Review Teknik Komunikasi Digital

Referensi:
1.Wayne Tomasi, “Advanced Electronic Communications Systems”, 6th edition,
Pearson New International Edition, 2014
2.Proakis John, G., “Digital Communications”, 2nd edition, Mac Grew Hill, USA,
2006.
3.Bernard Sklarr, “Digital Communication, Fundamental and Its Applications”,
2nd edition, Prentice Hall, USA.
Pengampu:
Dr. I Gede Puja Astawa, ST. MT.
Dr. Tri Budi Santoso, ST. MT.

Prodi Teknik Elektro, Program Pasca Sarjana Terapan

Politeknik Elektronika Negeri Surabaya
Areas impacting the study of the simulation of communication systems
Outline:
• Introduction
• Review Probability
• Signal and Spectral
• General Description of Digital
Communication Systems
• Digital Modulation
2.1. Introduction
Why digital?
1.Easier to understand/design Digital circuits than analog circuits
2.Noise can easily be kept away.
3.Noise free-Transmission can be assured. Noise is additive to
analog signals as well as Digital. In analog, you can remove the
added noise. In case of Digital, yes ! It is very easy.
4.Digital data can be stored/retrieved easily/cheaply/reliably.
5.Digital signals can be compressed and multiplexed much easily
and reliably.
6.Authentication and encryption techniques for money transaction
possible only with digital.
7.Easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques
8.Very easy to reproduce perfectly, cheaply
2.2. Some Useful Probability Distribution
• Uniform distribution
• Gaussian (Normal) distribution
• Chi-Square distribution
• Rayleigh distribution
UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
• Every random variable that appears has the same
probability: f  x | k   1 ; u n tu k x , x , ..., x
1 2 k
k

• If the value of the random variable is at an interval of (a,b),

the pdf of the uniform distribution
f  x | a, b  
1 is stated as :
; a  x b
b a

a is:
• Mean of uniform distribution b
E X 
2

• Varians of uniform distributi on is:

a
2
b
 
2

12
probability density function (pdf): Cumulative distribution function (cdf):

f ( x) F ( x)

1/(b-a)

x x
a 0

b a 0

b

0 ; for x a  0; x a
 1
 x a

f ( x)  ; for a  x b F x 
   ; a  x b
b  a b  a
0 ; for x b  1; x b
• Written in terms of the Heaviside step function, H(x) as:
• The pdf as, f ( x )  H  x  a   H  x  b 
b a

• The CDF as, F ( x )   x  a  H  x  a    x  b  H  x  b 

b a

• The raw moments are given analytically by

n 1
 a   H x  b n  a n 1
b b
n
H x x b
n  
'
x dx   dx
a
b  a  a
b  a   n  1 b  a 
• The first few are therefore given explicitly by

1 1
 
1
'
a b  
'
3
a  b a 2  b 2 
2 4
1 1
 
'
2
a
2
 b 2  ab   
'
4
a
4
 b 3  a 2 b 2  ab 3  b 4 
3 5
• The central moments are given analytically by
 n
H x  a   H x  b 1 
n   x  a  b 
'
dx
b  a   2 
  
n
 1 
b  x   a  b 
  b   b  a 
n n

  2
dx 
a
n 1
a
b  a  2 n  a 

1
 0
1
Mean  b a
2
1
 
2
b a
2
Second moment Var
  2 1
b a
2

12
12
 0
3
skewness
 0
1
1
 
4
b a
4 kurtosis
 
5
80 excess 2
6
 DISTRIBUSI NORMAL
1. Sekumpulan nilai data kontinyu akan terdistribusi secara normal
(membentuk kurva simetris) apabila rata-rata nilai variabel
sama dengan median, dan sama dengan modus dari nilai-nilai
data tersebut.
2. Distribusi normal mempunyai bentuk kurva seperti bel (bell
shape).
3. Distribusi normal disebut juga distribusi Gauss (Gaussian
Distribution)
4. Pada distribusi normal, rata-rata populasi membagi luasan
kurva menjadi dua sama banyak, luas daerah sebelah kiri = 0,5
dan sebelah kanan = 0,5, total luas daerah =1.
5. Suatu distribusi dikatakan normal jika kurang lebih 68% data
observasi berada di dalam satu standard deviasi, atau kurang
lebih 95% data observasi berada dalam dua standard deviasi
DISTRIBUSI NORMAL

