to obtain absolute precision, and the
allowable errors in exactness are termed "tolerances.'•
In some cases a tolerance or one-sixteenth inch might
he allowed, ,vhile in others ex.Qctness to the fraction of
a thousandth port of an inch may be necessary. See
pages 31 and 32 .
•I
•' t
•
I
I
•••
•
• •
l i
JIG FOR DRILIJNO BoLT HOLD IN CYLINDER Fl.ANGE AND HRAD

The projection on the jig keeps it concentric with
the bore of the cylinder, and the rcc.eu fits over the pro-
jection on the head.
108
T H E STARI-\ETT ll O O K
GRINDING
In the machine shop the term "grinding" refers to
the producing or Jlnished surfaces by means of rotating
grinding ,vhccls, and the process of grinding as used
in finishing machine parts is to-day the most cfllcient
method devised for lhe purpose. With o proper selec-
tion of grinding inachinc and grinding wheel, all or the
com1non machine construction materials may be readily
and accurately finished.
Grinding machines are classified into l\\•o groups,
(a) those for curved surfaces; as, for example, cylin-
drJcal ,vork; nnd (b) those for plane or flat surfaces.
The first of these is usuolly called a cylindrical grinder,
and the second is known as a surface grjnder. Each
group hal!i many designs, made necessary by~ the varied
uses to which grinding is adapting itself.
GRINDING \VHEELS. These are now known as
abrasive wheels, and the material from ,vhich they are
made is termed an abrasive. The abrasives in common
use are the mlnera1s emery and corundum, and the
manufactured abrasives, sold under the lrnde names or
Alundum, Aloxite, Carborundum, Crystolon. Owing to
the uniformity of the product as it comes from the
electric furnace, manufactured abrasives are at present
more largely used thon natura1 abrasives.
~I.AKING ABRASIVE \VHEELS. An abrasive wheel
is made up of one of the above-named ABRASIVES and
a BOND. The bond is, as its name indicates, something
for holding the abrusive in mixture. Grinding ~vheels
are made by three processes, known as Vitrified, Silicate,
and Elastic.
VITRIFIED ,vHEELS. In wheels made by the Vitri-
fied process, the bond is of c~rth or clay ,vbich hardens
or vitrifies· when subjected to o temperature of about
2500• F. to 2800° F. for a definite period of time. Vari•
109
T H E S T A R R E 'I' 1· H O O l{
Allowances for Grinding-Table 10
Length, lnchea
..:
"' z
~t
~-
3 I I i I I I I
6 9 12 1s 1s 24 30 I 36 t 42 I 48
Allowance, Inches
½ 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.015 0.015 o.01sfo.020!0.020 0.020 0.020

¾ 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.crl0
1 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
13( 0.010 0.010 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
l½ 0.010 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
2 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0,020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025
2¼ 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025
2½ 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025
3 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025
3½ 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025
4 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030
4½ 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030
5 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030
6 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030
7 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030
8 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.300 0.030 0.030
9 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.300 0.030 0.030
10 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030
11 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.D30 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030
12 0.030 0.030 0.0300.030 0.000 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030
1
110
ous grades of hardness arc obtained by using bond.s of
different tensile strength. The ideal bond is one which
retains the grains of abrasive until sufficiently dulled
by use, and then ollows them lo break away, nnd in this
manner bring fresh cutting edges and points Into grind-
ing contact.
SILICATE \VHEELS. Silicate of Soda is the bond
used in silicate wheels; and wheels made by this proc-
ess are 1nost efficient for tool and knife grinding.
ELASTIC \VHEELS. This process of bonding is
generally used for the very thin wheels used for slitting
1netals. The principal ingredient of the bond is shellac.
GRADING THE ABRASIVE. By numerous crushing,
grinding, cleansing, and sorting processes, the abrasive is
graded into a series of sizes which give the wheel its
grain number. This number conforms lo tb·e sieve mesh
through which the abrasive is passed; for example, graio
No. 40 indicates that the abrasive was graded through a
sieve having a mesh of forty to the linear inch.
COAlBINATION \VHEELS. 1-..or many grinding pur-
poses the combination wheel Is preferred to a wheel of
single grade. Combination wheels are made up of abra-
sives of several grain numbers.
BONDING. The ideal bond is one which is imper-
vious to 1noislure, does not soften by heal, and which
holds firmly the cutting points of the abrasive un lil they
become dulled by use. The bond then releases the dull
abrasive and permits fresh, sharp points to begin cutting.
\Vilh J\brnsiyes of equnl quality the mnk~r who nearest
approaches the ideal bond produces the superior wheel.
GRADING THE \VHEELS. In grinders' language,
abrasive wheel.s ore known as hard wheels and soft
wheels. The 1naker, therefore, lists his wheels as hard
or soft by so1ne scale of numbers or by letters. A prom-
inent firm uses the letters of the alphabet, as shown in
the following list In which ")I" is medium.
111
T H E srrARRETT B O O K
Norton Grade List
The following grade list is used lo designate the
degree or hardness of our Vitrified and Silir.ale \\rheels,
both A]undum and Cryslolon.
E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. _. . . . . . . . . . . . Sofl
F
G
H
I .................... !tfediu1n Son
J
K
L
!\IEDIU~f. ......... ~I. ............... ~IEDit:\f
N .
0
p
~ledi um Hard ........... Q
R
s
T
Ha rd ...•.•................... U
V
,v
X
Extremely Hard ..................... Y
z
The lntermcdiale letters between those designated as
soft, medium sort, etc., indicate so many degrees barder
or softer; c. g., L is one grade or degree softer than me-
dium; O, two degrees harder than medium, but not quite
1nedl um hard.
Elastic ,vheels are graded as CoJlows: 1. 1 '½. 2, 211.., 3,
4, 5, and 6. Grade 1 is the softest and grade G the hardesl.
11J
T H E STARRETT B O O K
CYLINDRICAL GRINDING. \Vhen the pieee being
ground is rotated, the process is kno\vn as cylindrical
grinding, and the development or machines for grind-
ing cylinders has gh·cn the pr~ccss a great impetus.
While it is possible to grind frotn the rough stock with-
out previOU$ lathe work, the method usually followed is
to first rough turn the work.
ROUGHING FOR GRINDING. This process includes
the work done in removing excess stock previous to
finishing lo size in the grinding machine. Unless a study is
made of the conditions surrounding the ,,•hole operations
of the Jalhe and the grinding machine, lack of efficiency
1nay result. In general ,vhere the ,vork is lo be ground it
is best to consider the lathe as a mere roughing machine
for removing the excess of stock at as deep a cut and as
coarse a feed as is consistent with an efficient cutting
speed, leaving the job of finishfng lo the grinding ,machine.
A)IOUNT TO LEAVE FOR GRINDING. If the grind-
ing machine is 111odern in design as much as 1/32 of an
inch, or even more may be left on machinery steel parts
for removal in the grinder; the amount varying with
the size of the '\\'ork itself. An allowance of 1/64 or an
inch is genera] on the smaller machine parts, but this
allowance should be increased on larger sizes. Table 10.
page 110, shows allowance for grinding as reco1nmended
by one maker of grinding machines, and Table 11 shows
grinding ,vheel speeds.
SELECTING THE \VHEEL. The selection of the
wheel to be used in any grinding operation can, per-
haps, best be made by reference to Table 12, page 115,
,vhicb fairly represents general pTactice. As the hard-
ness of material and the area of contact made by the
,vheel have a marked influence, no table can entirely
solve the problem, but it may be used as a start· In the
right direction. In general a soft wheel should be used
on hardened work and e harder wheel on soft materials.
111
Table of GrindlnK; Wheel Speeds-Table 11
RC"T.~r Minute (or Re•Jaer Minute ror ReY;f.cr MlnulC' for

~ e r \\I nee I M illl1Delcl'S Sw- ace iced
~uoo e~l.
ol Su ace Speed or Su ce Speed of
5,c,oo }err, S,DOO I ·c er,
or 1 , ~ )feters or 1,500 Mucrs· ".'II' :i,eoo Neten
,.
1
• 1 inch about 25 15,279 19,099 22,918
2
3
.. ....
4'
50
75
7,639
5,093
9,549
6,366
11,459
7,639
4 •• 100 3,820 4,775 5,730
u
5 " .... 125 3,056 3,820 4,584
6 "· 150 2,546 3,183 3,820
1
"
8 ,. ..
u
175
200
2,183
l,910
2,728
2,387
3.274
2,865
10
12 '} ....
u
250
305
1.528
1,273
l,910
1~92
2,292
1,910
14
16 ..
fl
"'
355
405
1,091
955
1,364
1,194
1.~7
1,432
18 " "C4 455 849 1,061 "1,273
20 II 505 764 955 1,146
22 (I
" 515 694 868 1,042
••
24
26 ..
u
"
610
660
637
586
796
733
955
879
28
30 "
u
..
'4
710
760
546
509
683
637
819
764
32 " " 810 477 596 716
.... ....
34 " u
860 449 561 674
36 910 424 531 637
38 ., 965 402 503 603
40
42 ...." .....
0
1,015
1,065
382
364
478
455
573
546
44 I ,,
1,115 ·347 434 521
1,165 415
46
48 .. " 1,220
332
318 ·397
498
477
n
50
52 ,. 44 .." 1,270
1,320
306
294
383
369
459
441
54 0
1,370 283 354 425
u u
56 ., 1,420 273 341 410
u
58
60 .. "
1,470
1,520
264
255
330
319
396
383
The R. P. M. at which wheels are run Ia dependeo.t on conditions and ltyle

of machine and the work to be ground.
Wheels are run in actual practice from.(.000 to 6-000 f~ per mlnuu: in aome
ir::wtancea u lqh u 7.500 toct.
11,
'I' H E STARRE~fT B O O K
Grade and Grain of Grindloe Wheels for Different Materials*
Table 12
CThe Norton Co.)
Alundum Cryatolon
Cius of Work
Grain Grade Grain Grade
Aluminum castinp ................. 36 to 46 3 to, 20 to 24 PtoR ~
Etas.
Brass or bronze c-utlnp (large) .... ......... 20 lo 24
........ ~toR
• ■ ' •• ■ ••
Brass or bronu. casttnga tsmall) .... 24 to 36 toR

........
■■■ I. ■■ I
Car wheels. cut iron ................ - , .... ' .. 16 to 24 PtoR

Car wheels. chilled .................. 20 16 24 to OtoQ
Cast iron, cylindrical ................ 24 comb.
Cast iron. surfacing ................. 20 to 46
Cast•iron (small> castings ........... 24 to30
JtoK
RtoK
PtoR
Q
30 to 4e
16 to 30
20 to JO
!toL
to L
toS
Cast-iron {large) caatings ... : ....... 16 lo 20 jtoR 16 to24 QtoS
Chilled iron eastinp ................ 20 to 30 to U 20 to 30
Dies, chilled iron ............ -....... ... ' .... • Ill I t • • t t 20 to 30 O~Q
Dies, steel ........................... 36 to 60 JtoL ........ - • • I • • • I •
Drop-forJrin1s ....................... 20 to JO to R ,........

.......
I .. ■ t a I f ■
Internal cylinder arindina .......... .. - ..... - ' 30 r.,.-'60 I toL

lntemal a-rinding. hardened steel ... 46 to 60 JtoM
fl
• I I I • I o I I• .. o ■ • ■, ■,
Machine shoD uee, general .......... 20 to 36 Oto • I I I • I • ~ .........

Malleable iron castinga (large) ..... 14 to 20 Pto 16 to 20 RtoS
Malleable iron casti~s lamam ..... 20 to 30 PtoR 20 to JO QtoS
Milling cutters, machine grinding .. 46 to 60 HtoM ........ . .......
Millinf◄ cutten., hand grinding ...... 46 to 60 ~toM . . . . .. . . • • I • I t ••
Nicke ca.stings ...................... 20 to 24. toQ 20 to 25 R

Pulleys. aurfaci.ng cast iron . . . . .... . . .. . . . . . ........ 30 to 36 KtoL
Reamen, taps,~-, hand grinding .. 46 to 60 KtoO ...... ....
jto
~
........
I • • lo • • • •
Reamen, taps, si:,ecial machine. .... 46 to 60 M ■ • ■ ■, I • • I
Rolls ~cast ironl, wet ................ 24 to 36 toM 24 to 36 J to M

Rolls chilled ironl, finishing ....... - 70 illas.
to2 10 to 80 I~ to 2
laa.
Rolls (chil?ed iron), roughi11a .•.•... 30 to "6 2 to 3 Ela&.
Rubber ......................•.......
Saws, aummine and sharpeniaa ....
■ ■
30 to 50
36to 50
I ■ ■ ■ I ■
£/oK·
toN
30to50 KtoM
... . . . .. . . ........
I' I lo ., I I • I • , • 4 ••••
Saws, cold cutting.off ............... 60 Oto~

t 2446comb. . .. .. .. . .. ........
.
St~el (aoft), cylindrical grindirui:. ·•
Lto
to 60 LtoN
........
• - • • • 'I • • I • I I I • I I
Steel (soft). eurface tcrlad~f' .......

to HtoK
24 36 I • • I • • I I
St~,~~~-~~~~) ?~i-~~ __-~~--1 2-lcomb. K

46 to 60 JtoL
■ •••• - •• I • ., • • I .a. I
....... , ■ • -. I ■ • • •
Stee (hardened). surface 36 to

grinding .. toK 46 I I I I• I I• II o ■, • • o • I
Steel. large caetinga ................. 12 to 20 jtoU

. .......
II I I I I, I I I I • • II •
.........
I, •
Steel. small eastinsa ................ 20 to 30 toR

Steel (manganese),eafework ....... 16 to -t6 LtoP ........
.. . . . . . . .. , .....
• 6 I • • • I I'
Structural steel ................. -. -. - 16 to 24 PtoR

Twist drills. hand tndi!1J ... · · · , · - .t6 to 60 M ........ ........
. . . .. . . .
~
Twist drills. specia machinee .. -... - 36 to 60 KtoM ........

