UCK 353E Aerospace Materials

Common Mechanical Testing Methods of

Aerospace Materials
 Introduction

• Samples tested called as “specimen”

• Common mechanical tests applied to metals,
ceramics, polymers, composites…etc.
– Tension tests
– Compression tests
– Indentation hardness
– Cantilever bending
– 3 point bending
– 4 point bending
– Torsion
 Geometry and Loading Situations

Indentation Hardness
Testing
Cantilever bending
Tensile Testing Compression Testing

four-point bending torsion testing

three-point bending
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Three classes of Specimens

• (a) smooth or unnotched

• (b) notched WHY DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES?
• (c) precracked

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Test equipment – 1: Old technology

Mechanical system Hydraulic system

drives two large screws to apply the force uses the pressure of oil in a piston
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Test equipment – 2: Modern tehnology

Modern closed-loop servo-hydraulic testing system. Three sensors are employed ;

(a) load cell, (b) extensometer, and (c) LVDT 6
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Standardization: ASTM (American Society for
Testing Materials)

• Mechanical Tests were performed for

– Obtaining values of material properties
– Understanding suitableness for engineering uses
– Exploring quality of specimens
• ASTM standards is the way to standardize these tests
• Other standardization organizations: BSI, ISO…etc.
• Every year ASTM publishes an Annual Book
consisting of more than 70 volumes
• Every volume of this book consists of different
classes of materials
 Tension Tests
Test Methodology A
• Either circular or rectangular
cross section Test Specimens

• Applied by slowly pulling a

specimen with an axial force
B
• Ends of specimen is enlarged
to provide area for gripping
• Gripping the specimen varies
with the sample geometry
• Constant speed
Stress-Strain Curve for gray cast iron in tension
brittle behavior

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve for a typical
ductile metal : necking behavior

Necking starts at the ultimate stress point.

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Let`s focus on the initial portion of the stress strain curves

Stress-strain curve and geometry of deformation typical of some polymers

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Engineering Stress-Strain Properties

Initial portions of stress-strain curves;

(a) many metals and alloys, (b) material with yield drop, and (c) material with no linear region.
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Question

• Why we express the tension test results in stress-

strain rather than force-displacement?
• How can you obtain poisson`s ratio from tension
test?
Engineering measures of ductility

a, b

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 Necking Behavior of Ductility
Deformation in a tension test of a ductile metal

unstrained

after uniform elongation

during necking
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Fractures from tension tests on 9mm dia.
specimens

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Example 1
A tension test was conducted on a specimen of AISI 1020 hot rolled steel having an initial
diameter of 9.11 mm. Representative test data are given in Table E4.1 (a) in the form of
force and engineering strain. For strain, the extensometer gage length was Li = 50.8 mm. In
addition, minimum diameters were measured manually with a micrometer in the necked
region at several points in during the test. After fracture, the broken halved were
reassembled and the following measurements were made
• marks originally 25.4 mm apart and on opposite sides of the necked region were 38.6
mm apart due to the lengthwise stretching in the specimen
• Similar marks originally 50.8 mm apart were 70.9 mm apart
• The final maximum necked region was 5.28 mm.
(a) Determine the following material properties elastic modulus, %0.2 offset yield strength,
UTS, percent elongation and percent reduction In area
(b) Assume that the test was interrupted upon reaching a strain ε= 0.0070, and the
specimen unloaded to zero force. Estimate the elastic strain recovery and plastic strain
remaining. Also what would be the new length of the original 50.8 mm gage?

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
Example-1 Solution
Trends for different materials; aluminum alloys

Engineering stress-strain curves from tension test on three aluminum alloys

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
Trends for different materials; ductile polymers

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Effects of Temperature and Strain Rate

Effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength of copper for tests
at various temperatures 21
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
True Stress Strain Interpretation of Tension Test
Definitions of True Stress-Strain
DL j
v= P v = v Ai f = DL 1 + DL 2 + DL 3 + g = /
~ ~ ~

A A L1 L2 L3 Lj

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 #
dL = ln L
~ L
f=
L L i Li
f = ln L i + DL = ln (1 + DL ) = ln (1 + f)
~

Li Li
Constant Volume Assumption
A i L i = AL

A i = L = L i + DL = 1 + f
A Li Li
~
v = v (1 + f)

f = ln A i
~

A
~
f = ln rd 2
i /4
= 2 ln di
rd 2 /4 d w/ round cross section

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Limitations on True Stress-Strain Equations

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Example-2

• For the data of Table E4.1 for a tension test on AISI

hot rolled steel
– Calculate the true stresses and strains
– Calculate the corrected values of true stresses
Materials Properties Obtainable From Tension Test