• Distribusi normal dengan parameter mean,  dan

varians 2 biasanya ditulis sebagai N(, 2)
• Pdf dari variabel acak terdistribusi normal
dinyatakan sebagai:
1  x 
2

1   
f  x | ,  
2  
 e
 2

= m ean p op u l asi
= stan d ard d ev i asi (si m p an g an b ak u ) p op u l asi
= k on stan ta 3 , 1 4 1 5 9
e = k on stan ta 2 , 7 1 8 2
DISTRIBUSI NORMAL
• Nilai  pada distribusi normal menyatakan besarnya sebaran dari
populasinya, semakin besar simpangan baku,  sebaran data semakin
menjauhi rata-rata  nya, sebaliknya jika  kecil maka sebaran data
mendekat rata-ratanya.
DISTRIBUSI NORMAL
• Sifat-sifat Distribusi Normal
1. Grafik simetris terhadap garis tegak x = 
2. Grafik selalu berada di atas sumbu x, f(x) >0
3. Mempunyai satu nilai modus
4. Luas daerah di bawah kurva f(x) dan di atas sumbu x memiliki
nilai:
P    x     1
DISTRIBUSI NORMAL
P a  x  b
Probabilitas P(a < x < b)
• Probabilitas ini dapat ditentukan di bawah kurva f(x) dengan
penyelesaian integral
1  x 
2
b b 
1   
P a  x  b   f  x dx  e
2  
dx
a a
 2

• Namun penyelesaian dengan integral membutuhkan proses yang

rumit.
• Untuk itu diselesaikan dengan mentransformasikan nilai-nilai x
menjadi nilai-nilai baku Z, dengan 2         2   3
  3  persamaan:
x 
Z  X

  0;  = 1
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Z
DISTRIBUSI NORMAL
• Setelah itu gunakan Tabel Distribusi Normal Standard
(terlampir) untuk mendapatkan probabilitas dari nilai Z
• Contoh:
Luasan berwarna hijau adalah pdf dari P(-2< Z < 2)
DISTRIBUSI NORMAL
• Fungsi distribusi kumulatif (cdf) dari distribusi

normal:
2
x x 
1 
F x | ,   
e  dx
2

  2

 2 
 DISTRIBUSI CHI-SQUARE

• Distribusi ini banyak digunakan untuk menganalisa

secara statistik data hasil pengujian terhadap data-
data teoritisnya.
• Distribusi chi-square digunakan untuk menu-runkan
distribusi varians sampel dan perlu untuk
pengetesan goodness-of-fit
• Dalam distribusi Chi-Square ada parameter yang
disebut derajat kebebasan, v.
• Dengan =0,5 dan t = v/2 maka distribusi gamma
menjadi distribusi chi-square.
DISTRIBUSI CHI-SQUARE
• Pdf dari variabel acak terdistribusi chi-square dengan
derajat kebebasan v adalah:

  2
v x
1 1 1 
f  x; v    v /2  x e 2
; x 0
v 2  2 

• Mean dari variabel acak terdistribusi Chi-Square adalah:

E X  v
• Varians dari variabel acak terdistribusi Chi-Square :
V X   2v
DISTRIBUSI CHI-SQUARE

• Fungsi distribusi kumulatif (cdf) dari distribusi Chi-

Square adalah:
v 2
 0; x 0
   v  2  /2  y 2
F  x; v    y e
 2 v 2   v 2  dy x 0
0
Contoh:
Gambarkan grafik fungsi kepadatan probabilitas dari
distribusi Chi-Square untuk v yang bernilai 2,4 dan 6.
RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION
RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION

• The distribution with probability density function and distribution

function  r 2 r  2 2

re
 1e r 2 2
2 r 
f (r ) 2 F (r )
s

 skewness, and kurtosis excess are

• The mean, variance,

2 2 
 3  
 1   
4 4   
3 /2 2
 2
s
2 2
2
 2.3. General Description of Digital
Communication Systems