Wroul'ht iron .................. -• .. - 12 lo 30 PtoU ........ . .......
Woodworkinl' tools .......... . . . . . . 46 to 60 KtoM ........ .. ........
• The information coarained In thia table t. general and Intended only to give
ao approximate idea of the grade med under ordinary conditiona.
116
'f H E S T A R R E 'f T H O O K
}IOUNTING THE WHEEL. The ,vheel should be
so mounted that there nre no unequal stresses set up.
Suitable guards should be provided to 1>revent injury
to the workmen in case of the wheel bursting. The
accompanying illustrations show RIGHT and \VRONG
methods of mounting wheels- carefully study the culs.
J.IEASURING THE \VORK. The use of micrometers

for obtaining exact n1easurernents is nowhere better
illustrated than in grinding. Fig. 34 shows nn opcr•
ator adjusting his micrometer for obtaining a measuTe-
menl on a cylindrical piece, and Fig. 35 shows the
operator as he makes his reading. ,vhile · in lathe
work the position of the operator leads naturally to
adjusting the micrometer spindJc ,vith the fingers of
the right hand, the left hand grasping the frame, in
grinder ,vork the reverse is generally true, hence he
occupies the position as shown.
GRINDING FLAT SURFACES. Flat surface grind-
:lng moy be divided into two general classes: (a) :Machine
116
Flo. 34
parts. such as boxes, tables, cross-slides, faces of nuts,
etc.; and ( b) fine tool work, as, for example, steel blades,
scales and rulers, straight edges, elc. Until recently the
first-named class of \York was done by reciprocating
the work beneath the circumferential Cnce of on abrasive
wheel in a machine which, in princip!e, is not unlike a
snu1ll planer. The use or machines ,vith CUP \VHEELS
has practically revolutionized such grinding, ond an
exactness of surface is being obtained on fine flat work
which leaNes little to be desired.
LAPPING. In certain lines of work the Roal grind•
ing process is often made, not with ohrasive wheels as
previously described, but by using metal discs, rings, or
cylinders, the surfaces of which have been charged with
a fine flour abrasive. Such a tool is called n "lap,11 nnd
its use "lapping." Laps were first used by lapidaries in
finishing the surfaces of mineral specimens, but laps
have been in common use for a considerable time on fine
,vork in the machine shop.
11,
T H E S T A R R E T T Il O O K
Laps are generally m.o.de or some material sort

enough so that the abrasive can be readily pressed into
the surface; or, as it is correctly termed, the surface
is "charged!' Sort. close-grained cast iron, copper,
brass, or lend may be used for lhc lap, and any or the
flour abrasives may be charged into the surface by roll-
ing the abrasive into the lap either ,vith a hardened roll
or on a hardened surface.
Fie. 3.5
In some of the finer grinding operations the lap is
charged with diamond dust which bas been precipitated
or settled in a suitable dish of olive oil. The several
grades are denoted by the time taken to precipitate; as,
for example, fineness No. 5 lakes ten hours.
Since lapping is a somewhat slo,v and tedious proc-
ess it should be used only for the removal ot small
amounts of stock.
CO!\IMON USES OF LAPPING. The more common
uses of lapping are those of finishing micrometer ends,
plug and ring gages, holes in jig bushings, and in the
finest die and punch work.
118
TH. E S T A R R E T T B O O K
LOCATING AND ALIGNING

MACHINERY
\Vhen the product of the shop is determined, the
proper location of the machines may be found by means
of a plan or location drawing worked out in the draft~
ing room. An easy way to do this is to provide rectangu-
lar slips of cardboard, each representing to so1nc definite
scale the plan outline of each machine. Placing these
upon the floor plan of the room, the better of several
11rrangernents may be found, and by using push pins the
cardboard representations may be fixed in position.
Flc.36
Having decided upon the location, the machinery
may be aligned in these positions by measurc1nents from
some base line made upon the floor or ceiling; or a
leveling instrument,• such as shown in Fig. 36, may
be used.
Ordinarily the machines are aligned by .simple meas-
• See pqe 124 for dlrectJom for aettins up a level.
119
T ff E S T A R R E T T B O O I{
uren1enls and the counter.shafting hung from the ceil-

ing vertically over the machine by plumbing up from
the previously located machines. In such work thought
1nust always be given to the line shofting and pulleys.
Unless care is usell, there moy be such interferences
as to necessitate repeating the work. As the efflcienC}'
of the shop depends lo a considerable extent on a con-
venient arrangement of the machines, all interferences
should be taken care of on the ceiling rather thnn alter-
ing the arrangement of the rnachines.
ALIGNING THE SHAFTING. \Vith the locotions of
the several ljnes of shafting determined upon, lhe usual
method of alignment is to stretch a wire or cord the
length of the room at the desired le\.'cl of the shaft and
al a distance from its location sufflcienlly grenl to give
easy working room. ,vub the two ends of the wire Jn
position il should be stressed to bring it taut and should
be supported at frequent intervals by ,vire hangers.
Fla. 31
\Vith the shafting hangers in approximate position

and the shafting in place, Lhe necessary shifts can be
made to bring the shaft parallel ,vith the wire. A light
stiek notched at one end to rest upon the shaft and a
wire brad at the other end for o feeler is all that is neces-
sary ror ordinary align1ncnt. Leveling lhe shaft is done
with special spirit levels having 1netal fran1es, the bases
or which have been carefully grooYed to set upon the
shaft. Such a level is shown in Fig. 37. Special level-
Ing and aligning attachments for setting and lining up
120
T ll E S T A R R E T T B O O K
shafting are sometimes used. Shafting is often lined by
plu1nbing up frorn a dala line on the shop floor with a
mercury plumb bob.
Mercury Plumb
Boba
w
T H E S- 1' A R R E T T B O O K
LEVELING INSTRUMENT
,Vhile the surveyors> transit can be used Jn shop level-
ing nnd in shaft aligning a much simpJer and a more
inexpensive instrument termed a levcHng inslrnrnent is
all lhat is needed.
It consists of a table capable of being adjusted in the
horizontal plane, which carries a yoke which in turn
carries a twelve-inch brass tube. The whole instrument
is placed upon n suitable tripod. The tube has no lenses
and therefore is not a telescope as In the surveyors'
instrument.
Al one end of the tube are the usual cross hairs
which locate the axis and al the opposite end is a peep
hole or sight piece for the eye. The yoke which carries
the tube is attached to a graduated arc which is let Into
lhe upper part of the table; this allo"·s the instrument
to s,ving to read angles in the horizontal plane.
ADJUSTING THE INSTRUMENT. In using this in•
strument it is important that the tnble be earefully lev-
eled~ It ls pivoted on the tripod tube by a ball and socket
joint. Three knurled-head adjusting screws threaded
through the tripod top and resting against the under side
of the table furnish a means or adjuslins the table. Upon
the table carrying the yoke Is a benl•tube spirit level with
a sensitive air bubble. After the tripod legs have been
placed to roughly level the instrument, adjust the knurled
leveling scre,vs to give .as correct a centering for the
air bubble as is possible. To test this adjustment s·wing
the yoke, which carries the air bubble, lo several posi•
lions and note any change in the position of the bubble.
lf there is a change, reodjllst the leveling screws until
the yoke can be s,vung through lls travel with the air
bubble maintaining its central position.
USING THE LEVELING INSTRUMENT. \Vbile it is
possible to so mount the leveling instrument upon a plat-
112
form that its height will be sufficient tor lhe use of
targets mounted upon the shaft, the usual method is to
hang targets upon the shaft and adjust them to s,ving low
enough lo allo,v the leveling instrument to be set with
its tripod on the floor or on some convenient foundation
spot.
THE TARGETS. These consist of stirrups which
carry a spirit le,·el and block ,vith vertical and horizontal
lines crossing each other. A plumb is hung upon the stir-
rup in such manner as to be readily raised or lowered.
One of the targets may be hung upon the shaft free to
swing plumb, the other is used as a fixed wall target.
USE. After the shafting has been roughly aligned
with the woll of the building or with a line of co1umns,
this being done by measurement, the leveling instrument
is placed vertically beneath one end of the shaft. To
locate the leveling instrument, plumb dO'\\'n from the
center of the shnfl 1 using the hanging target plumb bob,
and locate a point in the floor or board placed on the
foundation. A prick punch mark in the flat head of o
,vire brad previously driven into the floor provides a
permanent point. Set the tripod of the leveling instru-
ment directly over this point, using the plumb bob hang-
ing from the center of the table. Next carefully level
the table as already described. Hang the portable target
closely in front of the cross-hair end of· the tube and
level and adjust its height until the horizontal cross hair
of the tube coincides with the horizontal cross line of
the target.
Remove the target to the far end or the shan and
swing the tube of the leveling Instrument until the sight
through the tube coincides with the verlicol line on lhe
target. With the hanging target displaced, mount n 0xed
target upon the wall at the far end of the shaft and
adjust it until its cross lines coincide ,vlth the cross
hairs of the tube ns sighted. If the instrument is in its
113
original position with the plumb bob over the point in

the floor, the setting up of the instrun1ent is co1npletc.
By referenee to the fixed target it can at all times he
checked.
Replace the hanging target at the far end of the shaft
and adjust the ndJoccnt hanger so that the cross Ii nes
of the target coincide with the cross hairs ,vhen sight-
ing through the tube. Repeat for each hanger until Lhe
tarset can be hung upon the shaft adjacent to any hanger
and show perfect coincidence of target cross lines and
tube cross hairs.
Note that after the instrument and target have been
set neither should receive further adjustment except in
case of accident - the shaft itself receives the adjust-
ments.
HOW TO SET UP THE TRANSIT

The Starrett transit or level can be used for the same
purposes as ony enginecr1s lransil and level, and because
of its simplicity and freedoni from complications, it
can be used by any one In laying out foundations for
buildings, aligning n1achinery. and in building dams
and raceways for simple water-po,ver developments.
The transit combines in one instrument the facili•
ties for measuring l>oth horizont11I and vertical angles,
and enables the operator to lay out anything that docs
not require excessive refinc1nenl. The level is for meas-
uring angles in a horizontal plane only, and it should be
borne in mind that the level will do all that the transit
will do, except measure vertical angles. The transit,
which is furnished either with a telescope or p)aln-sight
tube, is mounted on a tripod, and has a plate carrying
a graduated arc. The telescope or sight-tube is connected
to a graduated vertical arc so thnl vertical angles 1nay
be measured os "'·c11 as horizontal. It is provided with
11,
T If E S T A R R E T T B O O K
levclin~ screws, and "'ith o ground le,,el viol for adjust-
ing lhe level of the graduated plate.
To level the instrument. the legs 1nust be firmly set
i nlo the ground or floor, so that neither wind nor occi•
rlental tottch "·ill disturb the adjustment. It should then
be made os nearly level as possible by adjusting the
lowe[' parts of the extension legs. It should then be
brought to a perfect Jevcl by means of the leveling scre\\'S
behvcen the plate and tripod bC?ad. This is done by
bringing the level o-ver an1· one of the leveling screws
and turning one screw in and another out until the
bubble appears in the center of the level glass. The sight
Lube or t~]C?scope shou[cl then be turnc~ through ai:i
erigle of about ninety degrees and again the bubble ad-
justed to the center of the glass by means of two leveling
scre,vs. This operalion should be continued until the
bubble stands in the center of the glass, no matter in
,vhat direction the telescope may be lurnecl.
To find differences of level of two places, the instru-
ment should be placed in a position about equally dis-
tont from the h\'O points. First obtnin the height of
the target on one of the rods by means of the cross line
in telescope or sight tube and make record of the same.
Then carry the rod to the other position and find the
height or the target at that point. The difference be-
hveen the two heights, as read on the rod, will be the
difference of level of the two places, that place being
higher at which the height of the target is less.
121
S T A R R E T T B O O K
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
1,-fany engineering and shop problems can be solved
more readily with algebra than by means of arithmetic.
In fact, some problems cannot be solved by arithrnctic;
as, for example, when the conditions are not fully and
concretely slated. Algebra is applied by expressing the
relations in algebraic tern1s. forming them into an equa-
Lion, which states the conditions, o.nd lhen solving the
equation.
In arithmetic a figure has a definite valu~J 4 or 20
for instance, and the value remains unchanged; it is
aI,vays 4 or 20. In algebra letters a.re used. and as these
letters do nol always have a definite value, their use adds
flexibility to malhematical operations. S01ne find It easier
at lhe beginning to think of the letters as abbreviations.
SYMBOLS
Some of the symbols or signs of algebra are the
same as those used in arith1nctic.
THE SYllBOLS OF QUANTITY arc the figures used
in arithmetic and the letters of the alphabet.
THE COl\IllON SYllBOJ.,S OF OPERATION ore the
signs used in arithmetic; they are as follo,vs:
+ is the sign of addition, called plus. If no sign
precedes numbers or letters the plus sign is understood;
that is, 2abc is + 2abc.
- is the sign of subtraction, or difference, called
minus.
X is lhe sign of multiplication, called times. \Vhen
there is no sign between letters or between letters and
figures, multiplication is understood. Thus 3cd means
3 X c X d. But this does not apply to numbers: 328
is not 3 X 2 X 8, but 328, sa1ne as in arithmetic..
ue
THE S T A R R E T T Il O O K
+ is the sign of division, read '' divided by."

Divi•
sion may olso be expressed by a horizontal line between
a 10
lhc quantities, as, a+ b =-b
or - = 16 -;.... 4.
4
COEFFICIENT. The numerical foctor or number is
generally called the coefficient; in Sabe, 5 is the coeffi-
cient; but, strictly speaking, 5a is the coefficient ot be,
and 5ab is the coefficient of c. Again in the expression
3a (b - c), 3a is the coefficient of (b - c), or in the ex-
pression (a+ b) x. (a+ b) is the coefficient of x.
,vhcn no numerical coefficient is expressed, it is
always unity or 1. Thus a= la.
EXPONENT. The small ftfture or lelter written at
the right and a little above a number or letter is called
the exponent; it shows how many times the number is
to be taken as a factor.
Thus 2:1 is read "2 squared" or "2 with the exponent
2." The number 2 is to be used twice as a factor, or mul-
tiplied by itself. Similarly~ Is read "a cubed" or "a with
the exponent 3!' The letter a is to be taken three time~
as a factor, or a X a X a. In the same way (m + n)':
(m + n) X (m + n) X (m +
n) X (m + n).
Again a 1 bc1 tr=aX ax b X ex C X C X dXd X dXd.
Note this difference -
m•=mxmxmxm
4m=m+m+m+m
SYMBOLS OF RELATION show the relative values
of letters.
= is the sign of equality, read "equals" or "equal to/'
a = b means that a is equal to b, or- whatever value is
given lo a, the same value must be given lo b. lf 4a = 3b,
4 Limes some quantity represented by a is equal to 3 times
some quantity represented by b, but il is evident that a
does not equal b.
: is read "is to" or "to." It indicates ratio.
127
If two ratios are cqua.l~ they may, of course, be con-
nected by the sign of equality, but more often they nre
connected by this sign : :
SYMBOLS OF AGGREGATION
( ) Parentheses.
[ J Brackets.
! I Braces.
Vinculum.
v Radical Sign (square root).
Letters or quantities enclosed in parentheses are to
be handled as B single quantity.
5 (c + d) means that c + d as one quantity is to
be multiplied by 5.
Or (a+ b) + (x + y) means that a+ b taken as a
single quantity is to be divided by x + y taken 88 a sin..
gle quantity. Another way of expressing it is, llte sam<'
operation performed on a must be performed on b also.
Again - (a + b) means that the sum of a and b taken
as a single quantity is to be subtracted. H does not mean
that a alone is to be subtracted.
THE RADICAL SIGN. This sign is used as in nrith-
melic; that is, it shows that some root of lhe quantity
is to be found, or expressed.
The small number or index used in connection with
the radical sign denotes what root is meant. Thus~ a
is rend "the cube root of a.'" ~b is read the firth root
of b.'• 'When no index figure is used the squore root is
underslood. V x + u = the squnrc rool of x + y.
\Vhen the horizontal line extends over the expression
U means that the indicated root is lo be found of the
entire expression. v m + n = "the .',qunre root of m + n."
128
T H E S ·r A R R E T T B O O 1(
Let m = 36 nnd n = 64.