Category Engineering Property True Stress-Strain Property

Elastic Constants Elastic Modulus, E, Et
Poisson’s Ratio, v
Strength Proportional limit, sp True fracture strength, vu fB
Yield strength, so Strength coefficient, H
Ultimate tensile strength, su
Engineering fracture strength, sf
Ductility Percent elongation, 100ef True fracture strain, fu f
Reduction in Area, %RA
Energy Capacity Tensile toughness, uf True toughness, uf
Strain Hardening Strain hardening ratio, su/so Strain hardening exponent, n

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 Compression Test
Test Methods for Compression

L/d; 1-3
L/d; up to 10 for E
L/d >> buckling
L/d << end problem
L/d= 3 ductile
L/d= 1.5 or 2 brittle

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Compression Specimens

Untested
specimen
25mmx76mm

Gray cast iron, aluminum alloy, hot rolled steel

Untested and tested 150mm diameter compression specimens of concrete 28

Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Trends in compression behavior

Initial portions of stress-strain curves in Stress-strain curves for plexiglass (acrylic,

tension and compression for aluminum PMMA) in both tension and compression.
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Example-3

• How would you expect the stress strain curves of

concrete to differ between tension and
compression? Give physical reasons for the expected
differences.
 The axial pressure system

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 HARDNESS TESTS

Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to indentation.

Indentation is the pressing of a hard round ball or point against
the material sample with a known force so that a depression is made.
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
Comparision of several hardness scales
 Brinell Hardness Test

HB = 2P
rD [D - (D 2 - d 2) 0.5]

Hot-rolled 1020 steel;

Left; Brinell indentation has a diameter
of 5.4mm, giving HB=121
Right; Rockwell B indentation,
giving

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Vickers Hardness Test
HV = 2P2 sin a
d 2

Indenter; is a diamond point in the

shape of a pyramid with a square base.

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
Vickers Hardness and Bending Strength for
some Ceramics and Glasses

Material Hardness, Bend Elastic

HV, 0.1kg Strength, MPa Modulus, GPa
Soda lime glass 600 65 74
Fused silica glass 650 70 70
Aluminous porcelain 800 120 120
Silicon Nitride 1700 600 400
Alumina 1750 400 400
Silicon Carbide 2600 600 400
Boron Carbide 3200 400 475

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 Approximate relationship between
ultimate tensile strength and Brinell and
Vickers hardness of carbon and alloy steels

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Rockwell Hardness Test
HRX = M - Dh
0.002
Dh = h 2 - h 1

Indenter; is a diamond point or steel ball

in the shape of a cone with an angle of 120˚.
Minor load for h1 of 10kg
Major load for h2

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Commonly Used Rockwell Hardness Scales

Symbol HRX Penetration Diameter Force Typical

X= if Ball, mm kg Application
A Diamond point 60 Tool Materials
D Diamond point 100 Cast irons, sheet steels
C Diamond point 150 Steels, hard cast irons, Ti Alloys
B 1.588 100 Soft steels, Cu & Al alloys
E 3.175 100 Al & Mg alloys, other soft metals,
reinforced polymers
M 6.35 100 Very soft metals; high modulus polymers
R 12.70 60 Very soft metals; high modulus polymers

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Hardness of Ceramics
 Notch-Impact Test
Specimens and loading configurations for
a) Charpy V-notch
b) Izod test

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Trends in impact behavior -1
Charpy testing machine;
with the pendulum in to the raised position prior to its release to impact a specimen.

Broken Charpy specimens;

Gray cast iron,
4140 steel, tempered to su=1550MPa
4140 steel, tempered to su=950MPa
(width and thickness 10mm)
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Bending (Flexural) and Torsion Tests

Loading configuration for

(a) three-point bending
(b) four-point bending
(c) the deflection of the centerline of either beam is similar to
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Torsion Test
T f r2 2T f r 2
xf = xf =
J r (r 42 - r 41)

G = L ( dT ) G= 2L ( dT )
J di r (r 42 - r 41) di
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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Typical torsion failures

(a) Gray cast iron

(b) Aluminum alloy, ductile behavior 46
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Testing of Thin-Walled Tubes in Torsion
ravg i
xavg = T cavg = ravg = r2 + r1
2rr 2avg t L 2

T = (stress)(area)(distance)= (xavg) (2rravg t) (ravg) = 2rxavg r 2avg t

r 2i r 1i c2
c2 = c1 = = r2 = 1 + t
L L c1 r1 r1 47
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.