• Digital communications include systems where relatively high-frequency analog

carriers are modulated by relatively low frequency digital information signals
(digital radio).
• The property that distinguishes digital radio systems from conventional analog
modulation communications systems is the nature of the modulating signal.
• Both analog and digital modulation systems use analog carriers to transport the
information through the system.
2.4. Digital Modulation

• We Need Digital-to-Analog Conversion:

1. The medium/channel is band pass,
and/or
2. Multiple users need to share the
medium.
• if the information signal is digital and the amplitude (V) of
the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a
digitally modulated signal called amplitude shift keying(ASK)
is produced.
• If the frequency (f) is varied proportionalto the information
signal, frequency shift keying(FSK) is produced.
• If the phase of the carrier (θ) is varied proportional to the
information signal, phase shift keying(PSK) is produced.
v t   V sin  2 ft  
ASK FSK PSK

QAM
• Digital modulation is ideally suited to a multitude of
communications applications, including both cable and
wireless systems.

Applications include the following:

• relatively low-speed voice-band data communications
modems, such as those found in most personal computers;
• high-speed data transmission systems, such as broadband
digital subscriber lines(DSL);
• digital microwave and satellite communications systems;
• cellular telephone Personal Communications Systems(PCS)
2.4.1. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Frequency deviation is expressed
mathematically as:
f  fs
f  m
2

f= frequency deviation (hertz)

|fm - fs|= absolute difference between mark and
space frequencies (hertz)
 B  2  f 
The minimum bandwidth can be approximated as: fb 

Where:
B = minimum Nyuqist bandwidth (Hertz)
f =frequency deviation (Hertz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)
FSK TRANSMITTER

• a simplified binary FSK modulator, which

is very similar to a conventional FM
modulator and is very often a voltage-
controlled oscillator (VCO).
• The center frequency (fc) is chosen such
that it falls halfway between the mark
and space frequencies.
• A logic 1 input shifts the VCO output to
the mark frequency, and a logic 0 input
shifts the VCO output to the space
frequency.
FSK RECEIVER

Noncoherent FSK demodulator:

•The FSK input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of both
bandpass filters (BPFs) through a power splitter.
•The respective filter passes only the mark or only the space frequency on
to its respective envelope detector.
•The envelope detectors, in turn, indicate the total power in each
passband, and the comparator responds to the largest of the two powers.
Coherent FSK demodulator:
• The incoming FSK signal is multiplied by a recovered carrier signal that
has the exact same frequency and phase as the transmitter reference.
• However, the two transmitted frequencies (the mark and space
frequencies) are not generally continuous; it is not practical to
reproduce a local reference that is coherent with both of them.
 • PLL-FSK demodulator
• As the input to the PLL shifts between the mark and space frequencies,
the dc error voltage at the output of the phase comparator follows the
frequency shift. Because there are only two input frequencies (mark and
space), there are also only two output error voltages.
• One represents a logic 1 and the other a logic 0. Therefore, the output is
a two-level (binary) representation of the FSK input.

Binary FSK is seldom used for high-performance digital radio systems. Its
use is restricted to low-performance, low-cost, asynchronous data modems
that are used for data communications over analog, voice-band telephone
lines.
2.4.2. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
• The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying(BPSK), where is
M=2.
As the input digital signal changes state
(0/1), the phase of the output carrier shifts
between two angles that are separated by
180°.
BPSK TRANSMITTER
Balanced ring modulator
BPSK RECEIVER

• For a BPSK input signal of +sinωct (logic 1), the output of the balanced modulator
is:
• For a BPSK input signal of +sinωct (logic 1), the output of the balanced modulator
is:

• For a BPSK input signal of -sinωct (logic 0), the output of the balanced modulator
is:
BANDWIDTH CONSIDERATIONS OF
BPSK
• The fundamental frequency (fa) of an alternative 1/0 bit sequence is
equal to one-half of the bit rate (fb/2).
• The output of a BPSK modulator:
Output phase-versus-time relationship for a BPSK
modulator
• For a BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit rate of
10 Mbps, determine the maximum and minimum upper and lower side
frequencies, draw the output spectrum, determine the minimum Nyquist
bandwidth, and calculate the baud.
2.4.3. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
• Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK) is another form of angle-
modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation.
• QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M = 4 (hence, the
name “quaternary” meaning “4”).
• With QPSK, four output phases are possible for a single carrier
frequency.
• In the modulator, each dibit code generates one of the four possible
output phases (+45°, +135°, -45°, and -135°).

truth table
QPSK TRANSMITTER

• When the linear summer combines the two quadrature (90° out of phase) signals.
• There are four possible resultant phasors: +sin ωct +cos ωct, +sinωct -cos ωct, -
sin ωct +cos ωct, and -sin ωct -cos ωct.
Example
• For the QPSK modulator, construct the truth table, phasor diagram, and
constellation diagram.
• For a binary data input of Q = 0 and I = 0, the two inputs to the I
balanced modulator are -1 and sin ωct, and the two inputs to the Q
balanced modulator are -1 and cos ωct. Consequently, the outputs are:
I balanced modulator = (-1)(sin ωct) = -1 sin ωct
Q balanced modulator = (-1)(cos ωct) = - 1 cos ωct

• the output of the linear summer is:

-1 cos ωct - 1 sin ωct = 1.414 sin(ωct - 135°)
 phasor diagram & constellation diagram

Output phase-versus-time relationship for a QPSK modulator

QPSK RECEIVER
BANDWIDTH CONSIDERATIONS OF QPSK
2.4.4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
16-QAM
• Quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation
similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the
amplitude and the phase of the transmitted carrier.
• As with the 16-PSK, 16-QAM is an M-ary system where M = 16.
• The input data are acted on in groups of four (24 = 16).
 16-QAM TRANSMITTER I product modulator:
+0.821 sin ωct,
-0.821 sin ωct,
+0.220 sin ωct,
-0.220 sin ωct.

Q product modulator:
+0.821 cos ωct,
Truth tables for the I- and Q- +0.220 cos ωct,
channel 2-to-4-level converters: -0.821 cos ωct,
-0.220 cos ωct.
Example:
For a quad bit input of I=0, I’= 0, Q=0, and Q’=0 (0000), determine the output
amplitude and phase for the 16-QAM modulator.

Solution:
The inputs to the I channel 2-to-4-level converter are I = 0 and I = 0. The output is
-0.22 V. The inputs to the Q channel 2-to-4-level converter are Q=0 and Q=0. The
output is -0.22 V.

Thus, the two inputs to the I channel product modulator are -0.22 V and sin ωct. The
output is
I=(-0.22)(sin ωct) =-0.22 sin ωct

The two inputs to the Q channel product modulator are -0.22 V and cos ωct. The
output is
Q =(-0.22)(cos ωct) = =0.22 cos ωct

The outputs from the I and Q channel product modulators are combined in the linear
summer and produce a modulated output of
summer output = -0.22 sin ωct - 0.22 cos ωct
= 0.311 sin(ωct - 135°)
Truth table 4-bit (16-QAM) Constellation diagram (16-QAM)
16-QAM RECEIVER
BANDWIDTH CONSIDERATIONS OF 16-QAM
• The I, I’, Q, and Q’ bits are outputted simultaneously and in parallel, the 2-to-4-level
converters. The outputs at a rate equal to one-fourth of the input data rate.