vm + n = \I 3G ;-r 64 = v' 100 = 10
"' n1_ + n = \I 36 + 64 = 6 + 64 = 70
\/ m + v n == v' 36 + v64 =6 + 8 = 14
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TERMS
A term or quantity preceded bl· the plus sign, or by
no .sign ot oll, is a positive term, and one preceded by the
minus sign is a ncgati ve ler,n. This applies whether the
term is a simple one 1ike 3a (a monomial) or (:r + y)
(a binomial) or (ft+ 2nb + bz) (a po1ynomiol).
SlMILAR TER~f S. \Vhen several tarms have the
same letters, but may differ in numerical coefficients,
they are ca1lcd similar lerms. Thus 4ac, - 5ac, and 3ac
arc similar terms.
In arithmetic we say that + 5 and - 5 cancel; that
is, if 'Ne have five units ond subtract five units we get
zero. Similarly in algebra 5a ca.ncels - 5a, or - 6a2xy
cancels 6a2zy.
ADDITION
Addition is finding the sum of two or more quantities.
Arithmetic Algebra
4 apples 4ab
3 apples 3ab
10 apples lOab
17 apples 17ab
\Vben the terms are nJike, we add them h:r adding
the coefficients i when they are not alike the addition
is expressed.
6ac added to 15xy
6ac ·+ 15.z:y
119
If the terms have different signs they co.n be added
by algebra.
- 6ac added to 18ac :::::: 12ac
- 6ac nclded to lBxy = 18:ry - 6ac
\Vhen there are several quantities ·~;hich are alike,
but the signs unlike, ,ve odd them by adding all the posi-
tive or plus terms, then subtract the sum of all the nega-
tive or minus terms. For iustanceJ
51nn
-2mn
15mn
3mn
-6mn
15mn
The positive terms in the above equal + 23mn and
the negative terms equal - 8mn, the result being
23mn - 81n11;: 15mn.
Had all the signs been changed, lhc answer would
hnve been - 15,nn; for the sign prefixed to the anS'\ver
is that or the greater sum.
SUBTRACTION
Subtraction in many '\\·nys Is like addition; that is,
like terms can be subtracted in the same ,voy that they
can be added, and unlike terms are subtracted by indi-
cating the difference.
Subtraction is the process of finding the DIFFER-
ENCE between two quantities.
In arithmetic the larger cannot be subtracted from
the smaller, but in algebra Ibis can be done by express-
ing the difl'erence.
In arithmetic 11 cannot be subtracted from 4, but
in algebra 7 - 11 == - 4; that is, 7 lacks 4 of being equal
to 11. It is minus 4.
130
The difference (in number of units) between 8 nntl
2 is 6, whether it is 8 - 2 or 2 - 8. \Vhether the differ:.
ence is - 6 or + 6 depends upon which number is being
subtracted.
These fe,v rules should be remembered.
Subtracting a + quantity is the same os adding a
minu~ qonntily.
Subtracting a <1uantily is lhe same as adding a
plus quantity.
The sum of a minus quantity nnd a. plus quantity is
the difference between the quantities, ,vith the prefixed
sign or the larger.
The difference between a plus quantity and a minus
quantity is equal to the sum of the quantities.
MULTIPLICATION
l\lultiplicalion is a short method of addition; that is,
if you add 4ac five times, the result is the same as mul-
tiplyin1f 4ac by 5.
4ac
4ac 4ac
4ac 5
4ac 20ac
4ac
20ac
llultlplicalion is a process of taking a given quan-

tity as many times a5 indicated by a number or another
quantity.
P.lultiplication differs from addition in that unlike
quantities can be multiplied.
5abx multiplied by 6a:ry = 30a*bx'y

181
This simple example sho,\"s ·that lo multiply ,ve first
multiply the coefficients, then annex the letters. multi-
plying the1n ,vhen alike by adding _the exponents; for
instance, a X a ~ li, x x x == r.
SIGNS6 If both quantities are plus, the product is
plus; if both arc minus, the product is plus~ it one is
plus and the other rninus, the product is minus.
l\lultiplying more complicated quantities, those con ...
sisting of tv:o or more terms each, is illustrated by this
example in arithmetic:
:Multiply 4 +3 + 2 - t by 6
Instead of ndding before multiplying let us multiply
each number by O:
4+ 3+ 2-1
6
24 + 18 + 12 - 6 = 48
If ,ve use letters also, ,ve proceed in the same '\Vay:
l\fultiply 4ac + 3ab + 2c - c by Ga.
4ac + 3ab + 2c - c
Ga
24a'c + 18<rb + 12ac - 6ac
Con1bining shnilar terms. 24cfc + 18atb + Gae
~lulliply 2a + 4b by 3a - 6b
2a+ 4b
3a- 6b
oa=i+ 12ab
- 12ab - 24b9
6d - 24b1
181
THE S T A R R E 1, T B O O K
The obove cxa1nplc should be thoroughly understood,
for it involves multiplication, addition, and cancellation
of like terms.
Ir three quantities are to be multiplied, first multiply
two of them, then 1nuUip]y the product by the third.
DIVISION
Division is the process of finding how 1nany titnes
one (ft1antity is contained in another.
In nrith1nclic dividing 20 by 4 is flnding how 1nany
times 4 is contained in 20.
In algebra dividing 25a1 bc by 5ac is finding ho,v
1nany ti1ncs Sac will go in 25a'bc.
First divide the coefficient 25 by 5, lhei:r divide the
letters by subtracting lhe exponents of the sa1ne letter,
= =
ct-=- a a because 2 - 1 1. \Vhen no shnilar letter is
in the dividend, as in the case of b, there is no exponent
lo subtract, therefore we pul lhc b in the quotient. In
the case of the
•
letter c, c goes in c once or 1.
5ac ) 25d'bc ( 5ab
25a C
ab
Another way lo state this is to divide the tern1s into

factors:
25XuXaXbXc
-------- = 5ab
Sac
The 5 cancels 5 in lhe numerator, a cancels one a

in the nu1nerator and c cancels c. These cancel bec~use
the exponents beco1ne zero; for instance. 1 - 1 ~ 0, and
c ,vith the exponent :iero equals one or unity.
133
l~ H E S T A R R E T T B O O K
SIGNS. Since division is the converse of multipU.
cation, the rules governing signs are practically lhe same:
\Vben both divisor and dividend are + the quotient
is+.
\Vhen both tlivisor and dividend are - the quotient
is+.
\Vbco lhe divisor is + and the dividend is the
quotient is -.
When the divisor is - and the dividend is + the
quotient is - .
The process of polynomiols is merely an extension
of the process or dividing monomia1s.
E~ample: Dh·ide 40a4 - 35<tb + 8a2b - 7ab1 by
8a2 - 7ab:
Sa' - 7ab) 40ac- 35a'b + 8a1 b - 7ab1 (5<t + b
40a•- 35a'b
8a1 b - 7ab'
8db - 7ab'
EQUATIONS
AN EQUATION is an algcbrai~ expression in ,vhich
hvo or more terms or quontities are connected by the
sign of equallty. The l\vo ter1ns or expressions arc called
me1nbers or sides of the equotion; the term on the lefl.
hand side is called the first, and lhnl on the right-hand
side is called the second term.
The Jetter whose value is to be found is called the
"unkno,vn quantity,'~ and it is usual to represent the un-
known <1uantity by· lhe letter (x).
To soh·e nn equation is lo find the value of the un-
kno,vn quantity, either in terms of numbers or in terms
or nurnbers and ]etters.
A very imporlnnt fact to remember about equations Is
that lf the same operation is performed on both ~ides of
1M
the equation the left-hand side will stiU be equal to the
right-hand side.
The equation will continue to be an equation if
a. The same quantity is added to both sides.
b. The same <1uantity is subtracted from both sides.
c. )loth sides are divided by the same quantily.
d. Both sides arc 1nultiplied by the same quantity.
e. Bolh sides are raised to the san1e power.
/. The sQ1ne root of bolh sides is extracted.
This fact is made use of in solving an equation; for
instance,
5x=20
DiviclJng both sides by 5. "·e have
X == 4
=
Agnin, 1/5x 20
:Multiplying both sides by a. we have
5 X 1/5x = 5 X 20
x= 100
Before solving an equation H is usually easier to
rewrite or rearrange the terms so that x with its coem-
cient v.Till be alone on the leR-hand side. Changing the
ter1ns from one side to the olher is coUed "transposing."
It is evident that In transposing the truth of the sign of
equality 1nusl not be destroyed.
Bearing in mind the fact that if the same operation
is performed on both sides of an equation the left-hand
side remains equal to the right-hand side, ,ve can trans-
pose terms.
x-2a=b
Adding 2a to both sides, we have
x-2a+2a=b+2a
131
1~ II E S rr .A R R E ~r 1" H O O I,
-------
As - 2a cancels + 2a, we have
.:t=b+2a
\Ve see from this that the 2a has been lransposcd
from one side to lhe other, and that in transposing the
only thing thnl happened lo it "'as that i ls sign was
changed.
Numerous examples would show this simple Cact that
to transpose a quantity from one side of an equation to
the other, it is onJy necessary to ,vrile the quantity on
lhe other side ,vith its sign changed; plus changed lo
minus or minus to plus.
If the term containing z ls a fraclion, the deno1n-
inntor can be elirninatcd, so that ~ ·will be alon~, by mul-
tiplying both sides of the equation by the denominator.
z m'J+n• n
C b b
First, combine the frnclions on the right-hand side,
because they have the same denominator, thus!
~ m 1 +n1 -n
-=-----
C b
To get :r alone on the left-band side, multipb• both
sides by c.
c (m' + n 1 - n)
x=
b
Suppose z is in lhe denominator instead r,f in the
numerator.
6 a+b
-=---
z lOc
Multiplying both sides by x gives
(a+ b) z
6-=----
lOc
138
Now transpose all terms
(a+ b) x
---=6
toe
Or dividing both sides by a+ b , the coefficient of x.
10c
,vc have
(a+ b) z 10c 6 (10c)
-----x - - = - - -
10c a+ b a +b
60c
x=--
a+b
The short cut lo the same resull is to invert both sides.
8 a+b
-=
% toe
z 10c
-G = a+b
Then multiplying both sides by 6,
60c
x=---
a+b
SHOP AND ENGINEERING

FORMULAS
The letters ,vhich we have used are given a meaning
in shop ancl engineering fonuulas by assigning to each
a definite numcri cal value. The letters are connected
by signs to represent the conditions.
In a certain shop one-fifth of the output is milling
machines, hverthirds is lathes, and lhe rest is twenty-
eight shapers. How many miWPS machines and lathes
are produced?
117.
If we let .r represent the total number of machines•
.r 2z
- equals lhe number of ~illing machines and - equals
5 3
z
the number of lathes. Tha lotaJ is equal to - added to
5
2x
- . and lids sum .Is added to 28 to equal lhe unknown
3
quantity%.
X 2x
x=-+-+28
5 3
Alu1tiplying both sides by 15, the common denomi-
nator, to eliminate the fractions, we hnve
+ tOz + 420
15.r:;:::: 3z
15x = 13% + 420
Transposing
15% - 13z = 420
2.r= 420
~ = 210
-zS =-210
5
2z 420
= 42 milling machines and - = - =140 lathes.
3 3
In designing, formulas are used, and these formulas
are Jn the form of equations, the lctten having definite
values. Usually the values or all bot one letlcr arc kno,vn
or assu111ed. The problem then is to find the numerical
value of the unknown by substituting the known valuos.
For instance, in designing keys some use this formula:
126,000 X H.P.
P=------
DN
in which P = the total twisting moment on the shaft,
H. P. = the horse-power transmitted, D = diameler of
shaft In inches, and N = number of revolutions of the
sha fl per ml nute.
118-
1'' 11 E STARR:ET1' B O O I{
If 20 horse-power is transmitted at n rotative speed

of 40 revolutions per minute and the shaft is 2 inches in
diameter, the twisting moment is found by substituting
the known volues and solving for P.
126,000 X 20
P= -
2 X 40
=
31,500
In finding the thickaiess of the hub of a pulley, some
designers use this formula:
T = .t4rs-n
in ,vhich T = thickness of hub in inches,
B = ,vidth of face in Inches,
D = dian1eter of pulley in inches.
If the face is 8 inches and the pulley 27 inches in
diameter, we have
T = .14 if 8 X 27
~ .14 X 6
= .84 inch or % inch
139
'r H E S T A R R E T T 13 0 <l K
MENSURATION
ANGLES. Of all the plone .figures ,vhich the machin~
ist hos lo deal ,vith, the angle is the most imporlant, and
also the most troubleso1nc. Exa1np1cs of '\vorking to an
angle arc found in the setting of the compound rest ,._·hen
taper turning, setting the head of the milling 1nachine
for milling spiral flutes in twist drills or rcnmers, :uni
in the culling of be,·el gears. In lasing out ,,·ork the
n1achinisl 1nust understand the properties of angles and
lhe use of the protractor, so thal he n1ay ·work to lhe
angle that i~ wanted, not lo some other angle.
An angle is sometimes defined as the difference in
direction of two straight lines; another definition is: an
angle is the space bet,veen two straight lines that meet,
or would meet if produced. Angles are also used for
measuring rotation or circular 1nove1ncnt.
If a circumference or n circle is
dra'\vn, hnving for a center the vertex
of tbe angle, the mensurc of the angle
~--1s will be that arc included between the
sides of the angle. Angle A O B is meas•
urcd by the arc A B.
The circumference or lhe circle is
divided into 360 equal parls, each called
u degree, Each degree is tli vided into 60
equal parts called minutes. Each minute
into 60 equal parts called seconds. The
angle A O B "·ill be an angle of 60• if
the arc A n is one-sixth of the circu1n-
fercnce.
It makes no difference ·what lhe radius of the circle
or arc may be, the difference in direction is the same,
and the number or degrees is Lhe same.
140.
1· H :g STA.BRETT B O O K
A RIGHT ANGLE is one formed by two lines per-
pendicular lo one another. The arc which measures it
is a qu11rter circutnfcrence or 90°. The tool most com-
1nonly used for measuring a right angle is a try-square.
Two right angles arc formed \\~hen a line so meets an-
other line that the t,vo anglc.s arc equal.
AN ACUTE ANGLE is an)'· angle of less than 9.r.
AN OBTUSE ANGLE is any angle of more than 90°.
The complement of an angle is the angle which 1nust
be added to the given angle to make a right angle or 90a.
The complement of an angle of 37° is 53°. EHhcr of
these angles is the complement or the other.
The suppleruent of an angle is the angle which must
be added to the gh•en angle to make 18O~, or two right
11
angles. The supplement of an angle of 63 is 1 l..7°. Either
of these angles is the supplement of the other.
The instrument most eommonly used for 1neasuring
angles is the protractor. It mar be in the form of the
combination set (page 14), or the protractor shown in
the accompanying i1luslration. The protractor is a grad-
uated disc on a fixed bl~dc and adjustable stock. Any
given angle may be laid out or measured by setUng the
blade at the desired angle with the stock. The ongle
shown here is a little less than 55 °.
To set the protractor at an angle of less than 90° is
an easy matter, because the instrument reads directly,
being graduated from zero to 90°. But when the desired
angle is greater· than 90°, the supplement of the angle
must be round and the protractor set lo the supple1nent.
Thus, to lay off an angle of 150° we first find lhe supple,.
menl or 30° and set the protractor at 30a. Ilut the proper
scale must be selected. It often happens that a protractor
set to 60° actually measures 120 '. \Vlth the Starrett coin•
bination set, all angles are read direclly because of the
two scales, each graduated from zero to 180°.
1'1
T H E S T A R R E T T ll O O I(
PRoTllACTOR
A plane figure of three sides - if all

three sides are equal in length lhe tri-
angle is equiloterol and also e<.J~ianguJar;
that Is, all the angles are equal.
The sum of all three angles is equnl
&Aal
to two right angles, or 180°.
TAIA.NGLE Any angle e<.Juals iao· minus the sum
of the other two.
The areas or hvo triangles are equal if they have
equal base and equal height or altitude.
If the three sides of a triangle are proportional to
the corresponding sides of another triangle, the triangles
are similar and the corresponding ang]es arc equal.
If the angles of a triangle are equal to the corre-
sponding angles of nnother triong]e, the triangles are
1imilar and the corresponding sides arc proportional.
The area of any triangle ::: product of base and
altitude divided by 2.
1'2
A right triangle is one having one

right angle.
The hypotenuse is the side opposite
the right angle.
The square of the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides.
base X side
The area == - - - - -
2
Hypotenuse= v base squared+ side squared.
Base= V hypotenuse squared - side squared.
Side =
V hypotenuse squared - base squared.
A plane figure of four sides. All

!our angles are right angles, and the op-
posite sides are equal and parallel. The
sum of all the angles equals four right
angles, or 360 °.
Area = square of a side.
5QUAIU
the square of a diagonal
2
Side ::: V area
= diagonal X .7071
Diagonal= v area X 1.414
-- side X 1.414
A 1>lane figure of four sides. All

four angles ore right nngles, and the op-
posite sides are equal and.parallel. The
sum of all the nngles equals four right
RECTANc.l.f angles, or 360°.
The difference between a square and a rectangle
148
is that the adjacent sides of a square are equal; the
adjacent sides of a rectangle need not be equal.
Area =
product of l\\'O adjacent sides.
Short side == area divided by long side.
Long side =
area divided by short side.
Diogonal =
V sum of squares of adjacent sides.
A plane figure of four sides, hvo of

which.are parallel.
Area = sum of parallel sides X one•
TRAPE.ZOltl balf th~ ol titude.
A regular plane figure of six sides.

All the sides ore equal ond all the
angles ore equal. The sum or all the
angles equals 720".
Area = square of side X 2.598.
Arca = S<1uare of radius of circum•
R!GUU.A scribed· circle X 2.598.
HEXAGON
=
Area square of radius of Inscribed
circle X 3.464.
=
Side radius or circumscribed circle.
Side= radius of Inscribed circle X 1.155.
Radius of inscribed circle= side X .866.
A plane figure bounded by o curved
line, every point or which is e<Jually
distant from a point within coiled the
center.
A diameter i:s any straigbt line pass•
ing through the center nnd touching tl1e
c 1tcu:
1
circumference at each end.
Two circles having equal radii are equal.
Two ci rel es with unequal radii vary in area as the
squares of the radii - the circumferences ore propor-
tional to the radii.
T H E STARR:ETT IJ O O K
A chord is a straight Jine interst-cting or to11cbing the

c.ircun1fcrence, but not passing through the center.
A chord atright nnglcs to a diameter is divided into
two equal pnrts by the diameter.
Circnrnferencc = diameter X 3.1416.
Arca = s<1uare of radius X 3.1416.
Area = StJuare of diameter X .i854.
Rodius == circumference + 6.2832.
Radius = v area -+- 3.1416.
A plane figure included behveen hvo
circumferences having the sa1ne center.
Area = 3.1416 X (large radius
squared - srnall radius squared).
Area = .7854 X (large dia1neter
RING squared - smoll diameter squared).
A plane figure include<] between two
rodii nod the arc.
Area = one-half the radius X length
of arc.
Area = .008727 X radius squared X
nng)c in tlegrtcs.
57.206 X length of nrc
Angle=---------
Sf.CTOR radius
57 .296 X length of arc
Iladlus = ---------
degrees in onsle
Length of are = .01 i45 X radius X degrees in angle.
A t)l:tne figure bounded by a curveJ
of ,vhich every point ts the same dis-
tance froin two points on the •ongest
oxis; thal is, the sum of the distances
from nny point to the foci ls equal to
lLUP!!. lhc sum or the distnncc.s from ony other
point to lhc foci.
1'8
Area= 3.1416 X the product of its semi-ax.es.
Area= .7854 X product of axes.
... f ( ) sutn of square of axes
C1rcum erence approx. =3.1416 1'• /
2
A cycloid is a curve rormed
by a given point on a circurufer-
e nee of a circle ro11ing on a
CVCI.CHD straight line.
Length of curve= diameter or circle X 4.
Length of curve= radius of circle X 8.
Area= 3 X 3.1416 X radius squared.
Area::::: 9.4248 X radius squared.
Area= area of circle X 3.
An involute is a curve traced
by the end of a string as it un-
winds from a cylinder and is kept
taut. The string is always tangent
to the cylinder. To draw the curve,
divide the circumference into an)·
n u1nber of equal parts, lhe smaller
the number, the more ace.orate the
curve. Through these points on the
circun1fcrcncc, drnw lines at right
angles to the rndius and moke the lengths of these tan-
gents equal to the actual length of the arcs. The curve
drav.·n through these points is an involute.
SOLIDS
A solid having six faces, each a
s<1uare. All faces and edges are equat
Volume := cube of edge.
=
Edge ~ volume.
I.OU
CUIII:
Total area =
square of edge X 6.
1ff
'r H E STARRET'I' R O O K
A solid having a rectangular base

and rectangular sides. All opposite edges
ore equal and parallel.
Volume = product of the three
edges.
Any edge == volume + product of
other two edges.
Total area = area of base nnd top
+ area of sides.
Total area = sum of areas of the six
faces, all rectangular.
A prism having for its base a regular
hexagon, and bases at right angles to
faces. ·
Volume ;::: 2.598 X squure of side of
base X vertical edge, or altitude.
Lateral area = side of base X ver•
ti cal edge X 6.
Tolal areo = lateral area + (5.196 X
square of side or base).
A rlsht pyramid 1s a solid having a
base a regular polygon ond faces isos-
celes triangles.
Volume = one-third ultitude X area
of base.
Rt&"LAA P"l'IIAMID Lateral area = perimeter of base X
one-half slant height.
Slant height =altitude of triangular
face.
Slant height = v vertical edge
.squared - one-half side of base squared.
A frustum of a regular pyramid has
parallel bases; thal is, it is the lower
portion of a pyramid· cut by a plane
""---..,.;••:~ parallel to the base.
PAU,TUM Or .,.,,.At•IID
1t7
Volu1ne = sun1 of areas of the two bases antl 111cu11

proportional behveen lhc111 X one-third altitude.
The mean proportional is equal to the square root
of the product.
Lateral area = the sum of the periincters of the
lwo bases X one-half slant height.
Slnn t height= v------'--=----=---------""'.C---
s<1uarc of edge - square of one-
half ditl'erence of side of bases.
A right cone has a circular base and
vertex in a 1i ne perpendicular lo the
eenter of the base. It is a solid of revo-
lution; thal is, ii is n solid figure formed
by revolving a right triangle on its verti-
cal side as an axis.
AllttT coNr. Volume = 1.0472 X square or radius
or base x altitude.
Volume = .2618 X square of diam-
eter or base X altitude.
Conical area == 3.1416 X radius of
base X slant height.
Slant height = v squore of radius + square of altitude.
Altitude= v square of slant h<-'ight- square of radius.
The frustum of a cone has parallel
bases. It is the lower portion of u cone
when cut by a plane paralle1 to the base.
Volume == on~-third altitude X sum
of the areas of the h\'O bases and the
f"AUSTL1t1 or coNt mean pro1lortional behveen the t,vo
bases.
The mean proportional is equal to the square root
or the product.
Lateral orea = sum of perimeters ( circles) of two
bases X one-half slant height.
--------::---:-,--:---::--~---~
Slant height = v square of 1'1titudc + square of
difference in radii.
1'8
'f H E S 'r A R R E T T B O O K
A right cylinder is a solid having
circ.Jes for bases and lateral surface per-
pendicular to bases. It is a solid of revo-
lution; thnl is. it is generated by revolv-
_,- -- ing a rec.tangle about a side ns an oxis.
Volu1nc = 3.1416 X square of radius
X altitude.
c:~.tiTr.R Volun1c = .7854 X square of diam-
eter X altitude.
Cylindrical surface =
6.2832 X ra<lius X altitude.
Cylindrical surface =
3.1416 X diameter X altitude.
Tola] surface = cylindrical surface + l\vice area of
(circle) base.
Hollo,v cylinder, axis of hole coin-
ciding with axis of cylinder,,
Volume =difference in volume of
I' two cylinders.
,,-..._.
I
I
,,.-Jo-
=
Volun1e 3.1410 X altitude X (.~c1uare
of large radius - square of small radius).
'
Volume =3.1416 X altitude x thick-
hOUOW C::'r"UNC,[,_ ness X (large diameter - thickness).
A sphere is n solid bounded by a
curved surface every point of ,vbich is
equally distant from a point within, c31led
the center. It is a solid of re\.,.olution;
that is, it is generated by revolving n half
circle on the dinn1cter as on axis.
SPHUI'.
4 X 3.1416 X cube of radius
Volun,e = ------------
3
= 4.1888 X cut..c of radius
__ ~~/volume
Radius -y
4.1888
= .6204 X f/-,-?o-1u-m---e.
149
T I-I E STARRE'fT B O O K
Area= 4 X 3.1416 X square of radius,
=
12.5664 X squaro of radius.
I area
Rnd1us
•
=
'Y - - -
J.
12.5664
3.5447 X v-
= -
area
Hollow sphere.
Volume =
difference in volumes of h,·o spheres.
Volume == 4.1888 X (cube or large radius - cube of·
sn1all radius),
A spherical segmen l ls f onued hr
passing a plane through a sphere. If the
plane passes through the center, the seg-
1nent is one-half the sphere. If it does
not pass through the center -
Volume ; 3.1416 X square of height
X (radius - one-third height). _
Radius of segment = \/height X ( dia-
meter of sphere - height of seg111ent) •
Surface of spherical segment = 2 X
3.1416 X radius of sphere X height.
Surface or spherical segment
6.2832 X radius of sphere X height.
A .spherical zone is formed by pass-

ing t ,vo parallel planes through a sphere.
Volume = volume of sphere - vol-
ume of seginent.
Area = 2 X 3.1416 X radius of

$PKDnCA,L ZONE. sphere X height.
Area = 6.2832 X radius of sphere X
height.
160
MECHANICS
A FORCE is any callse which lends to produce or
modify motion .. It is measured in pounds, usually. Force
has three characteristics - direction. place of applica-
tion, magnitude.
\VORK is the product of force and distance. It is
measured in foot-pounds or in inch-pounds. Work does
not involve the element tim~.
PO\VER is the amount of work done in a given time.
It is the product of force and distance divided by lime;
and is expressed in fool-pounds per mjnute, or foot-
pounds per second. The element of time is always
included.
Po,ver should not be given the same meaning as force,
although some carelessly refer to an applied force as
being a po,vcr.
VELOCITY is rate of motion. It is distance divided
by time, and is expressed in feet per minLlle or feet per
second. Velocity does not include force nor ,vei;;cht.
l\IO?\fENT OF FORCE. The moment of a force is
the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from
the fixed point to the direction of the force. The fixed
point is called the center of moments, and the perpcndic•
ular distance is called the lever arm of lhe force. l\loment
of force is measured in foot-pounds or inch-pounds.
GRAPHJCAL REPRESENTATION OF FORCES. A
force may be represented graphically by a straight line,
the length being proportional to the magnitude. That is,
tbe line is drawn to some scale. One end of the line
represents the point of application, and an arrow bead
at the other end represents the direelion.
Two or more forces may act together on a body.
To flnd a single force which produces the sorne efTect
as two or more forces, is to find the RESULTANT. The
operation is called the COMPOSITION OF FORCES.
181
T ll E S ·r 1\ R R E T' 1' B O {) I{
To find hvo or more forc~s whil'h combinctl arc