Consequently, the baud equals fb/4, the

same as the minimum bandwidth.
Example
• Again, the balanced modulators are product modulators and their
outputs can be represented mathematically as

• The output frequency spectrum extends from fc = fb/8 to fc - f b/8, and

the minimum bandwidth (fN) is:
Example
• For a 16-QAM modulator with an input data rate (fb) equal to 10 Mbps and a carrier
frequency of 70 MHz, determine the minimum double-sided Nyquist frequency (fN) and the
baud. Also, compare the results with those achieved with the BPSK, QPSK, and 8-PSK
modulators. Use the 16-QAM block diagram.
• Solution:
The bit rate in the I, I’, Q, and Q’ channels is equal to one-fourth of the input bit rate, or

Therefore, the fastest rate of change and highest fundamental frequency presented to either
balanced modulator is

The output wave from the balanced modulator is:

The minimum Nyquist bandwidth is:

B =(71.25 - 68.75) MHz = 2.5 MHz
2.5. Synchronization of Transmitter-Receiver

Carrier Recovery Clock Recovery

• Squaring Loop
• Costas Loop
• Remodulator
Squaring Loop
• A common method of achieving carrier recovery for BPSK is the squaring loop.
• The received BPSK waveform is filtered and
then squared.
• The filtering reduces the spectral width of the received noise.
• The squaring circuit removes the modulation and generates the second harmonic of the carrier
frequency.
• This harmonic is phase tracked by the PLL.
• The VCO output frequency from the PLL then is divided by 2 and used as the phase reference for the
product detectors.
COSTAS LOOP
• The Costas loop produces the same results as a squaring circuit followed by an ordinary PLL
in place of the BPF.
• This recovery scheme uses two parallel tracking loops (I and Q) simultaneously to derive the product of
the I and Q components of the signal that drives the VCO.
• The in-phase (I) loop uses the VCO as in a PLL, and the quadrature (Q) loop uses a 90°
shifted VCO signal.
• Once the frequency of the VCO is equal to the suppressed-carrier frequency, the product of the I and Q
signals will produce an error voltage proportional to any phase error in the VCO.
• The error voltage controls the phase and, thus, the frequency of the VCO.
REMODULATOR
• The remodulator produces a loop error voltage that is proportional to twice
the phase error between the incoming signal and the VCO signal.
• The remodulator has a faster acquisition time than either the squaring or the
Costas loops.
CLOCK RECOVERY

• A simple circuit that is commonly used to recover clocking information from the received
data.
• The recovered data are delayed by one-half a bit time and then compared with the original
data in an XOR circuit.
• The frequency of the clock that is recovered with this method is equal to the received data
rate (fb).
• As long as the receive data contain a substantial number of transitions (1/0 sequences),
the recovered clock is maintained.
• If the receive data were to undergo an extended period of successive 1s or 0s, the
recovered clock would be lost.
• To prevent this from occurring, the data are scrambled at the transmit end and
descrambled at the receive end.
• Scrambling introduces transitions (pulses) into the binary signal using a prescribed
algorithm, and the descrambler uses the same algorithm to remove the transitions.
Problems:
1. Explain the relationship between bits per second and baud for an FSK system.
2. Define the following terms for FSK modulation, frequency deviation, modulation
index, and deviation ratio.
3. Explain the relationship between (a) the minimum bandwidth required for an
FSK system and the bit rate and (b) the mark and space frequencies.
4. What is the difference between standard FSK and MSK? What is the advantage
of MSK?
5. Define PSK.
6. Explain the relationship between bits per second and baud for a BPSK system.
7. What is a constellation diagram, and how is it used with PSK?
8. Explain the relationship between the minimum bandwidth required for a BPSK
system and the bit rate.
9. Explain M-ary.
10. Explain the relationship between bits per second and baud for a QPSK system.
11. Explain the significance of the I and Q channels in a QPSK modulator.
12. Define dibit.
13. Explain the relationship between the minimum bandwidth
required for a QPSK system and the bit rate.
14. What is a coherent demodulator?
15. What advantage does OQPSK have over conventional QPSK?
What is a disadvantage of OQPSK?
16. Explain the relationship between bits per second and baud for
an 8-PSK system.
17. Define tribit. Explain the relationship between the minimum
bandwidth required for an 8-PSK system and the bit rate.
18. Explain the relationship between bits per second and baud for a
16-PSK system.
19. Define quadbit.
20. Define QAM.
21. Explain the relationship between the minimum bandwidth
required for a 16-QAM system and the bit rate.
22. What is the difference between PSK and QAM?
23. Define bandwidth efficiency.
24. Define carrier recovery