equivo)enl lo a given force is to 11nd lhc CO~IPO~EN'TS.
The operation is called the RESOLUTION OF FORCES.
PARALLELOGRA~l OF FOHCES. \\'hen two fot'ces
acting at a point ran be reprcsl'ntcd in
s ~direction and magnitucle hy tht> adjacent
~
~ sides of II parallelogram, the rcsultanl
will he reprcsente<l in direction and mag-
nitu<le by the diagonal of the parallelo-
• ~ grau1. A B and A C arc the forces and
A R the resultant.
If l~\·o forces act in lhe same rlireclion, the resultant
is equal to lheir suin.
If l\vo forces act in opposite directions, the resultant
is their ditTerence.
PARALLEL FORCES. \\'hen t,vo
forces o.re parallel anrl act in the sarue
A..--,---➔) ~ dircclion, bul not frC)m lhc same point,
1tuuLTANT their resultant is parallel to both, and is
Er--.....,.;.=~-~, equal to their sum. The rcsnJtanl is
located bct,vcen the forces at a poinl thnt
diYides the line joining lhe points of
application inversely as tbc magnitudes.
C D
CD:AB=.AE EC
If the forces act in opposite direc-
tions, the resultant is parallel to both,
but is located outside of them on the
line (pro<lul"ed) joining lhe points of
r;P-----~o application. It is nearer lhc greater force
and takes Lhe same direelion os Lhe
greater for<·e, but in intensity it is equal
lo the tli lfercncc bct'\\'('~ll the compo-
nents. The point of application of the
resultant is:
AB CD=CE AE
162
l' II E STARRET1" B O O K
LEVERS
1\lomcnts of forces are very important factors in
n1achines. They may be illustrated in levers.
A lever is an inflexible rocl, ,vhich may move about
a fixed, point caJled the fulcrum. The lever arms are the
portions between the weights or forces and the fulcrum.
To sol vc all probletns relating to the lever, it must
be re111embered that the moments arc the weights or
forces 1nultipJied by the distances from the fulcrum;
that is, by the le\·er arms.
As the lever is considered in bnlonce~ the product of
the weight and length of weight arm is equal to the
product of the po,vcr and length of power nrm.
,vhen the fulcrum is betv.·een the
4L ~ l----t'l weight and the force, nnd both ,veight
and force oct in the same direction:
' \V XL::: F XI
or \V : F = l L
F XI FXI
\V=-- L=
L ,v
\V XL ,vxL
F=--- l=---
1 F
~ \Vhen the weight or load is between
t=: L 4 1~ the fulcrum and the point at ·v:hich the
J: X force fs applied, the same principles
~ apply; in fact, the same formulas are
---L
f-tj !)
.....__1...,_______.
,
used.
In the third form of lever, the force
is applied at ::a point between the fulcrum
w and the weight. The same formulas are
used.
If the "'·eight of U1e Jever itself is to be considered,
the moment of force (F X O remains the same, but there
163
are then several moments of weight. The additional
moments of \\'eight are found by multiplying the weight
of the lever arm IJy the distance of its center or gravity
from the fulcrum. In a lever of the first class there wil1
be hvo moments of weight due to the "reight of the lever,
one will act with the moment of force and the other act
with the moment of weight. \Vith levers of the second
and third class, the additional moment of weight will
act ,vith the original moment of weight, and, therefore,
is added to it.
THE \VINDLASS. The moment of
force and the mo1nent of weight are the
means for finding tbe force required to
lifl a weight by a rope wound on the
dru1n of a ,vlndlass.
FXL=\VXl
\VX l
F=---
,. L
PULLEYS OR BLOCKS. The force
required to lift the ,veight is equal to
the weight divided by the number of
ropes that are shortened.
,v
F=-
N
If there are five ropes and the weight
F is .300 pounds. the force is:
300
F = -5 = 60 pound:s.
The velocity ,\"ilh which the weight
is rnised is equal to the velocity of the
force divided by the number of ropes
shortened.
Velocity of F
Velocity = N
1M
T H E STARRET1~ B O O K
PULLEYS
A 5imple way to transmit po\\'cr, either at the same
speed, or a change of speed, is to place a pulley on the
driving shaft und another on lhe driven shaft and pass
an endless belt over them. It is evident that the linear
speed of the pulleys is the same; that is, one revolution
of the driving pulley pulls the belt through a dislance
equal to ils circumference, nnd a point on the periphery
of the driven pulley will be pulled through this distance
,vbether or not the periphery is equal to the circumfer..
ence of the driving pulley.
To change the rotative speed of shafts it is only
necessary to place on them pulleys of unlike diameters.
The revolutlons are inversely proportional to the
circumferences and, therefore, to the diameters. The
smaller pulley runs at the higher rotative speed.
D = diameter of driver.
d= diameter of driven.
=
Revs. of driven : Re,•s. of driver D : d.
Revs. of driven X d= Revs. of driver X D.
The product of the re,,olulions and diameler of one
pulley is equal to the product of the revolutions and
diameter of the other pulley.
From Revs. of driven X d -= Revs. of driver X D
Revs. of driver X D
we have d = - - - - - - - - -
Revs. of driven
Revs. of driven X d
and =---------
D
Revs. of driver
To find the diameter of the driven pulley, multiply
the revolutions of the driver by its diameter and divide
by the revolutions of the driven.
1&1
S T A R R E l" '1" H O O K
Example: The driving shaft n1akes 150 revolutions

per minute and the driving pulley ls 12 inches in dian1.
cter. The driven shaft is to n1::.kc 600 revolutions; what
diometcr pulley should be selected?
150 X 12
d =----
600
== 3 inches
The driving 5haft makes 200 revolutions and the
driven shaft is to make 150 revolutions per minute.
\Vilb a driven pulley of 24 inches diameter, what size
driver pulley should be used?
150 X 24
D = -- == 18 inches
200
To find speeds when sizes of pulleys are known:
Revs. of driver X D =
Revs. or driven X d.
Revs. of driven X d
Revs. of driver = --------
D
Revs. of driver X D
Revs. of (]riven = --------
d
Example: The driver pulley is 16 inches diameter
and the driven is 18 inches diameter. \Vhcn the driver
runs at 270 revolutions per minute, what will be the speed
or the driven pulley?
168
T H r: ST.ARRETT B () 0 l{
Hcvs. of driver X D
Revs. of driven = --· d
270 X 16
---=240
18
Example: T,vo pu])eys, one of 14 inches dinmeter
and the other of 18 inches diameter, arc available. The
driven shaft is to run nl 120 revolutions per minute. If
the 14-inch pulley is pine.eel on the driven shan what
should be the s1>eed of the driver?
Revs. of d ri,·cn X r1
Revs. of driver = --------
D
120 X 14
----=931-3
18
FORMULAS FOR PULLEY DIAMETERS AND

REVOLUTIONS
\Vhen three factors are knovln the fourth can be
found by using one of the following formulas:
Dia of driven X Revs. of driven
Dia. of DriYer
Revs. of driver
Dia. of driver X Revs. of driver
Dia. of Driven
Revs. of driven
Dia. of driven X Revs. of driven
Revs. of Driver
Dia. of driver
Dia. of dri-v~r X Revs. of driver
Revs. of Driven =--------------
Dia. of driven
16T
The same principles apply lo more complcll belting.
Suppose hvo pulleys are on the same shaft; we then
ha\'c a combination thot resembles a train or gea~.
This arrangement is often desirable when it is im-
practicable to gel the speed reduction "·ith one belt;
that is, ,vhen the larger pullel' ,vould hove to be very
large as compared with the smaller.
In the I above illustrnlion the high rotative speed or

pulley A (on a 1notor shaft for example) is reduced to
11 much lower figure at pulley D.
Revs. of A X diameter of A == Revs. of B X diameter
of B and Re"'t/s. of C X diameter or C= Ilevs. of D X diam-
eter of D. But pulleys Band Care on the same shafi and
have the same rototive speed.
Revs. of B = Revs. of C.
Combining these equations we may express the rela-
tion as follows:
The speed of the first driver n1ultiplied by the
diameters of all the drivers is equal to the speed of the
last driven pulley mulUplied by the diameters of all
driven pulleys. Or
Revs. of A X dinmeter of A X diameter of C =
Revs. of D X diameter of B X diameter of D.
If five of the above quanlilfes are known the sixth
is easily found.
1&1
T II E S T A R R E T T B O O I{
Example : Pulley A runs at 1200 Rev. per minu le,

and is 4 inches in diameter. Pulley B is 12 inches in
diameter, C is 5 inches, and D is 16 inches. \Vhal is
the speed of D?
1200 X 4 X 5 := Revs. of D X 12 X 16
24,000 =
Revs. of D X 192
24,000
Revs. of D
192
125
In the above we have found the rotatiYe speed of D

without finding the rotative speed of B, but we had given
the diameters of Band C.
Suppose we had given the speed of D, but do not
know whot pulleys to use in place of B and C.
Revs. of first driver product of diameters of all drivens
Revs. of last driven - product of diameters of all drivers
Revs. or A diamclcr of B X diameter of D
01"' - - - -
Revs. or D diameter of A X diameter of C
The two unknown quantities are diameter of B and
diameler of C; but the RATIO can be found. Us"ing the
data in the above example we have
1200 16 X diameter of B
125 diameter of C X 4
Diameter of B 4 1200
--------=-x--
Diamctcr of C 16 125
12
5
119
Then the rotio of the diainelers is 12: 5, and nny

pulleys having diameters in this ratio will give the desired
speeds. Tbe pulleys nlay be 12 and 5 inches, 18 and 7 ½,
or 24 and 10.
Example: The shaft of 3-inch pulley D is to make
900 revolulions; what 1>u1leys must be plncecl as B and
OA
C if A Js 14 inches in diameter and

makes 150 revolutions? The nvai111bJe
pulleys have these diameters - 8, 9,
10¼, 11, 12, 13½ inches.
The formula lo use is
Revs. of first driver product of diameters of all drivens
Revs. of last driven J>roduct of diaineters of all drivers
150 diameter of B X 3
-=--------
900 14 X diameter of C
1 3 diameter of ll
- =-x-----
6 14 diameter of C
Diameter of B 1 14
------=-x-
Diumeter of C 6 3
14 7
=-==-
18 9
160
Then 1nultip)y the ratio 7 : 9 by any number ,vhich

will make 7 and 9 eqUal to the diameters of puJleys on
hand. Multiplying by 1 ½ gives 10¼ and 13½.
To prove that the calculation is correct, place these
values in this expression :
The speed of the first driver (150) multiplied by the
diameters of all drivers (14) o.nd (13½) is equal to the
speed of the last driven (900) multiplied by ·the diam-
eters of all driven pulleys (10%) and (3).
150 X 14 X 13 ½ =
900 X 10 ½ X 3
=
28,350 28,350
LENGTH OF BELTS
Open Belt. Pass n tape, preferably o steel tape.
around lbe pulleys. This v.rill give the length dii-ect, if a
single bell; but if a double belt is lo be used add to the
measure1nent twice the thickness of the bell.... The length
of small belts ·moy be obtained by passing the belt around
the pulleys and straining with hand pull.
New belts stretch and become slack after a short
li1ne, and the slack should be taken up. With long belts
stretching 1nay be anticipated by cutting the belt one
inch shorter for every ten feet.
Rule for Length of Open Belt
Add diameters of pulleys in inches ond multiply 1he
sum by 1.57, then add to this product t\\1 lce the distance
behvcen centers in inches.
Form_ula for Lena-th of Open Belt
(R - r) 1
L ~ 3.14 (R + r) + 2 D +
D
=
R Radius of large pulley, inches.
r = radius of smnll pulley, inches.
=
D Distance bet,veen centers of shaft, inches.
L =
Length of beJt, Inches.
181
T H E Sl"ARRET~r B O O K
Formula for Length of Crossed Belt
+rr'
L = 3.14 (R + r) + 2 D + (R
---
n
The letters haYe the same vnlues as above.
Example: 1\vo pulleys ere 11 feel apart and are 24
and 16 in_ehes in djamctcr. Length of bell? Open and
crossed.
(12 - 8)'
L = 3.14 X (12 + 8) + (2 X l32) + ---
132
16
= 62.8 + 264 +-
132
= 326.8 + .12
= 326.92 inches, open belt.
(12 + 8)'
L == 3.14 X (12 + 8) + (2 X 132) + - - -
132
400
= 62.8 + 264 + -132
= 326.8 + 3
= 329.8 Inches, crossed belt.
GEARS
CONSTANT VELOCITY RATIO. Belts over pulleys
and plain rolling cylinders cannot be depended upon
to give a constant velocity ratio - there is always some
loss of speed due to slip. But when t,vo 1cars are in
mesh a point on the pitch circle of one moves at the
same lineor velocity os a point on the pitch circle of
the other, and the number of revolutions is always a
constant ratio for these t,vo gears.
181
T H E ST.ARRETT B O O K
T,vo gears in mesh hove the snme pitch; lhat is the
1
distance from the center of a tooth to the center of the

next tooth, measured along the pitch circle, is tbe so.me
for both gears. Therefore, two gears of the san1e pitch,
but of different dian1elers, must have an unequal number
of teeth.
It may be said that the space occupied by a tooth
and the space behveen two teeth is the same in both
gears if they have the same pitch. This fact shows
immediately that the linear velocity or the pitch circles
must be equal and tlie rotative speeds can he found in the
same "\\'&Y as ·with belts. The pitch diameter or the num-
ber of teeth is substituted for the pulley diameter, for
the numbers of teeth are proportional to the pitch diam-
eters in the same ,vay that lhe peripheries of pulleys are
proportional lo the diameters. ·
A gear having twice as many teeth as the gear 1nesh-
ing with it will make but one-half as many revolutions
in a given time. Or, the speeds (rotative) are inYersely
as the number of teeth; the gear with the smaller number
of teeth runs al the higher speed.
As in belts and pulleys, one sear of a pair is the
driver nnd the other the drh~en or follower.
The 11umber of revolution, of the driver multiplied
by the number of teeth on the driver is equal to the
number of revolutions of the follower multiplied by the
number o/ teeth on the follower.
Revs. of driver X T =
Revs. of follo,vcr X l, if
T = number of teeth on the driver and l = number of
teeth on the follower:
"Revs. of follower X t
T=---------
Revs. of driver
Revs. of driver X T
and I =- - - - - - - -
Revs. ot follo·wer
188
T II E S T A R R E T T n O O I{
To find the number of teeth (T) on the driver, mul-

tiply the revolutions of the follo,vcr by its number of
teeth and divide the product by the revolutions of the
driver.
Example: The fol1o,ver hos 04 teelh onrl mQkes 30
revolutions per minute. The driver 1nakes 80 revolutions
per minute. How many teeth has the driver?
30 X 64
·T=-~~=24
80
Examp]e: The driver mnkes 160 re'/olulions per
minute and has 40 leeth. The follo,vcr makes 100 revo-
lutions. Ho,v many teeth?
160 X 40
t= ~ - =64
100
Revs. of rollo·wer X I
Revs. of driver= - - - - - - - - - - ~ -
T
Revs. of driver X T
Revs. of follower = --------
l
Example: The follo,ver hns 90 teeth and makes 110
revolutions per minute. If the driver has 44 leelh, bo,v
many revolutions per minllle'l
110 X 90
Revs. of driver == - - - = 225
44
Example: A driver having 63 teeth makes 800 revo-
lutions per minute. If the follo,ver has 42 teeth, what
will be its speed?
800 X 63
Revs. of follower =- -
42
- = 1200
1H
FORMULAS FOR SPEED OF GEARS

\Vhen three factors are known the fourth can be
found by using one of lhe lollowing for1nulas:
Revs. of follo,ver X teeth on follo,ver

Revs. of Driver = ---------------
teeth on driver
Revs. of driver X teeth on driver
Revs. of Follower= - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
teeth on follower
Revs. of tono,ver X teeth on follower
Teeth on Driver =
Revs. of driver
Revs. of dri vcr X teeth on dri vcr
TeethonFollower ==
Revs. of follower
As in the case of pulleys, great speed changes are
rnode by trains of sears in 1>lace of a pair. Examples
are found in hoists, clocks, lathes, etc. Each pair in the
train has Hs driver and follower, and if the shafts are
parallel it is usual to get the speed change by keying
two gears of unequal si.ic on every shaft, except the flrst
and last.
The velocity ratio of the first to the Inst is found
as fo1lows:
The product of the number of teeth on all the driver&
diuided by the product of the number of teeth on all the
I ollowers is the velocity ratio.
Suppose the train bas three drivers, A, B, and C and
three follo,vers, L, 11, and N.
A has 14 teeth and drives L having 70 teeth. Pinion
B on same shaft with L has 13 teeth and drives l\l hav-
ing 104 teeth. Pinion C l1as 15 teeth, and is on the same
shaft with II; C drive~ N having 75 teeth. \Vhal _is the
velocity ratio of A to N?
181
teeth on A X teeth on B >< teeth on C

Velocity ratio·== - - - - - - - - - - - ·-
teelh on L X teeth on ~I X teeth on N
14 X 13 X 15
70 X 104 X 75
1
200
Knowing the velocity ratio of the lrain, It ls easy to
ftnd the speed of N if the speed of A is kno,vn. If A
runs at 1800 revolutions per minute, N wi1l make only
9 revolutions for 1800 + 200 = 9.
When the speed of the Jlrst driver or the last fol-
lower is also known, the speed may be ftgurcd from the
tnllowing:
.Multiply the revollllion.s per minnte of the first driver
by the continued product of the number of teeth on all
drivers, and dlc,ide by the continued prod1zct of the
teeth on all follou,ers. The quotient wilt be the revolu-
tions per minute of the last follower.
LATHE GEARING
The apprentice who v..,.ishes to fl81)re change gears
for screw cutUng should understand the principles, as
161
already explained, rather lhan be dependent upon formu-

las. There is but one statement to be rne1norized.
The continued product of the tpeed of the first
driver and lhe number of teeth on all drive.rs, is equal
to lhe speed of the last followe.r ,nriltiplied by the con•
linued product of the leeth on all followers.
In fJgurlng change gears, the number of threads per
inch to be cut corresponds to the revolutions of the
driver, and the number of turns on the lead screw lo
move tbe carriage one inch corresponds lo the speed of
the follower.
Then the nu,nber of threads to be cut multiplied by
the teelh on the spindle stud equal, the number of
threads on the lead screw niultiplied by the teeth on
the lead ,crew gear. Or
threads to be cut teeth on lead screw gear
threads on lead screw - teeth on spindle stud
Suppose there are 6 threads on the lead screw and
·f6 teeth on the lead screw gear-how many threads will
be cut if a 2,&.tooth gear is ploccd on the spindle stud?
threads to be cut 40
-------=- 6 24
40
threads lo be cut = -2-1 x 6
= 10
The above assumes lbat the lathe is geared 1 : t ; that
is, the lathe screw constant is equal to the number of
threads pet' inch on lbe lead screw. If the lathe is not
so geared, the lathe screw constant should be used in
place of the threads per inch on the lead screw.
161
The foregoing example sho,vs how the figuring can

be done when the gears are on the spindle stud and lead
screw; but the problem ls usually one of finding out what
gears lo use.
Suppose seven threads are lo be cut, and there are
Jive threads per inch on the lead screw. \Vhat gears
are lo be used?
threads to be cut leeth on lead screw gear
threads on lead screw teeth on stud gear
7 teeth on lead screw gear
-5 = ----------
tooth on stud goor
The ratio or the gears is as 7: 5.
By multiplying both 7 nnd 5 by any number, such
as 6, we get
42 teeth on lead screw gear
30 = teeth on stud sear
Using the formula as above moy aid In disposing of
that troublesome question, ,.,,..hich gear goes on lhe
~tud?"
In s01ne cases it may seem easier lo as~utne one
gear and go throush lhe calculation to find lhc other,
thcro being then one unknown quantity and three known
qu.an tities.
188
1" HE S T A R R E T T B O O K
Table 13
Specific Gravity and Properties of Metala
w~~ Meltms UoeuEK·

Metal or Comoomtion Sped6: Cubic lricb. Point. ~ioa.per
Gravity Pounds De1. F. ~h
perDeg •
-
Aluminum.............. 2.56 G.09'U 1200 0.00001234
.Antimony .............. 6.71 cum 1160 o.ooooo&27
Barill!D ................. 175 0.135& l!if!O
Bianutb . ............... 9.80 0.3538 aoo OJ>0001875 .
o.-,
l
Boron .................. 2.80
Brata: ao c.. z.......
20 8.80 0.31Uii
10 c.• 30 z....... 8.40 o.a<m
60 c.• .co z....... 8.38 0.3018 111»-llliO O.W7
50C.. SO z....... 8.20 0.2960
Bl'CIGZe •• , .......••. • I ♦ I 8.85 0.3195 1675 0.00000986
CadmillJ1l ...........•... &&> o.31(1; 610
Calcfnm ................ 1.67 O.G667 ]450
Chroml11111 .............. e.so 0.ZU7 27-iO
Co'balt .. ♦ ♦ ♦
I • I I • I I I I I I• • • 8.65 0.3123 2100
8.82 0.3184 19'0 . O.OOOOMB'l
Cc>ppe-r •.--•-············
Gold ....... ,, .•...••·......... 19.32 0.6915 1930 0.00000786
lridlun ..... ............ 2Z.42 O.Qt 4100 0.00000356
Imn.c• ............... 7..20 0.2800 2300 0.00000556
I roa. wrouab.t .. ·........ 1.8& 0.2834 2900 G.000006'8
Lead .................... Jl.37 0.4105 620 0.00001sn
Magnl'Jlium ............ L74 D.06'l8 1200
Maugaoeae ............. 7.G 0.2629 mN)
Mm:ut'l' (W F.) ••...... 13.58 0.4902 -39
Mol)"bdm.um ........... 8.58 0.3(80 4500
Nlctel • I • • • ■ • • • I e • • I 41 • I • 8.aJ 0.31Tl 2600 G.00000895
Plallnwn. rolled ........ 22.6? G.8184
O.OOOODl79
Platinum. wire, .•.......
Potaaaium ......•.......
2LCM
0.87
0.7595
OJXiH
f 3200
lU
Siffer, ..•.•••.•.•• , ••.• .,. 10.53 0.3802 1740 0.000010'19
Sodbuu ..........•. .-: ... 0.98 0-035& 200
Steiel .... ■ ••••••••••••••• 1.80 0.2.816 2500 0.00000616
Tellurium .......•...•.. Qi 0.2256 IMO
1"11:l,., .......... ~······· 721 oJ'm O.OODOUG.1
ntm.um. ...... -. -.. ,. .....
Tunastaa...............
3.5t
18.11
0.1271
0.«176
'"
33fJO
6400
VIIDadlum ... ........... 5.50 0.1986 3200
Zinc,caat•..•.••••.•....
Zinc, rolled, .... : .•• ~·-·
6.86
7.15
0.2476
0.2581 } 7115 0.00001401
189
T Ii E S 'f A R R E T T B O O l{
Table 14
Average Specific Gravity of Mlacellaneoua Substances
A9beat.c)g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
=~
2.8
Wf:lJh! per
Cubic Foot.
Lba.
115
Asphaltun, ............................. : ........ . 1.• 81
Borax ............................•·•.. • .. -•, • • • • · • 1.75 109
Brick, commoa ...................•....... , ..•... 1.8 111
Brick. fire ......... , ................. , . , , . •... • • • - 2.3 14"
Brick, hard ..................................... . 2.0 125
Brick, pressed .................................. . 2,JS 13'
Brickwork, in motor ............................ . 1.6 JOO
Brickwork. tn cement ........................... . 1.8 112
Cement, P~laod ............................... . 3.1 19'
Chalk ...............................•............ 2.6 16.1
01.arcoal ........................................ . o., 25
Coal, anthracite ...•............................ l.& 9'
Coal, bituminout ................................ . 1.27 79
Concrete ........................................ . 2.2 137
Earth, looee....................... , . . . . . ....... . 1.2 '15
Earth, r.unmed ................................. . ].6 ]00
Emery ................ .-....................... - .. 4.0 DI
Gian ........................................... . 2.6 163
Granit~ ..................... : ................... . 2.85 186
Grave1 .......................... , •.••............ 1.15 109
Gypsum .......................... , . , ........... . 2.2 1J7
Jee .............................................. . 0.9 56
Ivory ........................................... . 1.115 115
I.imestoae ................•...................... 2.6 1m
MaTble ...•....................................... 2.7 1•
Masonry. ....................................... . 2., 150
Mica ............................................... . 2.8 l'm
~lortar . ............. : ........................... . 1.5 9C
Phosp~nie .............. · · . -· ---· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1.8 112
P'laster of Pam . ........................ -....... . 1.8 llZ
Quaru .. ............... ' ............. -.......... . 2.6 163
Salt, common ..........•..............·.......... . 2.1 131
Sand. dry .•...................................... 1.6 100
Sand. wet ...•.••...•............................. 2.0 135
Sand.atoae . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . .. " .- . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.3 1,4
Slate ........................ , ...................... . 2.8 115
Soapstone .•.......................••••.•..•..•.. 2.7 19
Sail, oommon black ... .......................... . z.o 125
Sulphur ..•.................. ; ..............•. : .. . 2.0 t:lS
Trap ..................................... : -..... . 3.0 111
Tile . ....... -.... -............. -· . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1.8 IU
170-
T 1-1 E S T A R R E T T B O O K
Table 15
Specific Gravity of Gasea
<At 32 defn'ees F.)
Gas
Sp. SP.
Gr. -Gr.
Air I • II • • • • • ~
• • I • 411 1 4 I • • I •
1.000 Hydrogen ............. . 0.069
Acetylene .............. . 0.910 Illuminating gas ....... . 0.040
Alcohol vapor .......... . 1.601 Mercury vapor ......... . 6.940
Ammonia .......... _... . 0.592 Marsh gas ....... _.... _. 0.555
Carbon dioxide.... . .. . 1.520 N~tr~en............... . 0.971
Carbon monoxide ...... . 0.967 Nitric oxide ......... ; ... . 1.039
Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.423 Nitrous oxide . . . . . . . . . . . 1.527
Ether vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.586 Oxygen ......... , ....... . 1.106
Ethylene .............. . 0.967 Sulphur dioxide .....•... 2.250
Hydrofluoric add ....... . 2.370 Water vapor . . . . . . . . . ... 0.623
Hydrochloric acid ...... . 1.261
1 eubic foot of alt' at 32 dqrcea F. and atmaepherlc presaure weigha 0.0807 pound
Table 1,
Specific Gravity of Liqutds
Sp. $p.
Uqnld Gr. Uqold Gr.
Acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.06 Muriatic ac:id I a • oll + I, •• I 4 I 1.20

Alcohol, commercial. .... 0.83 Naphth.a ................. 0.76
Alcohol. pure ....... _. . . 0.79 Ni trlc acid .............. 1.22
Ammonia ...... , ...... 0.89 Olive oil ............... t 0.92
Benzine .......... ,. ...... 0.69 Palm oil :_ ............... 0.97
Bromine ................ 2.97 Petroleum oil ........... 0.82
Carbolic add . . . . .. . . . . . . . 0.96· Phosphoric acid ........ 1.56
Carbon disulphide ....... 1.26 Rape oil ..... • I • • • • I • • • 0.92
Cotton-seed oil .......... 0.93 Sulphuric add •
1.84
• • I I • I • • •
Ether, sulphuric ......... 0.72 Tu .................... 1.00

Fluoric acid ............. 1.50 Turpentine oil . . . . . . .. . , . 0.87
Gasoline ................. 0.90 Vinegar ··"···········-- 1.08
Kerosa\e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80 Water .................... 1.00
Linseed oil ....... ~ ...... 0.94 Water, sea .............. 103
Mineral oH ... ~ .......... 0.92 Whale oil ............... O.!rl
1Tl-
T H E STARRET'f B O O K
Table 17
Composldoo of Misc~llaneous Alloys
>.
Alloys
j 1D -.~
~
- -
-
IQ J
- -
.....~ 3z
-
11,1
..!Iii
-
~
-
~
u
Brass. common yellow 6L6 2.9 0.2 35.3

Brass, to be rolled 32 1.5 10
Brass c:aatiags, common 20 2.5 1.25
Gun metal 8 l
Copper flanges 9 0.26 1
Bronze Stattwy 91.4 1.37 1.7 5.&1
German Silver 2 6.5 7.9 6.3
Britannia metal 50 25 25
Chinese white copper 20.2 15.8 1.3 12.7
Pattern letters 15 15 70
Bell metal 4 1
ChioeaegOJlll 40.5 9.2
White metal, ordinary 28.4 3.7 14.2 3.7

Spelter 1 1
Type :metal 1 3-7
171
T 1-1 E S T A R R E T T B O O K
Table 18
A verace Speclfie Heats of V arioua Substances
Subatance Subatance
Alcohol (absolute).. . . • . . . . . . 0.700 Kerosene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.500

Alcohol (denlity 0.8). . . . . . . . . 0.622 l.ead, . , , , .. - - ..... , , , . . . . . . 0.031
Alamlrnun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. Zl4 Llmeltone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.217
Antimony . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.051 Ma,1111111ua • • • . • • • • • • . . . . • • • . 0.222
Benzine .... , ............. , . 0.'50 Marble.. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21D
Braes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.094 Maaoary, brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.200
B~ork... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.200 Mercury . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 0.033
Cadmium . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.057 Naphtha . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.310
Charcoal . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 0.200 Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.109
Cialk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.21S Oil, machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.400
Coal . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2-40 on. olive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.350
Coke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.203 Ph081)h0111a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.189
Capper.~ to 212° F. . . . . . . . . 0.094 Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.032
Copper. 32° to 572° F. .. . . . . . . 0.101 Quartz . .. . . .. • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.188
Corundum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 0.198 Sand. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.195
Ether.. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.503 Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.191
Fuael oil . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . . . • . 0.564 Sliver. . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.056
eta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.194 Sod.a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 0.231
Gold • . . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 0.031 Stee.1. mild • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11G
Gtaphlte .. . .. . .. .. . . • .. . . . . 0.201 Sted, hiah carbon . . .. . .. . . . . 0.117
Ice . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.504 Stone (genemlly). . . . . . . . . . . . 0.200
Iron. cut............ . . . . . . . 0.130 Sulphur... . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . 0.178
lron. wrought. 32° to 212° F. . . o.no Su)J)burlc add.. . . . . . . . . • • . • 0.330
32° to 392° F.. . . . . . . . . . . . . O.llS Tin. .. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.056
32° to 572° F... . .. . . .. . . .. t.122 Turpentine... . . . . . . . . . .. . .. o..e72
:rl"to662°F.............. @.126 Water ...................... l.000
bor1, at hip tempenmna: Wood. ttr............. . . . . . . 0.650
1382° to 1832° F........... 0.213 Wood. oak . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . 0.510
1750° to 18'0° F.. .. . . . . .. . 0.21s w~ pine .. ~.. .. . .. . .. . .. . 0.487
19211' to 2190° F.. . • . . • . . . . 0.199 Zinc . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 0.095
178
Table 19
Templets for Drilling Standard and Low Pressure Flanared
Valves and Flttinp-Amerlcan Standard
-
G
.!:I
U.l
'!.,
. co
ec
".!!
c~
if .....
~ 1111
...o-
ez..
t='e>
ere
eu .....
S;j ~ii
0~ ~!I
l!
Ul vi
Cl
N
~=fe]
--i;a;.
~
It
.:=
~o
~]
EU
-
...~~"" ai ~~ .§)
~! tn
Cl
1111 ...
-. 'ge
-- - - -- I
- - --
~
1
l¼
1~
2
21'i 7
4
·Oi
5
6 ~-"
15.e
}i
l¾e
3
3~
3¼
•¾
S.½
4
4
..
4
4 ¾
%1
1ie
~
~
~
44
46
48
50
52
53
55¾
S7¼
59½
61.¾
2¾
2¼
21 ½.e
2¾
2"
2¾
49½
s1,-,
53¾
56
58¼
36
40
40
-44
-44
l¾
1¾
Ui
1"1
Ha
" '''l¾
3 1½ ¾ 6 4 6( 60½
3½ 8½ 7 fi6¼ 3 62¾
~
Oi
9
9¼
1~6
1¾•
l,i,e
7½
7¾
'8
8
JI
¾
¾
54
56
58
68¾
71
3
3}i
&.;
61¼
4&
48
,ta
1-':(
1¾
s r,o
6
7
10
11
12H
]
1½,
1~, 8½
9½
10¾
8
8
s
"'
¾
¾
62
6'
73
75¾
78
3¾
3¾
3¼'
69.!4
71"
7<1
52
52
52
1¾
l¼
l:ii
8 13-"' l¾ 11¾ 6 ¾ 66 80 3~ 76 52 1~
9 15 l¾ 13¼ 12 ¾ 68 82¼ 3" 78~ 56 n,
10 16 l¾e 14¼ 12 ¼ 70 84.~ 3½ soi, 56 1¼
12 19 1¼ 17 12 ¼ 72 86¾ 3½ 82H eo l¼
14 21 1'-' 18¾ 12 1 74 88½ 3~ 84½ 00 l>i'
15 Z'l¼ Hi 20 16 1 76 90¾' 3~ 86~ 60 Hi
16 23,!,i 1~~. 21¾ 16 1 78 93 3¾ 88¾ 60 2
13
20
25
27½
l~e
111/ie 25
2'l¾ 16
20
1~
Ui
BO
82
95¼
97}i
3"
3¾
91
93¼
60
£iO
2
2
22 29~ 11iy.. 27J( 20 1¼ 84 991.4 3¼ 95H 6' 2
24 32 Hi 29½ 2D !¼' 86 102 4 97,~ 64 2
26 34¼ 2 31¾' 24 I}.( as 104¼ 4 100 68 2
28
30
36½
38~ 2Ji
2½• 34
36
28
28
I~
J~
90
9:?
106).i
108K
'~
◄¾
102¾
lOC½
68
68
2~
Z¾
3Z 41¾ 2¼ 38½ 28 1½ 94 111 4¼ 106¼ 68 2~
34 43,i ir.i.e '°½ 32 I½ 96 113¼ 4¼ 108½ 68 2¼
1½ 4~ 110¾ 68 2¼
36
38
.t6
.t8¾
2""
2¾
42¾
45¾
32
32 Bi 100
98 1)5~
ll7" 4'4 ll3 68 2¾
4() SO¾ 2½ 47¾ 36 Hi • I I I
.... • 41 • ,.
Bolt holea are drilled Joi inch larger than DOminal diameter of bolt.a.
1'14:
Table 20
Templets for DrlllinK Extra Heavy Flanged Valves and
Fittings-American Standard
Size
Diam.of Thidm.esa Diam.of No. of Size of
Flanae crf F1anae Bolt Circle Bolta Bolt•
1
l¼
4½
5
l½e
¾
3¼
3¾
4½
•4
½
½
I¾ 6 'IK• 4 ¾
2
2½
3
;~
8¼
1
1¾
¼ 5
5~
6¾
4
4
8
~
a,
¾
3½ 9 l~G 7¾ 8 ¾
4
4½
10
10½
1¾
l~G
7¼
8½
8
8
¾
¾
1¾
~
5 11 8 ¾
12½ 1¾
n
6 l~i.6 12
7 14 l½ 11¼ 12
8 15 1¾ 13 12
9 16¼ l¾ 14 12 1
10 17½ 1½ 15¼ 16 1
12 20½ 2 17¾ 16 1¼
1, 23 2¾ 20¼ 20 1¼
1S 2'½ 2'ie 21½ 20 1¼
16 25½ 2~ 22½ 20 1¾'
18 28 2¾ 24¾ 24 1¼
1¾
~~
20 30½ 27 24
22 33 29¼ 24 1½
24 36 2¾ 32 24 1~
26 38¼ 21 ~1. 34½ 28 1¾
28 40',4 21'1s 37 28 I¾
30 43 3 28 1~
32 45¼ 3¾ 39~
41 ~ 28 1¼
34
36
47½
50
3¼
31/s
43½
46
28
32
lij
l¼
38 52¾ 3'¼, 48 32 1¾
40 54½ 3~6- 50¼ 36 1¼
42 57 3l~i_o 52¾ 36 1~
44 59¾ 3¾ 55 36 2
46 61½' 3¼ 57¼ 40 2
48 65 4 60¾ 40 2
BoJt holea ans drilled )i iDcb larger than nominal diameter of bolts.
1'16
Table ll-Tap DrtUa
For A. S. M. E. Standard and.Special
Machine Screw Taps
1be diameter given for each hole to be tapped allows for a
practical clearance at the root of the thread of the screw and will
not impose undue strain upon the tap in service.
Slze No.of Size of Size of No. of Size of

afTap 'nreada DrllI Tap Thread■ DrlU
0 80 .0465 9 32 .1405
1 8' .OU 10 2' .140
1 72 .0595 10 30 .152
2 58 .H'10 10 32 .15'
2 64 .070 12 24: .1.18
3 48 .8'10 12 28 .173
3 56 .0785
.ISO
14:
• .182
'' 38 14 24 .1935
40 .082 16 20 .209
4 -t8 .089 16 22 .213
i 31 .0935 18 18 .228
i 4:0 .098 18 20 .234
5 44 .0995 20 18 .2o1
G 32 .1015 20 20 .261
0 36 .1065 2'l 11 .rn
.6 40 .110 22 18 .281
7 38 .113 24 16 .295
7 32 .116 u 18 .302
7 36 .120 26 ti .316
8 30 .1286 26 16 .32.3
8 32 .1285 28 14 .339
8 36 .136 28 11 .MS
I 21 .:1285 30 14 .368
9 30 .136 30 16 .377
Non:- Special Tapia are ni Bold Face Type.
1'19
THE S 1" 1.\ R· R E T T B O O K
Table 2J ---Tap Drills for Machine Screws
!2 c.,,s
~i~I ~-
-1111 a
ii•jj --t t !·iJt~

- C,1-
i:!.S =j::gO
Sizeof
Tap 'd(5J
~~
~~
0~::,c
Size of
Tai, Iji~ ~~-~
~ ~a
Q'cu
l>H
<ma ll.s ~ lm- - !.so .s
--
2 z48}
2 JC 56 .2576.1
50
49
13 :ir.20}
13:z.22 1%4,
17
17
2z6' " '8 13 :ir. 24
.071961
~
lx«>}
3 x.48 .22N2 39
49
,1 14x20}
14 r 22 .oo.O&t ¼
JS
11
3x 56 45 UxM. 10
4z3Z}
4 s36 .20431 33
4,6
44
15:a:18}
15x20 F
12
10
43 LS lt 2'l .057068 8
':s.40
15x24 7
Sx30l
5z32 .18194 ~
43
42 16:x 16}
16:x 18 .06082 I
12
8
5 :ir.36 4.1
5z40 38 16x20 1
38 17 X ]6} 8
"'301
6:a:32
6 .1t 36
6x40
.16202 21 37
36
3.5
17 :x 18
17 lt 20
.045257 L 4
3
18 .1t 16} 2
7x~}
7 x30 .14428 Z4
34
3.l
18 s 18
18.x 20
.040303 l'{u. 2
1
7 x32 32
19:116} 1
31 19 :1 18 .03589 'K, B
8x24}
8 X 31) .128(9 :n 19x 20 C
19
I
Bx:32 30 C
20.x 16} p
30 2Dx 18 .03l961 E
9h24
x28 28 20x20 F
lx30 .11~ 16 28 22 X 16} H
9x32 36 22 x 18 .025347 s I
10 x 2'}
10 Jt~ .10189 11
26
24 2'xl.fl
U x 16 .mot %
L
M
10x32 24 Z4x18 N
11:-.24} 21 14}
11 x28
11 it 30
•0907,2 &
•
19
2'x
26z 16
2Sx14}
.GlSN 1%1
0
p
R
TA,
12"201
12 z 22
24
• 28 :1t 16 .Gl26&1 s
lZ 112'
lZ • 1.8
.080808 %1 19
18
30 X
30 :x 16
t,} .Gl0025 ~
u
V
1n
INDEX
Abbreviations for Drawlnga . • . . . • . . . • 12
Abraelves. Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . , • , • • 43
Adjuetfng Toolmakers· Buttons with Mlttf>metcr • I .. II • • 104
Al~cbro lr Signs . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . • , 132-13B
Altgn)Dg Shotting . . . . • • . • • . • . . 110
Alloys, Composltfon of . • . . . . • . . • • li2
Angle, MeA.RU remen t of • • • • . • • • . • . • 140
..
Bench Work . . • . • . •
Bolt anti Screw Lt1ts . .
Boring Ilolcs In 11,; ttody .
. . . '
:i.t
7
10:l
l\uttons' ·toolmaker!\" . . . . . . . 104
Calipering over o Flange . . . . . . .. 21
Ca llpers, tor 'l'estlng ~rew Threads . .
CaUpers, Hermaphrodite • • • • • . . 83
60
Calfpe1·~. Jnstde and Outl'lde • .
Cal lpers, M!cromctcr . • . • .
Collpere, Spring . . • • • . • • .
. . . .. ..
'
27
19
2(l
<'all1,ers. YernJcr . . . . . .
C'arbon ~teel . . . . . . .
Carbon Steel Drllls, SJM!ed ot
I • •
--
16
' &)
51
Center Ga~e . . . . . . . . U7
Cooter l"Uncbes • • . • • ~6
Cllange Gean . . . . ~o
Chlppin~ . . . . .
Cbteehlll for Chlpplll~
Chucking . . . . .
• .
• •
.
. ~ .. .. .. :l8
:t8
98
90
Cbucll:ln1t 'rools . . . . . . . . . -
<:oefficlent (Al~bra.) • • . . • . . • .
l omposltlon or All&)·lll • • • • • • • •
" .. . 127
11:!
Compound Gean for Thread Cutting . . .
Contact M('asurfng
Coun tel'borloK . • . . . . . • ... . . M2
l;i
62
Cup \\'hffl& . . . , • • . .
Cutting C'ompounds tor DrillH ... .. ... . .. 117
!i:~
Cutttng Llps of Urll111 •
Cutting Screw Threa48 . . . . . .. . .. .. . "
47
'11
Deep Hole Drllllag . . . • • G~
UetalJ Drawlnp • , . . . , . . . 'i
Dividers, Spring . 28
Drow l,"lllo~ • . . . • . . . . . 42
l)rawlng the Drtll • . . • . ~O
Drlll Hrtndlng . . • • • • , • • • 4~
Drill Sp(!ed . • . . • . . • . • . • ~1
Drlllln,c . . . , . . , • • • . • 48
Drtlling Deep Holca • • . . . , . . ·. . . .. • • • d2
Drtnlng. lJrnwlng the l>rl11 . . , • • • ~:')
Drlltlog for Ilea.mer . • , . . . • . , , , fJ'i
Drtlllnlli: tor Tappin,:: . . • . • .
Urllllng. HoldlnA" \\ ork . .
llrllllng Large Tl oleA . . . . . . . . . . , . . • • , . . ,
. •
• •
•
.
,o
liR
61
Dr HI ID.It, Starting Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • ~"i
Drllllng, Templet■ for Extra Jlt"a'f'J Flan~ Valves and Flttloga • 130
1'18
T H E S T A R R I~ T T 13 0 0 I{
nrtlllng, TempJete tor Standa1·<1 and Low 1•1·eRsure L4,la11g~ Valves
and Flttlnp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . .. • • 17-1
Drllhs, Cuttloig Compound& • •
Dr Ills, Cu UlnM' Lips . . . . •
nrma. Kinds . • . • . . • •
. , • . . . . • . . . • • • .
. • . . . • . . • . . . . . . .,tT
:;a
Ortn.s. Letter Sizee of . . . . ~9

Drills. l[o..kln~ • • . . . • • 97
Drills, Te&ttng (."Uttlng LJi>s • 4fl
Eccentric Turn Ins • •
1,:1ementary Algebra
. . . 01
120
Emt'ry. Grades of . 43
Equo. tlon9 • . . . • . . , . • • . 134
l•-:qu lvalen t To.hies • 60
Eipanslon or Metalt1 , . IRO
Exponent • . . . • • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . 127
J•~xtra Jleavy .Flaoged Yalvee and FJttln1s, 1.'emplets for Drilling . 175
FIIH, Kinda . . . • . .
1t·III llJi{ . • . . . • . • • • • • • • • . .. .. 40
40
l•'IIJng, TestJng Rurtaee . . . • . . . .
Fltei, Amouotll!I to f.imve . . . . . . •
l•'laoged Ftttlo~. 'ft-mp1ets tor DrHJln~
.. 42
30
li4
Forced Pl tA . . . • • • • • 29
1-..orces . . • . . . . . . UH
f'.lf'ar Speeds, Formulu for
Gears tor Thread l"uttlng . .
... ... lf.!i
70
Henre, Speed <Jf • • • • • 163
Ge11re, Traio11 . . . . . . • • tor.
Grades of Eme1·y . . . . 43
Grading Grlnd1ng Wb.e,els . , • • .•• 111
Grinding . . . . . . , . . . • . . 100
Grlndtn,ir;, Allowances for . . • • • • l 10
<:rinding, AmollntR to te,we .
I ;rlndl n,-:- f'yllmlrlcal .
. .
Orlndtng Flat SurtaceE1 . . . • • •
.. • • • •
. •
11:J
11:1
11a
GrindiD~ Wheels, Gro.d~ llDd Grain . 115
Grinding. M~asurlng Work • . . . • • . 116
(}rinding Mllrln,-: CnttE»t·s . . 100
Ortnlllng Speede for • . , . . 114
GrJndlng 'W'b<"el8 . . . • . lO!l, 11J
~rind.Ing Wheels. <JradNJ . . . . 111
Grinding ""tleels, liountlng • 116
Ho.ell: Saw liat'blneo • • . . , 4t'i
llo.C'k Saws . . . . . . , •
llac-k Saw1, Cuttln~ S ~ • •
II 11ek SR.WJJ, 'Wh~t One to rse
. . 4-:l
44
◄U
a,..
Ua11d Chippln.,; . . . . . •
I [eli:h t GaJ[e . . . . . , . . . . . .. 17
..
lllgll Speed Steel Jlrlll~ Speied ot !'H
Holdln~ Dl'ill lo Spindle • . . • 00
lloldlDg Work tor DrlllJng • • . !;'T
lloldlog Work In Chucks • . . . f)!i
How to ltead a lll<'rometer . • . . 21
Ho\\' to Read a 'l'ernler . . . . . .
Ht,,w l<> Dead a \'ernler l-llerometer .. '
~
2:C
Involute • • • • • a • I ,. • HG
179
Jl&' Buahlngg . . . . . . . . .
J lg for Dcllllng Cylinder Flange .
. .. ... .~ lOT
108
J lga and Fl~t urea • • • • • . .. 101
J lg&. ~ ating BWlb(ng Holes
Jla&, Types • . . . . . . . .
' . . . . 102
101
Knurling • • • . .. 9CS
Lappin&
Lathe
• . • • . • . • • • .
. . . • . . . . • . . • .
.... . . . . 117
6G
Lathe CQnt.£'rs • • • • 6G
Lathe Gearing . - • • • • 108
Lathe
Latbe
Latbe
'roola • . . •
Toole, Clearance
Toola, Orlndlog
•
•
• • . .
.. . 70, 75
'T2
7;-1
Lathe 'J'oots. na11e • • • . • • • • • . 72
Latbe Tools. Setting • • • • • • . . . ,3
Lathe Tools, 'l'estlng Cutting Allgl• . . . . . 'i4
Lath& \\·ort, Mea&urlng • . • • . . . . • • • . 8?)
Loylng Oot for DrUllog . . . • . . . • • • • • • ~3
LeDgtb of Belts. Formulas fo1·. • • • 161,162
J...evel tor Allplng Shafting • • • • • 119
LeveUng Instrument • • • • • • . . 110
Levellng lo&trumeo!, How to Set Up •
Levels, Flndln.1r D1u:erence , • • • .
1:!"
125
Uvers . . . . • • • . • . . . 153
Limits of Accuracy . . . . . . . , . . • . • . 20.32
J.,ocatlog Daehlng_ Holes In .Jlga . . • • . • , • . • 102
Locatlne Jii DD Face Plate • . • . . • • • • • • 1~
Locating Machlner:, . . • . .
Low l'ressure ~·Janl"d l-""lttlnp
•
• . • . • • . • .
. .• .•• 123
174
LubrlcaDt for Thread CtlttlDg • • • • • - • • . 84
Mandrels, Use cf • • • ,.
Measorlnc Lathe Work • . • . • . .
. .. ... 70
83
:Measuring Screw Tbreada 8-&
Measuring 1'ool• . . . . • 13
Measurln~ Work, Or1ndtng
Necbonlc• • . • . . • •
7'1eltlng Point of Metala •
• • • • .
• • • • . . • • .
• • • • . • • • .
. .• .• 110
151
169
Mt"neuratloo • • • • • • • • • .
Mlerollleter, .AdJ01t1n1 Buttons wJth
Micrometer oe e. Gage • • • • • • . • • • • • •
' . . ... 14-0
104
~
Micrometer Callpera • • . • • . • • • . • • • • 19
Micrometer, tor Measuring Screw Tbrcada .... 86
Micrometer, How to Read • ~ • • • • • 21
J.flcrometers. Adjustment for We.ar • •
Mlcrometerig. Qulck AdJuatmeut • . ·. . • . .
.
.. 26
25
MIIHng Cnttera . • . . . • • • • • .
)rf lllln.g Cutters, Grinding . . , . . . 99
100
Plane Figures . . . . . . . . . . 142, 1,0
Plate tor Laying Out • . • . . . a1
Plumb Bobs . . . . .. . . • • . • 121
Polleb log • • . . . . . . • . . . • • • • • • . 43
Preparing Surface for La1lng Out • • • , sr.
Protractors • • . • • • . • • • . • . . , • , • 37
Putley Diameters and Speede, Formula• tor . ll>T
rulley1 • . • • • , • • .. • • • • . • , • · · 166
180
T JI E S T A R R E T T R O O K
Pulleys. or DlockB . , .
Qukk .AdJuatme,nt of Mlerometera 25
Radical S!,;n . . . . . . 12R
Rea.men,, llakln~ . . . . 07
Screw Threads . . . . . . 77
S<!rew Threads,. Measuring . . . . . . . Si
Screw Tht'efl.ds, l'ltch . . . . . . . . . . 17
Sn-ew Thread!t. l'ropertlee of U. S. Standard 18
Scribing Lluee tor l..a7Jng Out . 3!5
Section LfDHI . . . • . • • . '
Sbop and En~lneerln.1r Formulae
. .- . 11
137
Signs (Algebra.) . . . • • . 13!!
Sllding ll'lt . . . . . . . 2f)
Solids . . . . . . . . .
Speclfle Gravl ty ot Ga sell . •
' . . 14-6
171
fipcclflc Gravity ot LJqulds 171
S()E'clftc Gravity of lletaltt . • 10\)
Specific Gravity of Substances . 17"0
lia
f;pe<>ltlc He-at of Substances .
Speed of nrlJJs . . . . . .
SJ>tt'I ot Gears. Formulfts tor •
I •
.. ~2
105
Standard Flanged Fittings . • • 1~4
StarUng J>rm . , . . • . M
Stelli te . . . . . . • . . 76
Surta.ce Pia tee . . . . . . 38
..
Table 1 AHowancee tor Dltrerent Claaea ot Flt& •
~ Speed& a.nd Foeda tor DrlJHq •
.. 3 Speed of DrllJa . • • . • , •
31
ril
r,2
II 4 I..ette-r Slze-s of Drllls . . . . . ~9
u
u
5 Sizes of Ta_JJ Drills . . . . ._ .
6 TJ. S. StancJo.rd Serew 'l"bre&d119 .
.. - 50
7ij
" 1 llrown & Sharpe, Ta.per ShanlE.111 • • • • • • 87
.. 8 Morse Tape,r Shanks • . • . . . . . • 88
•• 0 Ta))E' rs . • . . • • . • • • .. • • • • • • • • •" 1)2
H 10 Allowoncee tor Grh1dh:1g . • ·• . • •• 110
" 11 arlndlng Wheel Speeds . . . . . . • . . . . 114
u 12 Grlodln~ Wheels tor Different Materlala . tl!i
0
13 SpeeUlc Gravity and Properties of lfetala • 169
0
14 Spedftc Gravity ot Subt!ltance11 • • . • • • • 170
"'15 S~ltlc Gravlt.v of Gaaes • • • . . • . . 171
.. 10 Speclflc Gravity of Liquide • , . • • . . 171
'"IT Composlttou of Alloys . . • . . . . . . 172
u IR Specific neat ot Substanc>{'H . . . . • • . • • . • • . 173
•• 10 Temple-ts for DrlUlng Stllndo.rd and J.,ow Pnawre Flanl@d
Vo.Ives o.nd ~ttln,:ts -American St1mdard . . . . . 174
u 20 Tem_pleta tor Dr1111:ag Extra. Ile>avy Flan~ Valves and
FftUn~s - Arnerlcan Standard • • . . . . . . • • 17~
••0 21 Tap Drlll,i, A.8.M.E. Standard . . .• . • • 170
:!2 Tap DrJlls tor l.lachlae Screws , • . • . • • 177
Tap :Urllls, Sizes of . . • . . • . . • . • • , ~g. 78, 1 T6, 177
Taper ln Given Length . . • . • • • . • • • , 00
Taper Shank& . . . . . . . • . . . . . • • . 87, 8S
Taper Turnlns • . . . . . . . . . . 80
"l'.op,er TurnlDa, Offset ot Centers. Amount • , · no
Tapera, Testtng • , , • • .. • , • • . • • • • • • • 91
181
THE S T A R R E T T 8 0 0 K
'l'argt"lG . . . . . . . . • . . 12..,
Testlng- Cutting I.lps or HrtU11 • ~u
Testing Flat Filing . . . . . ◄2
'l'e11t Indicator . • • • •• . 87
rreettng 1.·urned. 'l'ape,r IH
'rhread Tool, J<"orm of 82
Thread Tool, Setting • • M4
•rof('ro.nce, Llm•te of . 32
Tool Irolde:rs . . . . . 7~
Tool MaklQ,: . . . . 07
Toolinaken' Buttons . . 10.1
'l'raln of GearM . . . . • 16a
Tran&!erring ::Me-a1mr~ments • 26
Trutnx Work in Chuck& . Oti
'J'uruing, "•ork Centers . . 6fl
lTnlYe-rSD.I Dtal Te!Bt lndlca tor • 6i, 10::!
Yernler Ca.ll1~n . . . . . . . Hl
Vernier Jletgbt Gage . • . • . . li, 10~
Vernier, How to Read . . . . . ~:!
Vt"rnl~r :\Ucrometer, llo"· to Read
\'ltrffled \Ybe-els . . • . . . . . , ]ott
'\Year of :lllt"rom~ten • • . . . . . . :?:\

Wellitht per Cubk t,'oot of SubsttlDfft. , 1'10
What If&.<'k ~w to rse . . . . 4i6
,vt0dlass . . . . . . . . . . . la-1
\Vork Ce-nters . . . . . . , . . . oo
,vork Centers. Locallnt: . . . . on
"'"orld11g Drawln1 Ahhrevlattoos 12
Worktni- l>rawlnc,i . . . . . 7
S 'f 1\ R R E T T B O O K
SETS OF TOOLS
FOR APPRENTICES AND STUDENTS
SET NO. 900
IN FOLDING LEATHER CASE
Size of case folded, 7" x 4~ 4~x I¾•
Set No. 900 consists of the leather c.ase and the

following tools:
No. 11. ~ Combination Square, com- No. 390, Center G~e
plete No. 2.f.1, 4• Caliper
No. 1178. Center Punch No. ?9, 4"' Outside Caliper with solid nut
No. 321. ~Flexible Steel Rule in pocket No. TJ, •• lnaldc Caliper with aolid nut
case No. 83, , .. Divlder with solid nut
PRICE, set complete $6.0t
183
THE 13 0 0 K
SETS OF TOOLS
FOR APPRENTICF.S AND STUDENTS
SET NO. 901
IN NICELY FINISHED WOODEN CASE
Size of case, 12• x 7' x I½•
Set No. 901 consists of the wooden case and the

following tools:
No. 11. e• Combination Square,, com- No. 390. Center Gap
No. 771 5,. Divider with solid nut
plete
No. 321. 6~ Flexible Stttl Rule in No. 19, 6.. OutsideCalipcrwith eolld n\¢
~ketcue No. 13, r lnslde Caliper wtth solid nut
No. 117B. Center Punch
PRICE, set complete $6.15
18'

The Starrett Book For Machinists' Apprentices - Howard P. Fairfield, Carl S. Dow, S. B. - 1917

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The Starrett Book For Machinists' Apprentices - Howard P. Fairfield, Carl S. Dow, S. B. - 1917

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

THE STARRETT BOOK

CARLS. DOW, S.11.

THE L. S. STARRETr COMPANY

VlE,VS. All 1natcrinl things have three dimensions;

LINES. Fu11 lines on a drawing indicate lhe visible

CAST IKON STEEL CoPPER

8RASSOJt8RONZE WHITE Al.LoYs ALUMINUJ.1

ABBREVIATIONS. All information on a dra,ving is,

Finish: Surface is Scrape: Surface R. H. : Right Hand

SCRE\V THREADS, STH.UCTURAL RIVETING, PIPE

Toolmaker8' Calipers Micrometer Depth Gal'e

edges, steel squares, surface, height, depth, and thickness

In the human hand

the fingers only, and in such a ,vay as to bring it in con-

VERNIER HEIGHT GAGE

For meuurement by thousandths up to one-half inch.

Jine indicates a distance of four times one-fortieth of

is f'rom the O mark on the scale; then note the number of

HOW TO READ A VERNIER MICROMETER

OPERATION AND ADJUSTMENT OF MICROMETERS

Caliperinii Over a Flange

circles or nrcs. " Feel " does not

FITS AND FITTING

TQ~rances in Standard Holes•

High Limit +0.0010 +0.0020 +o.0040 +o.0060 +o.ooeo +0.0100

Allowanc:es for Driving Fits

High Limit --11.0002 --0.0002 ---(J,OOO'l --1>.0005 -0.ooai -0.0005

Allowances :for Running Fits t

• To~rance is provided for holes. which ordinary standard reamers can p~

representing fourths, eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds,

hom1ner end of the chisel should be forged from the

HEIGHT OF \VORK. This must of necessity vary

SEVERING METAL WITH HACK SAWS

ward; that is to say, the sa,v should cut on the for-

HACK SAW MACHINE

Hack sa,v blades used in cutting up bar .~tock or

(d) A correct angle of lip clearance.

to forty feet, and for high-speed drills seventy feet to

Carbon Steel Drilla

The Speed of Drills-Table 3

Diameter Decimals Diameter Decimala

Sizes of Tap Drills-Table 5

Tap Thread• Drill fOI' DrlU for U. S. Drill for

,.,¾ 16, 18,20

See allo pqs 78. 176 and tT7.

f0R STEEL \o\ORI( USC •

In all cases of deep-hole drilling U is belier to rotate

its length. If a drill is used for this purpose there is

contact. ancl by adjusting the fool-stock frame upon its

UNrYDsAI., D1,u, TEST INDICATOR

degree of accuracy is obtained. To test the live center

lo be done, the cone-point should be machined true. In

lace. To test either center for its proper conc..poinl

Trulns Work in Chuck

Truinai JI&' on Face Plate

Indicator Used with Surface Gage on Bench Plate

l Llf'T•IL\Nt) SmB TOOL -& R!GBT•HAND OlAMOND Poorr

1 CUmNG-ow TOOL 10 RoUCHINO T0aL

slant is away from lhe work it is termed front rake; If

l\rATERIAl..S POR CUTTING TOOLS. These are

speed steel has the peculiar prop<!rty of retaining its

SCRE\V THREAD CUTTING. A screw thread is a

" ~-e ,ra

St~,~-~~) ?~i- __---1 2-lcomb. K